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Calculation of the Photon Speed and Photon Energy Discussions

Chapter · April 2022

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-7258-3_40

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Link to the paper https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235248472101177X
The author has long been concerned about the basic theoretical issues of high-resolution optical imaging (smaller
line width similar to the key technology of lithography), and has put forward a new understanding of the nature of
photons, and also involves the basic issues of energy science.
The key evidence for light waves is the Young’s double-slit interference experiment. After the discovery of the
double-slit interference experiment of particles (electrons, etc.), the conclusion of light waves can no longer be
established. "Wave-particle duality" denies light as particles because of the wave phenomenon, but recognizes the wave
nature of particles. It is better understood that light particles have wave phenomena. Of course, light particle behavior
and wave mechanism need new understanding. This is also the main content of the article.
The article has obtained rich research results through theoretical discussion:
1 Propose the physical model of positive photon and negative photon;
2 Reveal the source of material energy and the mechanism of luminescence;
3 The physical explanation of the mass-energy equation is given (the single-point approximation of the kinetic energy
increment);
4 The calculation results of the speed of light are given;
5 Reveal the diffraction and wave mechanism of light particles (the internal wave field of atoms affects the movement of
particles);
6 Gives the reason for the strong penetration of short X-rays, and answers why the X-ray refractive index is less than 1;
7 Based on the charged optical particle model, reinterpreted light reflection, total reflection, refraction, diffraction,
interference, polarization, dispersion, photon wavelength and energy, atomic spectrum, temperature, black body radiation,
Compton effect, etc.
The theoretical exploration results of the article show some possible application prospects:
1 Positive photon reflection super-resolution imaging (overcoming the diffraction effect);
2 Shatter charged particles to obtain infinite photon energy (kinetic energy); dominoes release kinetic energy and use of
nuclear energy
3 Advanced light source;
4 Improve photoelectric conversion efficiency, etc.
1 The论文发表的链接
ideal theory is the fitting of all phenomena. The fitting of existing theories is
often作者长期关注高分辨光学成像（类同光刻关键技术的更小线宽）基础理论问题，对光子本性提出了新的理解，也涉及到了能
not perfect, so the theory needs to evolve with experience;
源科学的基础问题。
2 Physics knowledge is the experience obtained from practice (trial and error),
光波的关键证据是杨氏双缝干涉实验，粒子(电子等)的双缝干涉实验发现以后，光波的结论已难以成立。“波粒二象性”因为波
experiment and repeated verification, which conforms to the principle of deterministic
动现象否定光是粒子，却认可粒子波动性，它的更好理解是光粒子具有波动现象。当然，光粒子行为及波动机理需要新的理解。 这
causality;
也是论文的主要内容。 however, the assumption of absolute speed of light violates the empirical
knowledge of relative speed;
论文通过理论探讨，得到了丰富的研究成果：
1 提出正光子与负光子的物理模型；
3 Different from the hypothesis that the speed of light is constant and electromagnetic
2 揭示了物质能量来源、发光机理；
wave, the light particle hypothesis in this article has an empirical basis;
3 给出了质能方程的物理解释(动能增量单点近似值)；

4 The4 给出了光速计算结果；
acceleration of electrons originates from force, and the force acts on particles
5 揭示了光粒子衍射、波动机理(原子内部波动场影响粒子运动)；
instead of fields. How to produce the light speed motion of the field (electromagnetic
6 给出了短X射线穿透能力强的原因，回答了为何X射线折射率小于1；
waves)? the passive field of flight, and the momentum;
7 基于带电光粒子模型，重新解释了光的反射、全反射、折射、衍射、干涉、偏振、色散、光子波长与能量、原子光谱、温
5度、黑体辐射、康普顿效应等。
The energy of the field can be continuously superimposed, which contradicts the
photoelectric effect.
论文的理论探索结果显示了某些可能的应用前景：
1 正光子反射超分辨成像(克服衍射效应)；
2 打碎带电粒子获得无穷光子能量(动能)；多米诺骨牌释放动能与核能利用
3 先进光源；
4 提升光电变换效率等。
 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect

Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

2021 6th International Conference on Clean Energy and Power Generation Technology (CEPGT
2021) September 10–12, 2021, Shanghai, China

Photon energy and photon behavior discussions

Daocheng Yuan ∗, Qian Liu
China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, Sichuan 621000, China
Received 18 October 2021; accepted 2 November 2021
Available online 26 November 2021

Abstract
Photons (Solar) are the main source of energy available on Earth and provide hope of clean energy in the future, photon
energy has particle characteristics, and there is an inevitable connection between the wave behavior and the particle behavior of
light, in-depth understanding and exploration are required. Based on the hypothesis of the strong interaction between electrons
and protons to generate photons, the energy and behaviors of photons are discussed herein. By analyzing and calculating
the photon speed, the negative photon speed was found to be in excellent agreement with the existing light speed constant.
The Compton effect wavelength shift was analyzed and deduced considering the interaction of positive photons and atoms,
and new conclusions are drawn, proposing the reason why X-rays are positive photons. Based on existing data, the observed
estimation value of the negative photon velocity shift is 0.0295 ppm. From the interaction of the spin-charged particles, the
relationship between the photon wavelength and its magnetic moment was calculated. In addition, we analyzed and calculated
the characteristics of photon orbits, inferred the mechanism of atomic luminescence, and qualitatively explained the phenomenon
of blackbody radiation. Based on the effect of charged spin photons and the electromagnetic potential field, we explain the
reason for the simultaneous existence of reflection and refraction. The relationship between the incident angle and the reflectivity
was analyzed, and refractive index formulas were derived to reasonably explain the characteristics of the X-ray refractive index.
As a result, edge diffraction is considered a special case of refraction. By analyzing the fluctuation of the potential field inside
the atom, the diffraction phenomenon of charged particles is described, and a particle explanation of the phenomenon of light
waves and beat frequencies interference is provided. It is believed that the physical model of photon charging conforms to the
existing physical laws. Photon energy is kinetic energy and is derived from the potential energy of electrons or protons.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 6th International Conference on Clean Energy and Power Generation Technology,
CEPGT, 2021.

Keywords: Photon energy; Photon speed; Charge potential; Compton effect; Photon diffraction; X-rays

1. Introduction
Photons (Solar) are the main source of energy available on Earth and provide hope of clean energy in the
future [1,2]. Optical fiber communication and photolithography have made today’s great information age [3,4], and
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Yuan), [email protected] (Q. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.034
2352-4847/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 6th International Conference on Clean Energy and Power Generation
Technology, CEPGT, 2021.
D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

photons are still the most used tools for human observation of nature [5]. The human body is an energy utilization
and information processing system, and photosynthesis is a key link in life activities. There is no doubt that photons
will bring more human needs, and the propagation of energy by photons at the speed of light is the basis of all
photon applications, the transfer of photon energy is closely related to its behavior; therefore, a deep understanding
of the characteristics of photon energy and its source, as well as photon behavior is important. Human exploration
of light has never stopped and will inevitably continue [6–18].
Photons and waves are important controversial topics, the wave theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect
and the Compton effect, while the theory of light particles has not yet explained the diffraction and interference
phenomena of light [19], but experiments have confirmed that particles have wave phenomena, in fact, it denies
the conclusion that photons should be waves due to interference. The quantum theory of “wave–particle duality”
is difficult to understand; it denies that light is a particle because of the wave phenomenon, but recognizes the
wave of particles, and it conflicts with common-sense notions derived from observations of the everyday world.
Waves are a form of matter movement, and photons are matter that can travel through a vacuum, the photon energy
also strongly shows the characteristics of the particles (Planck’s energy quanta, ‘light quanta’ or ‘photons’) [19].
Photons behave like particles, and like waves, but are they both? Existing photon research also reveals a significant
difference between photons and electromagnetic waves [20–27]. Though we know what photons seem like, we need
to know what they are. Therefore, understanding the fluctuations of photons in terms of particle behavior will help
to enhance the understanding of photon properties. There are some important questions to consider, for example,
why do photons have such a high speed? Is this the limit? Why is the speed of conduction the same as the speed
of light? Where does the energy of the electromagnetic waves emitted by electrons come from? Why does photon
energy vary with the wavelength? How can we understand the relationship between mass and energy?
Nearly 100% of the substances discovered so far comprise electrons and protons (neutrons are a combination of
electrons and protons). Hence, there is reason to believe that they are unique and fundamental particles in the material
world. There is huge potential energy between electrons and protons (the calculated value of the electron surface
potential is less than −500 kV, and that of the proton surface potential is greater than 1700 kV) that can result in
serious consequences, i.e., an electron–proton explosion, which has exhibited the maximum intensity–volume ratio
known to date. This follows the law of Coulomb, Newton’s law of motion, and the law of conservation of energy.
It is empirically believed that this intense explosion will produce some smaller broken particles, which are
positively or negatively charged, and have the same charge–mass ratio as the parent. Owing to the repelling effect
of electricity, these particles can obtain a high speed (kinetic energy). In fact, photons are very important energy
carriers. This study assumes that the particles produced by these explosions are photons, including negatively
charged negative photons and positively charged positive photons. Negative photons are fragments derived from
electrons that are negatively charged. Photons of different sizes have different masses and spin magnetic moments,
and the charge-to-mass ratio is the same as that of electrons. Positive photons are fragments derived from protons
that are positively charged. Photons of different sizes have different masses and spin magnetic moments, and the
charge-to-mass ratio is the same as that of protons. Based on these assumptions, photon energy and some photon
behaviors are discussed herein.

2. Calculation of the photon speed and photon energy

The conversion between potential energy and kinetic energy is a common phenomenon. A negative photon leaves
the surface of an electron, which is a process of converting potential energy into kinetic energy. Assuming that
negative photons are projected from the surface of the electron to the area where the potential is zero, the speed of
the negative photons can be calculated according to the conservation of energy.
The potential energy of a system of charges, which is the total work required to assemble the system [28], is
given by E ext (1). The photon is a tiny part of the charge system, and the assembly of photons and the projection of
photons are two reciprocal processes. The kinetic energy m o c− 2 /2 of the photon obtained by projection is equal to
the potential energy required to assemble the photon, and can be calculated using Eq. (2). c− is the speed at which
negative photons leave the surface of the electron to the zero-potential zone (equivalent to in vacuum), qo is the
photon charge, m o is the photon mass, e is the electron charge, m e is the electron mass, re is the electron radius,
and qo/m o = e/m e .
)2
ε0 ∞
∫ ∞
e2 e2
∫ (
e 2 dr
E ext = 4πr dr = = (1)
2 R 4π ε0r 2 8π ε0 R r 2 8π ε0 R
23
D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

1 eqo
m o c− 2 = (2)
2 8π ε0re
m o c− 2 /2 + qo /8π ε0 re = e2 /8π ε0 re = eqo /8π ε0re ,
∑ ∑ 2 ∑
∑ According to the conservation of energy,
qo /8π ε0re ≈ 0, we can have (2).
2

In another photon velocity calculation method, the electric potential on the surface of the electron is Ue =
e/4πε0re [28]. The internal force performs the same work on the photon and the electron as the photon leaves the
electron (The electrostatic force is so huge that the photon accelerates to the speed of light within 1e–18 s, the
collision mass of the photon and the electron probably can be characterized by their same density. Electrons are
also in a large acceleration state when photons are emitted.). The photon and the electron each gain half of the
potential energy Ue qo /2, and the negative photon velocity calculation result is the same as (2); thus, the following
is obtained (3).
( )1/2 ( )1/2
eqo ee
c− = = (3)
4π ε0re m o 4π ε0re m e
Therefore, the fragmentation of charged particles produces new photons with a certain mass m o (speed of light
c), which increases the kinetic energy of the particle system ∆E k , ∆E k = m o c2 . This is an understanding of the
relationship between mass and energy. According to formula (1), the mass (electricity) of a charged particle has a
nonlinear relationship with energy, and is only a single-point approximation of the kinetic energy increment with
the change of the charge parameter. Nuclear energy can be understood as part of the potential energy of the particles
converted into kinetic energy and released, and there is reason to believe that kinetic energy can be obtained by
breaking up charged particles. The photoelectric effect is another case in which the kinetic energy of photons is
converted into potential energy. m c2o

2.1. Negative photon velocity

Substituting e and m e [29], respectively, then c− = 2.99792457973037E+8. Substituting e/m e [29] into (3) as
a whole, then c− = 2.99792458025253E+8.
According to the CODATA recommended values of the fundamental constants of physics and chemistry based
on the 2014 adjustment [29], the relative standard uncertainty values of e, m e , and e/m e are 6.1E−9, 1.2E−8,
and 6.2E−9, respectively. The speed of the negative photon was chosen as c− = 2.99792458025253E+8, and the
relative error was 8.42E−11, compared with the constant of light speed c = 2.99792458E+8. Thus, the calculated
negative photon speed has a very good accuracy.

2.2. Positive photon velocity

The principle of a positive photon obtaining speed c+ is the same as that of negative photons, (4), except that
the radius of a proton rp is smaller, the mass of a proton m p is larger, and the charge-to-mass ratio is much smaller,
taking rp = 8.33E−16 [30].
( )1/2
ee
c+ = (4)
4π ε0rp m p
Substituting e and m p into (4), respectively, then c+ = 1.287E+7, and c−/c+ ≈ 23. Due to the huge difference
in mass between protons and electrons, positive photons may gain more energy (greater speed), but not more than
twice.
It can be seen that the calculated speed of the positive photons is significantly smaller than the light speed
constant c. Because existing knowledge does not consider photon charging, the speed of positive photons has not
been verified, but X-rays exhibit certain properties of positive photons.
The calculation of the speed of photons shows that the speed of light is a normal phenomenon of the strong
interaction of charged particles and is the result of the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy. Physical
model of photon velocity calculation is not perfect, but it clearly shows that it is possible for photons to achieve
such a huge speed. The speed of light particles is related to the electric potential field and can be larger or smaller,
but remains fixed in the region where the potential is zero. At this time, the negative photon speed is equal to the
24
D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

light speed constant c, and there is a huge difference between the positive photon velocity and the light velocity
constant. For electrons, the charge-to-mass ratio is the same as that of negative photons, and their ability to obtain
kinetic energy from the electric potential field is the same as that of negative photons. When electrons accelerate
into the gravitational field of an atomic nucleus, the speed can be greater than c, there is a high probability of
eccentric collision, part of the potential energy is converted into spin angular kinetic energy, and a large spin speed
can be obtained. The linear velocity in and out of different potential regions will change, and the spin velocity (spin
angular kinetic energy) is easily retained, which may also be used as an explanation for the large angular velocity of
electrons. The increase in spin speed enhances the magnetic force, which helps charged particles to form a variety
of stable force balance structures: atoms. The periodic structure and properties of the elements are related to this.
As a charged particle, photons should theoretically participate in the macroscopic conduction process, and
responding to changes in the electric field is an inherent property of photons. They silently contribute to the
conduction of current, but have not been found, which is consistent with the conduction velocity constant. The
photon itself has energy and transfers energy at the speed of light, and hence functions as an energy propagation
medium.
Electromagnetic waves also have a speed of light and can propagate in a vacuum. Their electrical properties are
remarkable and exhibit all the properties of light. It is reasonable to consider electromagnetic waves as a group of
smaller negative photons. Because the photon volume, mass, electricity, and magnetic moment are very small, they
have not been detected by current measurement methods.
The positive charge and negative charge of the new photons generated by the collision may be different, the
abilities of positive and negative photons to pass through the Earth’s atmosphere are significantly different. The
total amount of photon electricity that reaches the earth is not zero, so sunlight may be an influencing factor on the
Earth’s electromagnetic environment. The sun’s continuous emission of photons will cause its static electricity to
increase, and the weakening of gravitation by the electrostatic repulsion will destroy the structural stability of the
sun itself, which may threaten the safety of life on earth.

2.3. Compton effect and derivation of the compton shift

X-ray refraction exhibits positive photon properties (see Section 5.2 for detailed analysis), so understanding the
Compton effect regarding the interaction between positive photons and atoms has certain significance. The Compton
effect is the action of X-rays (positive photons) in the electron gravitational field and the nuclear repulsion field. The
scattered light can be divided into two parts: One is the scattering (including reflection) of positive photons by the
nucleus, with a wavelength shift; the other part is that positive photons escape after accelerating in the gravitational
field of electrons, and there is no wavelength shift.
The scattering of positive photons by the nucleus has the same physical mechanism as that of common light
reflection. The kinetic energy of the photon enables it to approach the center of the repulsive field to the order of
the electron radius, so the repulsive force is very large; therefore, the repulsive work is also significant. Photons in
the repulsive field continue to lose kinetic energy owing to external work, resulting in a wavelength shift. Because
of the large mass of the nucleus, and the nucleus is not a rigid body, the wavelength shift ∆λ = λ − λ0 is not
significantly affected by the change in the incident wavelength and atomic number, but is greatly influenced by
the scattering angle. This is why the Compton shift of an X-ray seems to be independent of the target material.
Positive photons escape from the gravitational field of electrons and are regarded as scattered. In fact, they are
irregular refractions caused by scattered distribution electrons, and there is no wavelength shift. Compared with
scattered photons, the distance between the escaped photons and the center of the gravitational field is close to the
radius of the photon orbit, which is approximately equal to 1000 times the radius of the electron; for details, see
the calculation in Section 3.3. Therefore, the gravitational work is very small compared to the repulsive work, and
the kinetic energy of refracted (considered as scattered) photons hardly changes.
The absorption, collision, and escape of positive photons coexist in the gravitational field of the electrons. When
the atomic number increases, more outer electrons of the atom enhance absorption and refraction, reducing the
probability of nuclear scattering, and the intensity of the scattering (with wavelength shift) decreases.
According to the explanation of quantum mechanics, the relation between the shift in wavelength ∆λ and the
scattering angle θ is found to be [31]:
h
∆λ = (1 − cos θ ) = λc (1 − cos θ ) (5)
mec
25
D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

where m e is electronic mass, c is the light speed constant, and λc = h/m e c is the Compton wavelength.
The derivation of the Compton shift is different from the perspective of positive photons. When positive photons
hit the nucleus, they are scattered by repulsive fields. Consider the Compton effect as an elastic collision between
a photon hν and an atomic nucleus m p , ignoring the influence of the Lorenz force and angular momentum. In the
collision, the photon transfers energy and momentum to the nucleus; the scattered X-ray photon thus has a reduced
energy hν ′ and a reduced momentum 2hν ′ /c (mc2 /2 = hν ′ , c should be c+ , use c as usual) (see Fig. 1(a)).

Fig. 1. Explanation of the Compton effect. The influence of Lorenz force and angular momentum is not considered. (a) Incident X-ray
(positive photons) with energy E = hν and momentum p = 2hν/c collides with a nucleus. In the collision, positive photons do work on
atomic nuclei with repulsive force and lose kinetic energy. (b) Elastic scattering of positive photons in the repulsive field of nuclei.

Energy before and after the collision is conserved, so (6):

1
hν − hν ′ = m p Vp 2 (6)
2
For the momentum in the y-direction before and after the collision, we have (7):
2hν ′
sin θ − m p Vp sin φ = 0 (7)
c
And for the momentum in the x-direction, we have (8):
2hν 2hν ′
= cos θ + m p Vp cos φ (8)
c c
.
Substituting sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1, νν ′ = −c∆ν/∆λ, and solving (6), (7), and (8) simultaneously, where
∆ν = ν − ν ′ and ∆λ = λ − λ0 , we obtain (9):
4hc 4h
∆λ = 2
(1 − cos θ ) ≈ (1 − cos θ ) (9)
m p c − 2h∆ν mpc
This is different from formula (5), λc = 4hc/ m p c2 − 2h∆ν , and requires explanation.
( )

h∆ν is the kinetic energy loss of positive photon scattering, and its value is related to the photon mass and
θ , which is the inevitable result of scattering. Fig. 1(b) provides a more intuitive explanation. In the figure, the
nonlinear trajectory of the photon is simplified as a straight line. When θ = 0◦ , h∆ν = min = 0, and when
θ = 180◦ , h∆ν = max, hence, it is reasonable to obtain different values of h∆ν with different θ . When the photon
mass changes, the same θ = 180◦ , and h∆ν = max will have a different magnitude, so λc should not be a fixed
wavelength shift. The extreme case of elastic collision is the loss of all kinetic energies, which also shows that the
wavelength shift is not a fixed value.
The cause of the wavelength shift is the nucleus, which has a large mass, not an electron.
m p c2 ≫ 2h∆ν, ∆λ ≈ 4h (1 − cos θ ) /m p c, and λc = 4hc/(m p c2 − 2h∆ν) is not a constant, but it does not
change much.
Wavelength is a parameter related to the inherent properties of photonic electromagnetics (see Section 3.2) and
does not change due to scattering. The kinetic energy of the photon decreases due to scattering and doing work to
the outside. Therefore, the essence of the wavelength shift ∆λ = λ − λ0 is the shift of light speed ∆c = c0 − c,
which corresponds to a reduction in photon kinetic energy ∆E = E 0 − E. By transforming Eq. (9), we can obtain
26
D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

the formula of light speed shift (10), where m is the photon mass.
2mc0 (1 − cos θ ) + m∆c c0 2 − c2 /c0 2
( )
2mc0
∆c = ≈ (1 − cos θ ) (10)
m p + 2m (1 − cos θ ) mp
When θ = 180◦ , ∆c = 4mc0 /m p , and the incident photon of 1000 eV can be calculated as:
c0 2 − c2
( )
∆E ∆c ∆c 9.29 eV
= = 2+ = .
E0 c0 2 c0 c0 1000 eV
This result deviates significantly from the experimental results in [31]. In the magnetic field outside the nucleus,
the Lorenz force enhances the photon scattering and reduces the photon repulsion work to the outside, resulting in
a wavelength shift of less than (9).
The scattering mass of the nucleus is taken as m p , because the repulsive force of the photon and the nucleus
directly acts on the proton, and it is difficult to determine whether the entire nucleus can be regarded as a rigid
body. When the scattering mass of the nucleus is 2.32m p , then ∆E/E 0 = 4 eV/1000 eV. This result is consistent
with the Compton experiment [31], and the value of 2.32m p is reasonable to a certain extent.
When the incident photon energy is 1 MeV, the calculated photon mass is greater than the proton mass, which
is difficult to explain and verify.
Three points are added to the physical meaning of the Compton effect from the perspective of photon charging:
(1) X-rays are positive photons, as they are significantly repulsed by the nucleus. High-speed positive photons
with a mass close to or greater than an electron are impossible to be reflected at θ = 180◦ by the electron;
(2) The wavelength shift ∆λ is evidence that the photon loses kinetic energy and the photon velocity changes.
The speed shift of light is the result of photons doing work externally, and the scattering angle significantly affects
the speed shift of light;
(3) λc (corresponding to the speed shift of light) is approximately constant and exhibits a small change with the
incident wavelength λ0 .

2.4. Scattering and speed shift of negative photons

Negative photons also exhibit a similar repulsive field scattering (reflection). When a negative photon moves to
an electron, the photon continues to work externally with a repulsive force, resulting in a shift in the speed of light.
Eq. (11) is thus obtained, where m is the mass of the photon and m e is the mass of the electron.
2mc0 (1 − cos θ ) + m∆c c0 2 − c2 /c0 2
( )
2mc0
∆c = ≈ (1 − cos θ ) (11)
m e + 2m (1 − cos θ ) me
Comparing the speed shifts of negative and positive photons, taking λ+ = 0.1 nm and λ− = 500 nm photons as
an example, the relative speed shift of negative photons is slightly smaller. Negative photons have greater speed,
the electron magnetic moment is greater, and the Lorenz force is much larger than for a positive photon. The
particularity of the Lorenz force is that it changes the photon momentum (direction) but does not work, and the
speed drift of negative photons is small. Eq. (11) is used only for discussion and comparison with positive photons
and has no precise meaning. However, the speed drift of negative photons should exist.
Therefore, not all negative photon velocities are equal to the light velocity constant, and a large number of
photons exhibit velocity dispersion. This will result in a certain degree of dispersion of the refractive index, reflection
angle, and orbit of photons with the same wavelength, and affect the stability of the energy distribution of photons
transmitted over long distances in the direction of the speed of light. In general, the dispersion of photons at large
wavelengths is small, and the dispersion of photons at short wavelengths is greater. The dispersion of the photon
velocity is directly related to the scattering angle. The dispersion or spectrum broadening that occurs in the optical
fiber is related to a large loss of kinetic energy of some photons (the number of reflections is large). Reducing the
optical fiber aperture angle and increasing the wavelength is beneficial for reducing the dispersion.
The light velocity shift of negative photons can also be observed, and the magnitude of the light velocity
shift is estimated from the experimental data of the beat frequency given in [32]. The two stabilized lasers λ1
and λ2 participate in the beat frequency, where λ1 = 632.99121257 nm (6.3E−11) and λ2 = 632.991354 nm
(approximately 1E−9); λ1 undergoes two 90◦ reflections, and λ2 undergoes three 90◦ reflections. Owing to the
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

shift in the speed of light, λ2 decreases further, resulting in an increase in the beat frequency. Taking the difference
between the measured beat frequency and the calculated beat frequency between λ1 and λ2 as the contribution of
one (3 − 2 = 1) 90◦ reflection to the light velocity shift, the calculated relative value of the light velocity shift is
0.0295 ppm (see Table 1). The extended uncertainty is less than 0.01 ppm, according to the accuracy of the two
wavelengths. 0.0295 ppm is three orders of magnitude smaller than formula (11), so it is believed that the Lorenz
force considerably influences the reflection of negative photons. Interestingly, the reaction force of the Lorenz force
accelerates the electron spin.
Table 1. Calculation of light velocity shift of negative photons.
λ1 /nm λ2 /nm Calculated beat frequency/MHz Measured beat frequency/MHz
632.991 212 57 632.991 354 106 (121.33+118.59)/2 = 119.96
(4.7361235361E+14 Hz) (4.7361224783E+14 Hz)
(119.96–106)/473 612 248 = 0.0295 ppm

3. Force balance structure and photon wavelength

Particles repel each other in space, electrons of low electric potential and protons of high electric potential
hold their respective positions inside an atom, and there is a role of force between them. According to Newton’s
laws of motion, the balance of force enables stable architecture to be maintained, and all steady-state structures
require force balance as a necessary condition. This could be a way to understand atomic structures. In addition
to the balance force between electrons and protons, and between electrons and electrons, the fixed wavelength
characteristics between photons also seem to be a force balance effect, and the analysis and calculation of force
balance is helpful for recognizing structural features. Regardless of the universal gravitation, among the charged
particles, the following are currently recognized: electric force Fq , magnetic moment-related magnetic force Fp ,
charge velocity-related magnetic force Fv , and inertial force Fm .

Fig. 2. (a) Electromagnetic force balance between two electrons; (b) Ring necklace composed of 8 electrons.

3.1. Force balance and structure spacing between spin electrons

Spin electrons are approximated as a closed electric current; assuming dee ≫ re , ignoring electron velocity
magnetic force Fv , electron–electron magnetic force obeys Ampere’s law Fp = I dl B [28], the force on a small
piece of current-carrying wire that sits in a magnetic field B. The distance between electrons under force balance
is dee , as in Fig. 2(a), pm is the magnetic moment of electrons, re is the radius of electrons, A is the central
cross-sectional area of electrons, dl is the perimeter of the center cross section of electrons, µ0 is the magnetic
constant, and ε0 is the electric constant. The magnetic force between spin electrons is given by Eq. (12).
pm
F p = I dl B = dl B (12)
A
dl 2πre 2
= =
A πre 2 re
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

The magnetic field strength of the electronic magnetic moment at dee [28] is:
2µ0 pm
B = µ0 H = (13)
4π dee 3
Substituting (13) into (12) to obtain (14), as:
2 pm 2µ0 pm µ0 pm 2
Fp = = (14)
re 4πdee 3
πdee 3re
According to Coulomb’s law, the electric force Fq of the two electrons is given by Eq. (15), assuming that
particles with magnetic moments are close to each other, the magnetic force is automatically adjusted to gravity
(magnetic self-assembly), and the two forces are balanced, Fp = Fq .
ee
Fq = (15)
4π ε0 dee 2
Substituting (14) and (15) into Fp = Fq to obtain formula (16), as:
4Pm 2
dee = (16)
c2 e2 re
The calculation of dee is based on known physical constants and dee = 5.304052E−11. Because the Bohr
radius a0 = 5.291772E−11 [29], and dee ≈ a0 , it is believed that the force balance distance dee can reflect
some characteristics of the atomic structure. It should be noted that the hypothesis of a closed electric current
of spin-charged particles is imperfect, and the calculation results can only be regarded as approximate values.
From the perspective of force balance, electrons have two kinds of orbits on the spin axis of the nucleus or on
the circular orbit around the nucleus. The special case is that eight electrons are on the orbit of the outer radius R8
of the atomic nucleus, similar to an electronic necklace. Calculated using the size of dee , R8 = 0.069 nm, which
is equivalent to the atomic scale, similar to the skeleton of the atomic structure (Fig. 2(b)). With the help of the
atomic nucleus, the force balance between the electrons can also enable several electronic necklaces to connect in
series to form a cylindrical electronic cage. However, this is only imagination.

3.2. Photon wavelength and magnetic moment

Photons are charged q particles moving at a high speed. In addition to the Coulomb force Fq and spin magnetic
moment magnetic force Fp , the magnetic force Fc caused by their speed is an important influence, according to
Ampere’s law. Fig. 3(a) shows the electromagnetic force balance between the photons.

Fig. 3. (a) Electromagnetic force and wavelength of the linear motion state of negative photons; (b) Wavelength–mass-magnetic moment
calculation curve of negative photons.

According to the Biot–Savart law [28], B = µ0 qc/4πr 2 , the magnetic force Fc generated by the speed between
moving negative photons is equal to the Coulomb force Fq , as:
µ0 qc qq
Fc = qcB = qc = ≡ Fq
4πr 2 4π ε0r 2
It can be seen that Fq and Fc are in opposite directions and equal in magnitude in the vertical direction of the
light speed, and the resultant force is zero. The third force, Fp , can be either repulsive or gravitational, without a
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

Table 2. Comparison of photons and elementary particles.

Name Electric charge Mass Charge-to-mass quotient Magnetic moment Speed with zero potential
Electron −e me e/m e Pm ≈0
Proton +e mp e/m p Pp ≈0
2
Negative photon λ −2he/m e cλ 2h/cλ e/m e kn /λ 3 c− = c
2
Positive photon λ+ 2he/m p c+ λ+ 2h/c+ λ+ e/m p kp /λ+ 3 c+ = c/ck
Note: kn = 1.138E−31, kp = 1.628E−35, ck ≈ 23.

stable structure. In the direction of light speed, Fc = 0, Fp and Fq work together; when Fp and Fq are in opposite
directions, Fp = Fq , a stable structure (distance) can be obtained. Because the
( photon) magnetic moments are parallel
and not on a straight line, the magnetic field strength B = µ0 H = µ0 po / 4π dqq 3 , and the photon wavelength is
given by (17):
2 po 2
λ = dqq = (17)
c2 q 2 ro
The photon magnetic moment po is unknown and can be calculated from the wavelength assumption. Fig. 3(b)
shows the calculated relationship between the negative photon wavelength λ, mass m o , and its magnetic moment
po .
The photon magnetic moment is an inherent property, like its wavelength, and the relationship between the
negative photon magnetic moment po and the wavelength λ or mass m o can be calculated according to the
wavelength formula in (17). Substituting m o c2 /2 = hc/λ and q/m o = e/m e , we obtain (18):
[ ( )7/3 ]1/2
e re 2h
po = 2/3
λ 2 m e c1/7
= kn /λ2/3 (kn = 1.138E−31) (18)
In the same way, the relationship between the negative photon magnetic moment po and mass m o can be obtained
(19).
hcre 1/2
( )
po = em o 2/3
m e 7/3
= km m o 2/3 (km = 4.226E−4) (19)
Meanwhile, the magnetic moment of a positive photon has a similar relationship with wavelength and mass. rp
and m p are the radius and mass of the proton, respectively, so the corresponding constants kp are different, (20).
[ ( )7/3 ]1/2
e rp 2h
po+ = 2/3 = kp /λ2/3 ,
λ 2 m p c+ 1/7
(kp = 1.628E−35) (20)
The relationship between the photon wavelength and its mass is obtained from (18) and (19), and their product
is constant, m o λ = constant = 4.420438116E−42. Considering negative photons (c0 = c) and positive photons
(c0 = c+ ) together, we obtain (21); the product of the photon velocity, mass, and wavelength is constant 2h.
This is another expression of the photon energy formula. The difference is that the photon mass replaces the
photon frequency, and the photon energy is understood as the kinetic energy. Photons have angular momentum
and velocity [33–35]; therefore, kinetic energy and photon kinetic energy are the main ways to use energy.
m o λc0 = 2h (21)
From the aforementioned assumptions, analysis, and calculations, a comparison of the properties of photons and
elementary particles is summarized in Table 2.
Photons have mass, charge, magnetic moment, fixed charge-to-mass ratio, and initial velocity (speed of light),
and the magnetic moment coefficients kn and kp are independent of wavelength. Regarding the photon speed c− and
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

c+ , the agreed condition has zero potential (equivalent to in vacuum), and the speeds of the negative and positive
photons are very different. The photon wavelength is the geometric parameter of the balance of the electromagnetic
force related to its charge and magnetic moment. Wavelength is a characteristic parameter of photons, and it can be
used to calculate other photon parameters. The photon frequency is equivalent to its mass. Electromagnetic force
and energy conversion are common mechanisms of photon behavior.

3.3. Photon orbit and blackbody radiation

As charged particles, photons have zero potential (equivalent to in vacuum) initial velocities c− and c+ . When a
photon enters the gravitational field, its speed increases, and it can move on the orbit that meets the force balance
condition, just as it is stored on the shelf.
The negative photon orbit Rp movement outside the nucleus is taken as an example for analysis and calculation.
qo is the photon charge, m o is the photon mass, po is the photon magnetic moment, ro is the photon radius, B is the
orbit magnetic field, Rp is the orbital radius, pp is the nucleus magnetic moment (only the proton magnetic moment
is considered to simplify the process), and re is the electron radius. The orbital motion must satisfy the force balance
condition, that is, the combination of the inertial force Fm , velocity magnetic force Fv , magnetic moment magnetic
force Fp , and electric force FQ is zero, (22), where Fp and FQ participate in the work.
∑
F = FQ + F p + Fv − Fm = 0 (22)
The initial photon velocity is a constant with zero potential.
eqo
c− 2 = = c2
4π ε0re m o
When the negative photon enters the positive potential region, its velocity Vo (kinetic energy) increases, Vo > c.
Let Vo 2 = c2 + ∆v 2 , then:
1 1 (
m o Vo 2 = m o c2 + ∆v 2 .
)
2 2
In the process of photon acceleration, the electric and magnetic moment forces have the same direction and
participate in the work of photon acceleration together. To simplify the analysis, we first considered the electric
force to work alone. The increased photon kinetic energy is due to the change in the electric potential. The potential
energy Z eqo /8π ε0 Rp is described by the photon orbital radius Rp outside the nucleus with atomic number Z . The
increase in photon kinetic energy is equal to the change in the potential energy.
Z eqo
∆v 2 =
4π ε0 m o R p
(not counting magnetic force to perform work)
The increase in photon kinetic energy leads to an increase in inertial force m o ∆v 2 /Rp , given by:
∆v 2 Z eqo
mo = = FQ
Rp 4π ε0 R p 2
(not counting magnetic force to perform work).
Because the magnetic moment work is basically the same as the electric work, according to the result of the
integration of electric and magnetic moment work in the range of ∞ ∼ RP , the magnetic moment work was
calculated and the relationship in (23) was obtained.
∆v 2
mo = FQ + 0.5Fp (23)
Rp
Therefore,
m o Vo 2 m o ∆v 2 m o c2
Fm − FQ − Fp = − − 0.5Fp = − 0.5Fp
Rp Rp Rp
Using Fm − FQ − Fp = Fv , we obtain:
m o c2
Fv = qo Vo B = − 0.5Fp (24)
Rp
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The magnetic moment attraction force Fp and electric force FQ between the nucleus and photon are given by:
pp 2 po µ0 pp po Z eqo
Fp = µ0 = , FQ = ,
4π Rp 3 ro 2π Rp 3ro 4π ε0 Rp 2
Substituting into (23) gives:
Z eqo µ0 pp po Zre µ0 p p p o
∆v 2 = + = c2 + ,
4π ε0 m o Rp π Rp m o r o
2 R p π Rp 2 m o r o
µ0 p p p o
( )
Zre
Vo 2 = c2 + ∆v 2 = c2 1 + + .
Rp π Rp 2 m o r o
Substituting into (24) obtains:
)( )2 ( )2 ( )2
µ 2 2
µ
(
Zr e p p 0 p p p o q o p p m o c 0 p p p o
(qo Vo B)2 = c2 qo 2 1 + + = −
Rp 4π Rp 3 π Rp 2 m oro 4π Rp 3 Rp π Rp 3 r o
By substituting into qo /m o = e/m e , the orbital formula of the negative photon in the nuclear gravitational field
is obtained (25).
[( )2 ]
µ0 p o 2 pp µ0 po
)2 )2
c4 2c2 µ0 po 4
) ( ( (
6 ec 2 ec e
R p − R p + − R p − Zr e R p − = 0 (25)
pp 2 pp πm oro π m o ro 4π m e 4π m e π m oro 4π m e
From the orbital Eq. (25) of the negative photon in the nuclear gravitational field, the relationship between the
negative photon wavelength λ and its orbital radius Rp around the nucleus can be calculated, where qo is the photon
charge, m o is the photon mass, po is the photon magnetic moment, ro is the photon radius, pp is the nucleus magnetic
moment, and re is the electron radius. By solving the nonlinear equation, Fig. 4(a) and (b) were produced.
Similarly, the orbital radius Re of the positive photon around the electron can be calculated as:
[( )]
µ0 po 2 ec+ 2 ec+ 2
)2
c+ 4 6 2c+ 2 µ0 po 4 p m µ0 p o
) ( ( ) (
2 e
Re − Re + − Re −rp Re − = 0 (26)
pm 2 pm π m o r o πm oro 4π m p 4π m p πm oro 4π m p
Eq. (26) is the orbital formula for positive photons in the gravitational field of electrons. Here, the photon charge
is qo , photon mass is m o , photon magnetic moment is po , photon radius is ro , proton radius is rp , and electron
magnetic moment is pm . By solving the nonlinear equation, the corresponding orbital radius of the positive photons
can be calculated at a specific wavelength outside the electron (Fig. 4(c)).

Fig. 4. (a), (b) Negative photon wavelength λ and orbital radius Rp in the nuclear gravitational field; (c) Positive photon wavelength λ and
orbital radius Re around electron.

The calculation results shown in Fig. 4(a), (b), and (c) demonstrate that photons of different wavelengths are
distributed on different orbits. As the wavelength increases, the orbital radius increases. In the limited space of
atoms, short-wavelength ultraviolet light to electromagnetic waves above millimeters can be accommodated. As the
atomic number changes, the wavelengths corresponding to the same orbital radius significantly differ, reflecting the
unique spectral characteristics of different atoms. This type of orbital arrangement is of good order. The specific
orbital selection of photons (absorption) is also a steady-state force balance structure. Perhaps when the photon
is born, the different sizes are mixed, and after entering orbit, they are arranged strictly according to the size. As
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

the emitted photon enters the zero potential (equivalent to in vacuum) area, its speed is maintained as c, and the
fixed orbit can only emit photons of a fixed wavelength. This law of orbital variation with wavelength has the
same mechanism as the dispersion phenomenon, and it can be considered as a dispersion phenomenon. There is
a spatial repulsion between orbital photons, and the wavelength of photons outside the same nucleus cannot be
continuous. Any wavelength has a corresponding orbit, but there needs to be a gap between adjacent photon orbits
in the same atom, and the orbital photon wavelength of a large number of atoms of the same element must have
a slight dispersion. Therefore, the characteristic spectral lines of an atom should represent a small range of the
wavelength series.
The widespread phenomenon of atomic luminescence and the orbital flight of photons indicate that photons can
be stored in atoms. The luminescence of atomic orbital photons is different from the luminescence of particles
colliding strongly with each other to produce new photons, which may have different intensities and spectra.
Furthermore, temperature is closely related to the luminescence of the atom. It can be considered that the
temperature is the degree of excess photons in the matter (not yet entering the orbit). A high temperature indicates
that there are more photons outside the orbit of the material. Negative photon orbits and electron orbits exhibit
repulsive relationships. Negative photons that attempt to enter the orbits are easily scattered by electrons, causing
orbital electrons to slow down or accelerate. The decelerated electron orbit becomes smaller, and the accelerated
electron orbit becomes larger. The electron having reduced orbit excites the negative orbital photons, producing
blackbody radiation. Each atom in the material is in a balanced position under the support of surrounding atoms,
and the nucleus oscillates away from its equilibrium position when it is impacted by the collision of excess negative
photons. The oscillation of the atomic nucleus changes its distance from the electron orbit, stimulating the emission
of negative photons, which also produces blackbody radiation. Therefore, blackbody radiation is the result of a
narrower distance between the atomic nucleus and electron orbit. After absorbing kinetic energy, nuclear oscillation
(including resonance) causes the emission of orbital photons and the escape of orbital electrons.
Among a large number of atoms, the distance between the nucleus and the electron orbit is scattered, some are
in a balanced position, and some deviate from the balanced position. The amplitude of the nucleus deviating from
the equilibrium position is distributed. The largest number of atoms deviating from a certain amplitude corresponds
to the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation spectrum, and the maximum deviation amplitude corresponds
to the minimum wavelength of the blackbody radiation. As the temperature of the material increases, the deviation
amplitude increases, orbital photon radiation with a shorter wavelength is generated, and the peak wavelength of
the blackbody radiation spectrum decreases.
Excess negative photons are continuously scattered between atoms, including collisions with atomic nuclei,
finding suitable orbits, choosing between atoms continuously, orbiting absorbing photons, and emitting photons
at the same time until dynamic thermal equilibrium is reached. The amount of excess photons in the material
reduces, the spacing dispersion between the atomic nucleus and the electron orbit reduces, and the temperature of
the material is reduced.
It is speculated that atomic luminescence occurs from two main mechanisms: one is that particles with opposite
electrical properties collide with each other to produce new photons, including negative photons and positive
photons. The other is the excitation of orbital photons (including the scattering of photons outside the orbit). The
accelerated motion of free electrons causes positive photon radiation in its outer orbit (bremsstrahlung radiation),
but the orbital electrons inside the atom almost deplete its orbital positive photons that meet the radiation conditions.
The change in the atomic number affects the orbital distribution of positive and negative photons, forming atomic
characteristic lines. The difference in the orbits of electrons inside atoms leads to different positive photon
characteristic lines. The edge of the photon orbit corresponds to the characteristic spectral line.
The interaction between charged particles and atoms produces new particle fragmentation (photons) and complex
processes, such as the emission of orbital photons and the escape of orbital electrons. The impact of positive photons
on electrons emits long-wavelength photons (electromagnetic wave) near outer edge of track. The oscillation speed
of the nucleus is relatively slow compared to the photon speed. It can accumulate the energy of a large number of
low-energy negative photons and continue to increase the magnitude based on the current amplitude (temperature-
dependent) to emit higher energy photons. Laser cooling can be understood as the result of orbital photons being
overexcited because the nucleus absorbs a large amount of kinetic energy. The oscillating nucleus is like a swing,
and its kinetic energy absorption will be significantly affected by the excitation frequency.
Positive photons can fly on the orbit around electrons, and the luminescence mechanisms of positive photons
and negative photons will differ. The small-wavelength positive photons have a large mass and are difficult to be
captured (absorbed) by the outer orbit of electrons, and their penetrating ability is stronger.
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

4. Polarization of light
The photon polarization characteristic originates from the spatially unique direction of each photon magnetic
moment, and the direction of the magnetic moment tends to be perpendicular to the direction of the speed of light.
A large number of photons with different magnetic moment directions can be mixed to form elliptically polarized
light.
Such polarization property inevitably leads to optical rotation under external magnetic field.
Photons are charged particles that move at high speed, which creates centripetal rotation in the magnetic field,
⃗ v ⊥ B.
and F⊥⃗ ⃗ The direction of the magnetic moment during the photon movement will be reversed by the external
magnetic field to the direction of the external magnetic field (acting like a small magnetic needle), so the direction of
the magnetic moment of the photon tends to be perpendicular to the direction of motion, as in Fig. 5, demonstrating
the inherent polarization characteristics.

Fig. 5. Polarization characteristics of negative photons, the red arrow indicates the spin magnetic moment direction.. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

The effect of the magnetic force is different from that of the electrostatic force because the charge-to-mass ratio
of all negative photons is equal, and the electrostatic potential has the same effect on the speed of negative photons at
different wavelengths, so the refractive index derived from electricity has nothing to do with wavelength. However,
the photon magnetic moment has a nonlinear relationship with its mass or wavelength. The spin magnetic moments
of photons at different wavelengths have different effects on the refractive index, which is the internal cause of the
photon dispersion phenomenon. (For details, see Section 3.3 derivation of formulas for electric work and magnetic
work.)

5. Photon reflection and refraction

Under the effect of the gravitational and repulsive fields in an atom, the movement direction of the photon
changes.

Fig. 6. Coexistence of reflection and refraction: reflection of negative photons in repulsive field (left), negative photon refraction in
gravitational field, positive photon refraction (actually scattering) in repulsion field (right).

Matter is composed of atoms. The potential distribution inside an atom is extremely uneven, and the potential
distributions on the surface and inside a substance are extremely uneven at the subatomic scale. The reason why
both reflection and transmission coexist is precisely due to the uneven distribution of the electric potential of the
material (subatomic scale), the area with gravitational field, and the area with repulsive field, as shown in Fig. 6,
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

U2 > 0 or U2 < 0. Negative photons are transmitted (refracted) in the region of positive potential near the center
of the atom and reflected (scattered) in the region where the negative potential is large enough around the electron.
The reflection and refraction of positive photons are different. The Compton effect occurs when the angle of
incidence is zero. Electrons can cause refraction of positive photons. Because the potential field of electrons in
atoms is scattered, the regular refraction pattern is not strong. The nucleus can reflect positive photons, but it is
surrounded by electrons, and reflection intensity is lower.

5.1. Photon reflection

When a negative photon enters a region of negative potential energy equal to its kinetic energy, its velocity drops
to zero, and then it is emitted back by the potential energy. This is a negative photon reflection. Positive photons
can be reflected by protons, involving complex atomic structures, and electrons are located on the periphery of the
atoms, resulting in different reflections of positive photons.
The reflection behavior of the negative photons is the result of their interaction with electrons. Regardless of
the influences of magnetic force and Lorentz force, the electric force does work and obeys the law of conservation
of energy. Photons are reflected by the conversion of kinetic energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy. Fig. 6
shows that due to the incident angle θi , the kinetic energy movement to the surface of the medium (electrons) is
only a component of the total kinetic energy of the photon m o c− 2 /2. This component m o c− 2 cos2 θi /2 reduces to
make the reflection easier, which is equivalent to the increase in the reflection cross-sectional area of electrons.
The coefficient corresponding to the increase in the radius R (θi ) of the reflecting circle is 1/ cos2 θi (Eq. (28)), the
coefficient of increasing the reflection area is 1/ cos4 θi , and the reflectivity r (θi ) has a definite relationship with
the incident angle θi , which is derived as follows.
The speed of light c− in the zero-potential region is constant (27).
1 eqo
m o c− 2 = (27)
2 8π ϵ0re
The change in the incidence angle θi is related to the electron reflection radius R (θi ) (28).
1 eqo
m o c− 2 cos2 θi = (28)
2 8π ϵ0 R (θi )
The photon’s magnetic attraction and electrostatic force (corresponding to the potential-related refractive index)
( 2 Let the)2magnetic influence coefficient equivalent to cos θi be Rm , R (θi ) ∼ 1/(cos θi +
2 2
jointly affect the reflection.
Rm ), and r (θi ) ∼ 1/ cos θi + Rm .
Substituting r (0) = (n 2 − n 1 )2 / (n 2 + n 1 )2 , we obtained (29):
(1 + Rm )2 (n 2 − n 1 )2
r (θi ) = ( )2 (29)
cos2 θi + Rm (n 2 + n 1 )2
To compare with the existing physical laws, the two reflection coefficients related to the refractive index and
incidence angle are given in Fig. 7, taking the experience value Rm = 0.265 (according to the reflectivity of
632 nm laser at the air–water interface).
Fig. 7 shows that the effects of the refractive index and incident angle on the reflection coefficient are significantly
different. Combined with the results of existing physical experiments, it can be considered that the reflectance of
S-light is mainly affected by the incident angle and fixed refractive index, while the reflectance of P-light is affected
by the incident angle and changing refractive index. The refractive index of the material changes with the photon’s
magnetic moment (wavelength) (see Section 5.2 for details), and similarly changes with the P light incident angle
(the direction of the magnetic moment). Fig. 7(a), at n 2 /n 1 = 1, the reflectivity of P light is zero (it should be a tiny
value greater than zero, because the atomic radius is 24 000 times larger than the electron radius), and the incident
angle is Brewster’s angle. It is speculated that in this incident direction and magnetic moment direction, P photons
are most likely to enter the refraction track. When the photon in a medium of higher index of refraction approaches
the other medium, the normal velocity component of the refracted photon will decelerate. As the angle of incidence
increases, when the normal velocity tends to zero, the photon flies to the negative potential area, resulting in total
reflection. The refracted photon is transformed into a reflected photon, and the photon trajectory has a particularity;
total reflection occurs.
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

Fig. 7. Relationship between reflection coefficient and refractive index and incident angle.

The reflection angle θr is determined by the ratio of the photon velocity components in the two directions. When
the photon enters the repulsive field and returns to the original potential area, regardless of the light speed shift,
the velocity component amplitude in both directions remains almost unchanged. The reflection angle is equal to the
incident angle (30).
θr = θi (30)
Negative photons use electrons as reflection targets, while positive photons use atomic nuclei as reflection
targets. The electron and nucleus have different peripheral potential fields, motion modes, and spatial distributions.
Therefore, the reflection characteristics of the positive and negative photons are different. As a reflective target,
compared with electrons, atomic nuclei have smaller linear velocity and smaller position change; thus, positive
photon reflection optical imaging has advantages. People try to reduce geometric aberrations and make continuous
progress, but diffraction spots severely limit this effort. Therefore, reducing the impact of diffraction on imaging is
an important way to improve observation and lithography capabilities, and positive photon reflection imaging may
have application potential.

5.2. Photon refraction

When photons enter the electromagnetic gravitational field and escape, their direction of movement changes with
strong consistency, that is, photon refraction. Edge diffraction also occurs due to the change of photon direction,
which is clearly affected by the gravitational field, and can be regarded as a special refraction.
Refractive index convention: when a photon passes from one medium into another, if θi is the angle of incidence
of photons in vacuum and θt is the angle of refraction, the refractive index n is defined as the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction, specifically, n = sin θi /sin θt . The refractive index is
also equal to the velocity v of a photon of a given wavelength in a substance divided by its velocity c in empty
space, n = v/c (not n = c/v, due to v > c), (31), (32).
The forces that cause a change in the direction (momentum) of the photon include the electric and magnetic
forces. After the photon enters the equipotential field before the incident, although the overall work of the electric
force and magnetic force is close to zero, the flight trajectory of the photon changes. Because the photon wavelength
determines its magnetic moment, magnetic force has a nonlinear relationship with photon wavelength. The electric
force contributes to refraction, without considering the influence of the magnetic force, and the formula for the
refractive index of the electric force can be derived.
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

In the positive electric field near the nucleus, U2 > 0, photon refraction occurs, and positive and negative photons
behave differently. In Fig. 6, the relative refractive index of the material is n, the corresponding negative photons
and positive photons are n − and n + , the negative photon incidence speed is c− , the transmission negative photon
speed is c−t , the positive photon incidence speed is c+ , the velocity of the transmitted positive photon is c+t (it is
not true refraction for positive photons, but conventional understanding is still used here), the charge of the photon
is qo , the mass is m o , the electron mass is m e , the proton mass is m p , and the positive potential in the transmission
area is U (U2 in Fig. 6); thus, c−t > c− and c+t < c+ .
sin θi
n= = v/c (31)
sin θt
c−t = n − c− , c+t = n + c+ (32)
,
Upon entering the region of positive potential, the kinetic energy of the negative photons increases (33).
1 ( 2
m o c−t − c− 2 = U qo
)
(33)
2
When entering the positive potential region, the positive photon kinetic energy decreases (34).
1 ( 2
m o c+ − c+t 2 = U qo
)
(34)
2
The electrical refractive indexes of negative photons and positive photons can be obtained as follows, respectively:
2U qo 2U e
n−2 = 1 + 2
=1+ (35)
m o c− m e c− 2
2U qo 2U e
n+2 = 1 − =1− (36)
m o c+ 2 m p c+ 2

Fig. 8. Calculated negative and positive photon electrical refraction indexes under the condition of 0–360 kV potential.
The electrical refractive index curves of the positive and negative photons were calculated using Eqs. (35) and
(36), and are shown in Fig. 8. Using 0–360 kV as the hypothetical potential, which is lower than the proton surface
potential, the calculated value of the proton surface potential is 1728.649 kV.
The refractive index of X-rays is slightly less than 1.0, due to c+t < c+ . The equation n = v/c in this case
indicates that the velocity of X-rays is smaller than its velocity in empty space.
The above refractive index does not consider the influence of the wavelength-dependent magnetic moment force;
therefore, it needs to be corrected. Let the contributions of the magnetic moment to the refractive indexes of the
negative and positive photons be n (λ− ) and n (λ+ ), respectively. The force between the magnetic moments always
tends to be gravitational, so the total refractive indexes n N and n P of negative and positive photons, respectively,
can be expressed as (37), which is only a qualitative description, and quantitative results require photon trajectory
calculations. The definition of the existing refractive index is apparently incomplete because it does not include the
anisotropy of the material, the change in the photon polarization direction, and the angle of incidence. The material
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

and wavelength are the main influencing factors, and it can be considered that the refractive index of the photon is
significantly related to its orbital radius.
n N = n − + n (λ− ) , n P = n + + n (λ+ ) (37)
The above calculation shows that the electrical refractive indexes of negative and positive photons are very
different, and the refractive index of positive photons n + < 1, which is consistent with the experimental results.
This extreme refractive index contrast of positive and negative photons indicates that their momentum changes in
the opposite direction when they are refracted; therefore, X-rays are positive photons. For the same reason, the total
reflection of positive and negative photons appears as distinct external reflection and internal reflection, respectively.
There is a dispersion phenomenon in the refraction of photons, which is caused by the magnetic moment
characteristics of photons. Similar to the photon orbit flight mechanism described in Section 3.3, the refractive
index (trajectory) is significantly affected by the photon wavelength and material properties, and its calculation is
more complicated.

6. Photon wave phenomenon

A nucleus comprises protons and electrons. The density difference between them is approximately 70,000 times.
They are combined together, and the center of mass and the center of the overall charge may not coincide. The
nucleus has spin motion. In theory, the spin axis passes through the center of mass. When the charge center and
spin axis are eccentric, the charge distribution center fluctuates sinusoidally with the spin of the nucleus, resulting
in periodic fluctuation of the potential field in the atom.
In addition to the nuclear rotation ωn , the electric field fluctuation of electrons inside the atom also has a similar
effect. Because the orbital electrons rotate relative to the atomic nucleus, as shown in Fig. 9, the electromagnetic field
caused by the electrons changes with the angular position of the electron rotation ωe , so the electromagnetic field
fluctuates periodically. In general, the periodic fluctuating electromagnetic potential field inside the atom persists
over a wide range, and the superposition of various factors produces a fluctuating influence, which is the internal
reason for the photon wave performance. The influence of the fluctuating electromagnetic field on the reflection
and refraction of photons is different, and it is related to optical imaging, hence is worthy of in-depth study.

Fig. 9. (a) Atomic wave electromagnetic field; (b) Calculated three-dimensional electric equipotential line.

The wave electromagnetic potential field U inside the atom can be expressed as (38), where ω is the angular
velocity of the wave potential field.
U = sin ωt (38)
As a charged particle, the photon’s movement trajectory (refraction) will be affected by this wave potential field
U , resulting in a corresponding change in the direction and position y (U ) = y (sin ωt). To simplify the description,
consider y (U ) as a simple linear relationship, y (U ) ∝ U = sin ωt, which yields Eq. (39). The time integral I (y) of
y (U ) is the geometric distribution of a large number of photons, as shown in Fig. 10. The light intensity I (y) is a
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

Fig. 10. Time-integrated distribution of photons across the wave potential field forms diffraction spot.

simple diffraction distribution that represents the formation mechanism of the photon diffraction wave phenomenon.

ωt
∫
I (y) ∝ sin ωtdωt = 2 sin2 (39)
2
The diffraction spot width is unrelated to the fluctuation period of the potential field, but is affected by the
fluctuation amplitude of the electromagnetic potential field. If the orbiting electron is the main factor in the amplitude
fluctuation of the potential field, the diffraction spot of the photons near the electron orbit is wider. For large-
wavelength negative photons, the refractive index is lower and the electron orbit is closer (farther from the nucleus),
so the diffraction spot width is larger; for the same reason, the short-wavelength photons have narrower diffraction
spot.
The formation of the abovementioned particle diffraction spot is the result of the merging time integral of the
influence of the periodic wave potential field on the trajectory of the photon flow. This constitutes the basis of all
light diffraction. The superposition of existing diffraction spots on each other to generate new diffraction spot is a
general phenomenon of light diffraction. Therefore, it is not surprising that single-photon interference forms fringes,
and there is no need for some nonexistent agreement between photons. The single-photon interference phenomenon
also proves that the photon wave originates from the electromagnetic field fluctuation in the optical path. The photon
is not a wave, but it shows the characteristics of a wave under the influence of the wave potential field.

Fig. 11. Comparison of light intensity distribution between two-wavelength photon flight and dual-frequency light wave beat frequency.

The photon (particle) behavior exhibits a wave phenomenon in a statistical sense, which can produce interference
fringes, or it can be manifested as wave propagation, which is consistent with the existing wave theory. The photons
arranged along the flight direction are like waves propagating in space, exhibiting periodic fluctuations in amplitude
and specific wavelengths.
An explanation of the beating phenomenon of dual-frequency lasers is shown in Fig. 11, where photons (particles)
are represented by the round spots, and light waves are represented by the harmonic curves. Photons are periodically
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

arranged in the flight direction, similar to the propagation of light waves. Different wavelengths λ1 and λ2 are mixed
together, causing the photon number distribution period (beat frequency) to change. This beat frequency period is
much larger than the period of a single wavelength, so that photocells with insufficient time and space resolution
can detect it. The beat frequency travels at the speed of light and has a time period and space period. This is the
basis for the use of the Doppler effect in integrating the movement speed to measure the change in length.
For two beams of photons with the same wavelength, the interference fringes are easier to be observed, because
their locations do not change over time. Interference fringes are equivalent to the regular distribution of particles
(energy) in space and time.

7. Conclusion
Experiments have confirmed the wave phenomenon of particles. Considering the widespread existence and
interaction of electrons and protons, as well as Coulomb’s law, Newton’s law of motion, and the law of conservation
of energy, the hypothesis that electrons and protons act strongly to generate photons is proposed, and the following
conclusions were drawn.
In the zero-potential (equivalent to in vacuum) region, the negative photon velocity is equal to the optical constant
c, and there is a huge difference between the positive photon velocity and the light velocity constant. The intrinsic
nature of photons includes photon velocity, photon mass, photon charge, fixed charge-to-mass ratio, and photon
spin magnetic moment. The photon magnetic moment has a certain nonlinear relationship with the wavelength;
and the product of photon velocity, mass, and wavelength is constant 2h; the essence of photon energy is kinetic
energy. Between the flying photons, there is spacing of an electromagnetic force balance, wavelength. Photons have
energy and are also media that transfer energy at the speed of light. Charged photons participate in the macroscopic
conduction process, which is why the conduction speed is a constant of the light speed. Electromagnetic waves
have the same physical properties as photons and are a group of negative photons with a smaller volume.
Photons are deposited into orbits inside the atoms in a balanced manner by electromagnetic and inertial forces.
Negative photons orbit the nucleus and positive photons orbit the electrons. The specific orbits of specific atoms
correspond to photons of a certain wavelength. High-energy, short-wavelength photons have smaller orbital radii.
The equilibrium position of the electron orbit and the atomic nucleus changes dynamically due to the impact of
charged particles, and the photon orbit is interfered with by the nucleus or electrons to cause orbital photon emission.
The impact of particles on the nucleus or orbital electrons can cause orbital electrons to escape. The interaction
between photons and atoms results in blackbody radiation.
The effect of the charged spin photon, and the uneven and fluctuating potential field of the atom are the internal
mechanisms of all optical phenomena. Macroscopic phenomena include reflection, refraction, scattering, collision,
absorption, interference fringes, diffraction, polarization, and optical rotation. The main factors affecting these
macroscopic optical phenomena include:
(1) Positive or negative photons. The behavior of positive and negative photons varies greatly. X-ray is a positive
photon;
(2) Photon wavelength and magnetic moment, leading to refracted dispersion and orbital dispersion. The
diffraction spot width is positively correlated with the wavelength;
(3) Gravitational field or repulsion field: scattering (reflection) occurs only in the repulsion field, and refraction,
collision, and absorption only occur in the gravitational field. Scattering of the repulsion field causes the photon
speed shift;
(4) Nonuniform field and structural characteristics within the atom: electrons are located at the periphery of
the atom, with strong reflection laws for the negative photon. The central location of the nucleus increases the
significance of the refraction phenomena, and the mechanism of refraction for positive and negative photons remains
the same. The scattered electrons in the atoms make the refraction of positive photons less obvious;
(5) Periodic fluctuation of the internal potential field of the atom, which is the internal cause of various diffraction
phenomena;
(6) Incident angle of the photons, which significantly affects the reflectivity and photon speed shift.
Very different electrons and protons form atoms, and the microscopic potential field of the material is not uniform
at the subatomic scale, resulting in the coexistence of photon reflection and refraction in transparent materials and
the Compton effect. The scattering or reflection in the repulsive field causes the loss of photon kinetic energy (light
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D. Yuan and Q. Liu Energy Reports 8 (2022) 22–42

speed shift), and the reflection and refraction behaviors of negative and positive photons are very different. Edge
diffraction is a special case of refraction.
A dispersion includes the photon refractive index and the photon orbital radius changing with photon wavelength.
The difference in the magnetic moment of photons of different wavelengths is the main reason for the dispersion
phenomenon.
Photons are the key carrier and transmission tools of energy. They have kinetic energy that originates from the
potential energy of the electrons or protons. The generation of new photons (the collision of positive and negative
particles) and the release of deposit photons can inspire the acquisition and utilization of energy.
It is believed that the physical model of photon charging conforms to the existing physical laws. Understanding
the nature of photons will help new developments in energy utilization and measurement technologies.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the following funds, Science Challenging Project, China No. TZ2018006-0205;
Presidential Foundation of CAEP, China No. YZJJLX2017007; Natural Science Foundation of China No. 51605454.

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