High Pressure Hydrogen Storage cess significantly improves thermodynamic performances

关18–22兴. High weights, high operating temperatures, hysteresis,

Tank: A Parametric and low kinetics are some drawbacks 关19,23兴.
Despite of all the achievement in hydrogen storage, solutions
Design Study have not been found to meet the targets 关23兴. In this paper, we
propose a unique vessel structure model for hydrogen storage and
present the finite element results based on this model.
I. Cumalioglu
Y. Ma 2 A New Model for High Pressure Hydrogen Storage
Model
A. Ertas
Low storage performances are the main shortcoming of high
T. Maxwell pressure vessels in hydrogen storage. To increase hydrogen ca-
pacities, the new pressure vessel model is proposed with layers as
Mechanical Engineering Department, in Fig. 1. The outer wall is the layer, which covers the inner layers
and prevents the vessel from bursting at high pressures. The dy-
Texas Tech University, namic wall is the layer, which absorbs hydrogen to increase the
Lubbock, Texas 79409 hydrogen capacity and at the same time supports the outer wall
against the inner pressure. Finally, the filter wall is the inner most
layer that regulates hydrogen transfer between the dynamic wall
Low hydrogen density of high pressure vessels is the primary con- and the inner tank where gaseous hydrogen is present.
cern in compressed hydrogen storage techniques. To increase den- 2.1 Outer Wall. The outer wall is responsible to withstand
sities, a new tank design is proposed in this paper with simulative the high pressure from the dynamic wall, as well as from environ-
design approaches. A novel design feature of this tank is a multi- mental disturbances such as vibration, cycling, shock, corrosion,
layered wall, which is composed of a “dynamic wall” capable of and thermal conditions. The wall material has to have high frac-
absorbing hydrogen while supporting the tank and preventing hy- ture toughness, which reflects the capability to eliminate crack
drogen permeation and embrittlement. Such a proposed tank is propagation 关24,25兴. It is expected to prevent hydrogen perme-
modeled with finite element method to determine required proper- ation and embrittlement. In fact, pressure vessel materials which
ties towards achieving the Department of Energy (DOE) targets of are already available in the industry are sufficient, since the re-
2010 and 2015. Parameters and relations for this engineering quirements of the outer wall are identical to conventional pressure
design are obtained. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.2389036兴 vessels.
2.2 Dynamic Wall. Dynamic wall is the key feature of the
proposed model, as it will be capable to absorb hydrogen in high
1 Introduction amounts. Hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reactions need to be
Hydrogen storage is a key issue for hydrogen applications such pressure sensitive and pressure controlled. Therefore, the wall ma-
as hydrogen-driven vehicles. Research targets have been desig- terial will be able to release and uptake hydrogen with increments
nated to achieve high gravimetric and volumetric densities, fast of pressure, to act as a hydrogen reservoir to the inner tank. Also,
kinetics, effective heat transfer, durability, and reasonable operat- the compound formation of the wall material and the hydrogen
ing temperatures for a hydrogen storage media. Gravimetric and has to end before unbearable stresses arise in the outer wall.
volumetric densities are the most important factors of concern. Volumetric expansions are accompanied by heat production in
The 6 and 9 wt % gravimetric densities as well as 45 and 81 g / l the system upon hydrogen interactions in hydrides 关23兴. As in the
volumetric densities are, respectively, designated as DOE 2010 proposed design, the excess heat will be transmitted to the outside
and 2015 goals 关1兴. or absorbed within the system. Titanium doping proves to be an
Hydrogen storage can be classified as gaseous, liquid, and solid effective procedure in reducing the heat as well as accelerating the
storage. The gaseous storage is the most common technique to hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reactions 关17,18,20,26兴.
store hydrogen which requires high pressures necessitating thick Another possible solution for reducing the heat from exother-
wall vessels. Steel alloys, titanium alloys, and carbon composites mic reactions would be to store energy as latent heat by using
are common wall materials with a liner covering against hydrogen phase change materials 共PCM兲. These are used as a means of
embrittlement and permeation 关2–4兴. Currently hydrogen storage internal heat absorbers within systems exhibiting high heat energy
pressure vessels are designed to operate usually at 35 and 70 MPa outputs. Hence they are integral parts of the system. Their capa-
with a factor of safety of 2.25 关5–7兴. In liquid hydrogen storage, bility to absorb high amounts of energy comes from their high
latent heat values in going through phase changes 关27兴. Capturing
hydrogen is cooled to cryogenic temperatures of 20 K. Liquid
and storing the energy as latent heat provides higher energy den-
hydrogen tanks are usually thin wall pressure vessels with multi-
sities for a given volume and material weight 关28兴. Other desired
layered or vacuumed insulations 关8兴. Compared to gaseous storage
properties of PCMs are high thermal conductivity, low supercool-
they provide higher capacities 关9,10兴. Nevertheless high liquefac-
ing and stability together with low costs 关29兴. Candidate PCMs for
tion energy 共equal to 30% of energy stored 关11兴兲 is required and
the design are paraffins, salt hydrates, and acids 关27兴. Copper fins
high boil-off rates 关2,12,13兴 are observed. Hydrides 共metallic/
and graphite composite PCMs proved to be suitable material
intermetallic or more complex compounds兲 are currently em-
choices providing high heat absorption efficiencies 关28,29兴, which
ployed to store hydrogen in solid media. Hydrogen absorption is
can be implemented in the dynamic wall design.
endothermic, whereas desorption is possible with heat addition
which ends up in operational temperatures at above 100° C 2.3 Filter Wall. With charging of the tank, hydrogen will be
关14–16兴. High gravimetric densities up to 18 wt % are achieved in contact with the filter wall first. This wall is responsible for
using hydrides 关17兴. Titanium doping as a surface treatment pro- balancing and controlling hydrogen transfers between the dy-
namic wall and the inner-tank. For faster charging and decharging
of hydrogen, it will allow it to go through after certain pressures.
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received January 17,
Hence the tank acts as a regular pressure vessel if it does not
2006; final manuscript received April 24, 2006. Review conducted by Mahendra D. contain high amounts of hydrogen. For this kind of storage, cer-
Rana. tain structural strengths will be necessary for the filter wall as it

216 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Copyright © 2007 by ASME Transactions of the ASME

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 Table 1 Pressure versus compressibility factor

Pressure Compressibility
共MPa兲 factor

10 1.060131
20 1.124445
30 1.190449
35 1.223676
40 1.256938
50 1.323391
60 1.389596
70 1.455454
80 1.520905
90 1.585898
100 1.650390

Fig. 1 Schematic of the proposed hydrogen storage tank

PVgas = zRT⬘ 共1兲
where P denotes the pressure, Vgas is the specific volume, z is the
must withstand some pressure not to fail before letting hydrogen compressibility factor, R is the gas constant
pass to the dynamic wall region. On the other hand, it will not be 共4124.18 Nm/ kg K for hydrogen兲 and T⬘ is the temperature.
as thick as regular pressure vessels and consume space saved for There are a few ways to predict the compressibility of a gas.
hydrogen and reduce the capacity. The Beattie-Bridgeman equation, Soave-Redlich-Kwong equa-
Temperature control on the dynamic wall is as important as tion, Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation, direct evaluation from ex-
applied pressures, hence the filter wall must exhibit some thermo- perimental p-v-T data are examples. Other than these, approxi-
dynamic features to help getting these controls. Assuming exo- mate formulas can be used, as well, for quick compressibility
thermic reactions of compound creation in the dynamic wall, the factor estimation of hydrogen. One such formula is 关4兴
filter wall reveals itself as a possible heat absorber by standing z = 0.99704 + 6.4149 ⫻ 10−9 P 共2兲
next to the dynamic wall where these reactions will take place.
Another consequence of compound formation is the volume The Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation is reported to give accurate
changes in the dynamic wall after hydrogenation/dehydrogenation state estimations of hydrogen at high pressures including com-
reactions. Since the outer wall is static and not allowed to be that pressibility effects 关31,32兴, hence this method is used to estimate
deformable, the filter wall will provide the flexibility to allow and the compressibility factors. Taking into account future targets,
regulate possible volumetric changes. safety concerns, and other works on hydrogen storage pressure
tanks 关6,31兴, a pressure range from 10 to 100 MPa in 10 MPa
increments 共plus 35 MPa兲 is determined for the analysis with the
3 Analysis on Required Physical and Mechanical operating temperature at room conditions. Compressibility factors
turned out to be in the following, see Table 1.
Properties A stress analysis is necessary to create the stress map and de-
To visualize the behavior of the multilayered tank under differ- termine yield values in the tank walls. For cylindrical single
ent pressures, it needs to be modeled to determine the features of walled tanks, both the tangential and radial stresses increase along
the dynamic wall as hydrogen compound in solid form. The ma- the radial direction with decreasing distance to the center. The
terial identities of different layers stay unexplored as there is not a difference between the maximum and minimum stresses can be
research subject on high pressure hydrogen storage tanks with a very big, as the rate of stress change is not linear 关25兴. Here it
hydrogen absorbing dynamic wall, in the industry. The outer layer should be noted that the stated cross section is far away from the
of the tank will have almost the same attributes and tasks, so that ends of the cylinder and corresponding stresses are almost unaf-
commercially available pressure vessel materials are going to be fected. In the current analysis, the shape of the hydrogen tank is
used here as well. On the other hand, the dynamic wall and the assumed to be cylindrical with hemispherical caps and the effects
filter wall are subject to research, to find the most suitable mate- of tank ends have been taken into account in the analysis. Also,
rials granting a hydrogen storage media. Examining duties and the multilayered structure of the wall is expected to generate non-
properties of each layer, the dynamic wall shows itself as the linearities on the overall stress curve in the radial direction. Hence
focus of the analysis. High hydrogen capacity, high absorption/ a finite element modeling of the cylindrical tank is used to get a
desorption kinetics, light weight are the most important character- more accurate picture of the stress distribution, especially at the
istics of the dynamic wall and the whole storage system, which connecting lines of hemispherical and cylindrical sections. The
will provide proposed performances. In this sense, the filter wall is cylindrical tank is treated free of connectors, valves, nozzles, and
treated like a membrane and excluded from the analysis. But it regulators which actually would be necessary components of the
should be noted that pressure on the dynamic wall is transmitted tank for practical applications.
through the filter wall. The outer wall will involve, in extracting The stress calculation in the proposed design with finite ele-
information on required gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen ment analysis tools involves an iterative approach, since mechani-
density, hydrogen mass to be absorbed, yield stress and modulus cal properties have to be supplied as inputs. Maximum output von
of elasticity of the dynamic wall. Calculation of densities requires Mises stresses have to be compared with the yield strength of the
a precise estimation of gaseous hydrogen masses, where the com- outer wall material. Once it matches the yield strength, the modu-
pressibility factor becomes important. lus of elasticity and von Mises stresses are read for the dynamic
wall, which defines the minimum required reinforcement to with-
3.1 Methodology. With increasing pressures, all gases tend to stand the inner pressure of the tank. ANSYS is used as the finite
lose their compressibility. At high pressures, compressibility dif- element tool.
ficulties become more apparent. Therefore, the equation of state
including a compressibility effect gives more accurate results on 3.2 Parametric Study. The tank’s performance depends on
the gaseous conditions than an ideal gas treatment. The equation many parameters. These parameters can be classified as geometri-
of state with the compressibility factor reads 关30兴 cal parameters, material properties, and operating conditions. For

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology FEBRUARY 2007, Vol. 129 / 217

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 Table 2 Targets of hydrogen storage Table 3 Outer wall material properties

2010 2015 Yield Modulus of

Density strength elasticity Poisson’s
Gravimetric Density 共wt %兲 6 9 共kg/ m3兲 共MPa兲 共GPa兲 ratio
Volumetric Density 共g/l兲 45 81
Refueling Rate 共kg/min兲 1.5 2 Carbon composite 1900 2070 379 0.20
System Cost 共$/kWh兲 4 2 共HM graphite fiber兲
System Mass 共kg兲 83.0 55.6 Titanium alloy 4430 924 120 0.36
System Volume 共1兲 111 62 共Ti-6Al-4V兲
Cycle Life 1000 1500 Steel alloy 7860 703 200 0.32
Min Operating Temperature 共C ° 兲 −30 −40 共Tool L2兲
Max Operating Temperature 共C ° 兲 85 85

each configuration, certain properties of the dynamic wall can be

calculated. Ranges for each parameter are determined, taking the tank parameter configuration. Modeling has also been done in
2010 and 2015 targets as references 共Table 2兲. In this sense, some ANSYS, by defining two concentric cylinders both with hemi-
variables are specified to be constraints of the system. spherical caps. Since two interacting bodies are present an axi-
Geometrical parameters are selected to be the outer radius of symmetric 2D analysis has been avoided. Entire structure has
the tank, thicknesses, and volumes of both the outer wall and the been swept with solid elements with nodes at the element edges
dynamic wall, length of tank, and volume of the gaseous hydro- for both dynamic and outer walls 共Figs. 2 and 3兲. The outer wall is
gen. It should be noticed that these parameters over-define the meshed finer to provide additional accuracy to the analysis, be-
cylindrical tank with hemispherical ends. Considering some al- cause the tank failure criterion 共stress matching to yield stress兲 is
ready present hydrogen pressure vessels 关7兴, the tank diameter is checked according to yielding of the outer wall. The node density
selected to range between 25 and 55 cm. The outer wall thickness is kept high in the radial direction. Stress transmission due to body
varies between 1 and 2 cm, whereas the dynamic wall region is to interactions have been simulated with contact and target elements
be examined over a range of 1 cm to very near locations to the in ANSYS. No slippage or penetration is allowed for layers.
symmetry axis, to obtain gaseous and absorbed hydrogen amounts Pressures are applied to the inner tank surface and a static state
in the tank. is declared for the analysis where materials also exhibit linear
Geometrical parameters need to be combined with material isotropic behavior, hence reducing the analysis to have one modu-
properties, in order to obtain volumetric and gravimetric densities lus of elasticity and one Poisson’s ratio for each element. These
of hydrogen. These parameters include density and mass of the are fed to the program as material properties for the outer wall and
total system, outer wall and dynamic wall regions, and hydrogen dynamic wall. A value of 0.3 is assumed for the dynamic wall’s
fraction in the dynamic wall and in the gaseous state. On the other Poisson’s ratio. On the other hand the modulus of elasticity is
hand, yield stress and modulus of elasticity are necessary param- adjusted with an iterative approach at each pressure until the
eters for stress analysis. Among these, dynamic wall parameters maximum stress at the outer wall matches its yield strength. The
are treated as analysis output. For the current analysis, carbon overall procedure is repeated with increased mesh qualities until
composite, titanium alloy, and steel alloy have been considered as the results converge to a final value in order to provide the cer-
outer wall material candidates. Relevant properties of these mate- tainty level.
rials are listed in Table 3. Other than that, the unknown dynamic With the addition of the required E and Sy values, properties of
wall is assumed to have volumetric expansions and shrinkages the sample parameter configuration 共Table 4兲 can be extended as
because of hydrogen compound formation. Reported volumetric shown below in Table 5. However, the reinforcement with the
changes ranging between 15% and 25% for hydrides 关19,23兴 lead dynamic wall to withstand the inner pressure is not very necessary
to the assumption that the average value as 20% can be used in the at pressures less than 80 MPa, because the outer wall turns out to
analysis for volumetric fraction constant. be strong enough. A resulting modulus of elasticity of more than
An example parametric study for the following, picked tank 0.1 GPa is defined to be a required reinforcement from the dy-
geometry follows some pre-calculations of wall and hydrogen namic wall for the current analysis and designated as “low” in the
masses. Total tank mass and volume is taken from future targets following tables. Nevertheless, the required modulus of elasticity-
共83 kg, 111 1 for 2010 and 55.6 kg, 62 1 for 2015兲. Total hydro- pressure relation is more visible 共down to 40 MPa兲, if titanium
gen mass is 5 kg. Results for required physical properties are alloy is used instead of composite, which the list below illustrates
described as in Table 4. 共Table 6兲. With the titanium outer wall, more reinforcement is
An ANSYS command module code is written to be run for each required from the dynamic wall against internal pressures.

Table 4 Densities with composite outer wall „mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1 , D = 40 cm, touter
= 1 cm, T = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm…

Vol. density Grav. density

Pressure 共MPa兲 mouter 共kg兲 mdyn 共kg兲 mH2dyn 共kg兲 共kg/ m3兲 共wt%兲 Density 共kg/ m3兲

10 23.806 54.194 4.621 93.91 8.53 1377

20 23.806 54.194 4.285 87.08 7.91 1377
30 23.806 54.194 3.986 81.02 7.36 1377
35 23.806 54.194 3.849 78.24 7.10 1377
40 23.806 54.194 3.720 75.60 6.86 1377
50 23.806 54.194 3.480 70.73 6.42 1377
60 23.806 54.194 3.263 66.32 6.02 1377
70 23.806 54.194 3.065 62.30 5.66 1377
80 23.806 54.194 2.884 58.62 5.32 1377
90 23.806 54.194 2.717 55.22 5.01 1377
100 23.806 54.194 2.563 52.08 4.73 1377

218 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Transactions of the ASME

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 Fig. 2 Finite element modeling of the pressure tank

4 Results and Discussion mances than carbon composites. However, some geometrical con-
Minimum required physical and mechanical properties have figurations were observed not to be available with the titanium
been found with the analysis to achieve future targets of 2010 and alloy cover. One example is that thicker than 1 cm titanium alloy
2015. The effect of geometry as well as the outer wall material has outer walls weigh as much as the total tank should.
been studied. It was found that steel cannot be used in the design It was found that the gravimetric density of hydrogen for the
as outer wall material, since it alone achieves the mass limits if dynamic wall becomes smaller at higher diameters. As the diam-
used as outer wall material. Titanium alloys provide lower perfor- eter of the tank gets bigger, the volume and mass of the dynamic

Fig. 3 Finite elements at the cross section of the tank

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology FEBRUARY 2007, Vol. 129 / 219

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 Table 5 Mechanical and physical properties of the dynamic wall „composite outer wall,
mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, D = 40 cm, tdyn = 1 cm, T = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm…

Vol. density
Pressure 共MPa兲 mouter 共kg兲 mdyn 共kg兲 mH2dyn 共kg兲 共kg/ m3兲 Grav. density 共wt%兲 Density 共kg/ m3兲

10 23.806 54.194 4.621 93.91 8.53 1377

20 23.806 54.194 4.285 87.08 7.91 1377
30 23.806 54.194 3.986 81.02 7.36 1377
35 23.806 54.194 3.849 78.24 7.10 1377
40 23.806 54.194 3.720 75.60 6.86 1377
50 23.806 54.194 3.480 70.73 6.42 1377
60 23.806 54.194 3.263 66.32 6.02 1377
70 23.806 54.194 3.065 62.30 5.66 1377
80 23.806 54.194 2.884 58.62 5.32 1377
90 23.806 54.194 2.717 55.22 5.01 1377
100 23.806 54.194 2.563 52.08 4.73 1377

Table 6 Mechanical and physical properties of the dynamic wall „titanium outer wall, mtotal
= 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, D = 40 cm, tdyn = 1 cm, T = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm…

Vol. density Grav. density Modulus of elasticity Yield stress

Pressure 共MPa兲 共kg/ m3兲 共wt%兲 Density 共kg/ m3兲 共GPa兲 共MPa兲

10 93.91 8.53 1377 low low

20 87.08 7.91 1377 low low
30 81.02 7.36 1377 low low
35 78.24 7.10 1377 low low
40 75.60 6.86 1377 low low
50 70.73 6.42 1377 low low
60 66.32 6.02 1377 low low
70 62.30 5.66 1377 low low
80 58.62 5.32 1377 2.8 173
90 55.22 5.01 1377 9.6 230
100 52.08 4.73 1377 17.5 288

wall increases. But bigger rates are attained in the inner tank’s for the volumetric densities. Also, as the tank radius increases, the
volume and mass 共gaseous hydrogen兲, and less hydrogen is density decrease rate increases as well. Hence at a certain pres-
needed to be absorbed in the dynamic wall region, which leads to sure, the tank with lower radius begins to have higher densities.
a reduction in gravimetric density. The inverse relation is found This is related to the hydrogen fraction in the dynamic wall re-

Fig. 4 Stress distribution in the tank „section view…

220 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Transactions of the ASME

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 Fig. 5 Grav. density versus P „mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, tdyn Fig. 7 E versus P „mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, tdyn = 1 cm, T
= 1 cm, T = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm… = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm…

Considering the stresses in the radial direction, distributions are

gion. Analysis revealed that with increasing diameter, the range of
observed to follow the profile as in single walled tanks for each
hydrogen mass in the dynamic wall on the pressure scale in-
layer. However, the overall distribution was not found to be con-
creases. At higher tank radii, less hydrogen has to be contained in
tinuous at the boundary surface because of contact behavior. Dif-
the dynamic wall. The difference between the maximum and
ferent modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio values lead to
minimum hydrogen fractions gets bigger. Although the dynamic
different magnitudes of stress. It was found that higher stresses
wall volume decreases as well, it does not follow the same rates.
accumulate at the outer wall, even though pressure is not applied
Therefore, the volumetric density curve is steeper for higher tank
directly on its surface. The highest stresses in the overall tank
radius values.
occur at the inner surface of the outer wall right at the contact
Keeping the dynamic wall radius constant, thickening of the
surface with the dynamic wall. Same stress profile has been found
outer wall is found to cause hydrogen capacity loss when the outer
along the inner surface of the tank but with smaller magnitudes.
wall is strong enough. Also the maximum allowable density for
The effect of dynamic wall thickness on the tank configuration
the dynamic wall decreases greatly to meet the tank requirements.
was also examined. It was found that pressure increasing stays
The finite element modeling was able to give information on
ineffective in enhancing capacities at 15 cm thick dynamic walls,
mechanical properties for the dynamic wall. The analysis revealed
since inner tank volume was very small and, therefore, significant
that highest stresses are attained at the cylindrical sections 共Fig.
hydrogen content has to be stored in the dynamic wall. On the
4兲. Also, no stress value at hemispherical ends was found to ex-
other hand, thin walls necessitate extremely strong materials to
ceed those at the cylindrical section. Therefore, the ends are not
prevent tank burst. At a dynamic wall of 1 cm thickness, it was
subject to failure. The stress distribution in the longitudinal direc-
found that for some geometry configurations the necessary modu-
tion stays mostly uniform, both on cylindrical and hemispherical
lus of elasticity exceeds the outer wall’s modulus, which means a
parts.
stronger material than the outer wall itself. As a result it can be

Fig. 6 Vol. density versus P „mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, tdyn Fig. 8 Sy versus P „mtotal = 83 kg, Vtotal = 111 1, tdyn = 1 cm, T
= 1 cm, T = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm… = 5 cm, L = 61.7 cm…

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology FEBRUARY 2007, Vol. 129 / 221

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 concluded that lowering minimum required densities was sacri- 关11兴 Peschka, W., 1992, Liquid Hydrogen: Fuel of the Future, Springer-Verlag,
New York.
ficed with strength reinforcement requirements for the dynamic 关12兴 Reijerkerk, C. J. J., 2004, “Potential of Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage in Ve-
wall. Dynamic wall effects on some physical and mechanical dy- hicles,” Alternative Fuels, Linde AG.
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Figs. 5–8 共outer wall is titanium, 2010 targets are considered兲. mized Zero Boil-off Densified Cryogen Storage System for Space,” Cryogen-
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关14兴 Gross, K. J., Luo, W., Majzoub, E., Roberts, G., Spangler, S., Dedrick, D.,
5 Conclusion Johnson, T., and Chan, J., “Hydride Development for Hydrogen Storage,”
Identifying gravimetric and volumetric densities as important Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, and Infrastructure Technologies, FY 2003 Progress Re-
properties of a storage system, the proposed high pressure hydro- port, 2003.
关15兴 Esayed, A. Y., 2001, “Metal Hydrides,” Energy Sources, 23, pp. 257–265.
gen storage tank with a dynamic wall was found to be able to give 关16兴 Aoki, M., Ohba, N., Noritake, T., and Towata, S., 2004, “Reversible Hydriding
reasonable performances. Mechanical and physical properties of and Dehydriding Properties of CaSi: Potential of Metal Silicides for Hydrogen
the dynamic wall are determined with modeling and a parametric Storage,” Appl. Phys. Lett., 85共3兲, pp. 387–388.
analysis. It was found that lower gravimetric and volumetric den- 关17兴 Zhou, L., 2005, “Progress and Problems in Hydrogen Storage Methods,” Re-
sities are attained by sacrificing other flexibilities, for example, newable Sustainable Energy Rev., 9, pp. 395–408.
关18兴 Bogdanovic, B., and Schwickardi, M., 1997, “Ti-doped Alkali Metal Alu-
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关20兴 Walters, R. T., and Scogin, J. H., 2004, “A Reversible Hydrogen Storage
performances to the parameters have been made available, which Mechanism for Sodium Alanate: The Role of Alanes and the Catalytic Effect
can also be used as preliminary design curves. of the Dopant,” J. Alloys Compd., 379, pp. 135–142.
Results showed that strength does not create a strict limitation 关21兴 Andrei, C. M., Walmsley, J. C., Brinks, H. W., hHolmestad, R., Srinivasan, S.
to dynamic wall material selection especially if composite outer S., Jensen, C. M., and Hauback, B. C., 2005, “Electron-microscopy Studies of
NaAlH4 with TiF3 Additive: Hydrogen-Cycling Effects,” Appl. Phys. A, 80,
walls are used. Also, finite element analysis assured that the linear pp. 709–715.
relation between the dynamic wall thickness and pressure was 关22兴 Gomes, S., Renaudin, G., Hagemann, H., Yvon, K., Sulic, M. P., and Jensen,
conserved for two-layered structures assuming isotropic behaviors C. M., 2005, “Effects of Milling, Doping and Cycling of NaAlH4 Studied by
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222 / Vol. 129, FEBRUARY 2007 Transactions of the ASME

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