Senpai’s Last Minute Desperate Notes (Totally Not Copyrighted)

1 Physical quantities and units

1.1 Physical quantities

• Physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit

• Eg. When you are driving, the speedometer shows the speed as 120 km/h. The
physical unit here is speed, with 120 being the numerical magnitude and km/h
being the unit.

1.2 SI units

• Note that the units used in the example above is not in SI. If we were to
convert both the magnitude and units to SI, the speed would then be 33.3 m/s.
• SI unit is a system of measurement that is used and recognized in most
countries (except US…)
• SI units can be categorized into two types; based and derived.
• There are seven base units:
• Derived units are derived from the seven based units (think of base units as
LegoTM blocks and derived units as the castle/ ship/ car/ phone holder you are
trying to make)
• Using the eg. above again, m/s is a derived SI unit since it is derived from both
the base unit for length (or distance) (metre) and time (seconds).
• Speed is defined by the equation:
speed = distance ÷ time
speed = metres ÷ seconds
Therefore, the SI units for Speed is metres / second (ms-1)
• You can use SI base units to check for the homogeneity of an equation.
• What this means is that for an equation, the units on the “left side” of an equal
sign must be the same as the units on the “right side”
• Eg. from the kinematics equation v = u + gt
v = m/s
u = m/s
g = m/s2
t=s

“left hand side” = v = ms-1

“right hand side” = u + gt = ms-1 + ms-2x s = ms-1
Since “left hand side” = “right hand side” the equation in homogenous

• Some important prefixes can be used to shorten large numbers or units for
• Eg. 100000 metres can be simplified with the prefix kilo- to 100 kilometres
(100 km)
• Some important prefixes are shown below:
1.3 Errors and uncertainties

• When measuring anything, it is usually difficult to get accurate results due to

there always being a degree of uncertainty.
• The cause for this uncertainty is errors.
• The two types of common errors are
1) Random errors: Cause by fluctuations in an instrument due to unknown and
unpredictable changes in an experiment.
Eg. electrical noise in the circuit, heat loss due in a solar collector due to
wind
2) Systematic errors: From faulty instruments or from wrong techniques used
in measurement.
Eg. when using a weighing scale that doesn’t show 0 grams before anything is
placed on top.
• An instrument is said to be accurate if the values measured is close to the true
value.
• An instrument is said to be precise if the values measured are close to each
other when taking repeated measurements.
• An illustration showing accuracy and precision is shown below:

• Uncertainty is the difference between an actual reading and the true value.
• Uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true
value is expected to lie.
• Eg. the true value of the mass of a bottle is 100 g. But when measured on a
weighing scale, the reading gives 105 g, the uncertainty can therefore be read
as ± 5 g
• To find uncertainties in different situations:
Uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
Uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
Uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest – smallest value)
Uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise
quoted
• These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the
measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the
measurement
• Eg.

The absolute uncertainty would be 0.5 x 1 OC = 0.5 OC

T = 33 ± 0.5 OC
The fractional uncertainty would be 0.5/33 = 1/66 OC
T = 33 ± 1/66 OC
The percentage uncertainty would be 1/66 x 100% = 1.5% OC
T = 33 ± 1.5% OC
• Uncertainties can be combined following several rules:
• When adding / subtracting data – add the absolute uncertainties
• When multiplying / dividing data – add the fractional uncertainties
• When raising to a power – multiply the absolute certainty by the power
1.4 Scalars and vectors

• A scalar is a quantity which only has a magnitude

• Eg. speed, mass, time and distance
• A vector is a quantity with both a magnitude and direction
• Eg. velocity, acceleration, weight, and displacement
• If you want to know if a unit is a scalar or vector try putting a negative infront
of it!
• Eg. for eg. you cannot put a minus sign in front of mass because there is no
negative mass! (yet)
• In A-levels, you need to know how to combine vectors. You probably already
learned this in add maths or SPM physics.
• Here’s a refresher:
Adding vectors

Triangle Method

Parallelogram Method

Vectors in equilibrium
Resolving vectors in vertical and horizontal components
2 Kinematics

2.1 Equations of motion

• Speed is the total distance travelled per unit time (ms-1)

• Since distance is a scalar, speed is a scalar
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement of an object (ms-1)
• Since displacement is a vector, velocity is a vector
𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡
v is the speed, s is the displacement and t is the time taken
Note: In velocity the positive/ negative sign indicates direction.

• Example

5 m/s

5 m/s

Speed of top arrow: 5 ms-1

Velocity of top arrow: -5 ms-1
Speed of bottom arrow: 5 ms-1
Velocity of bottom arrow: 5 ms-1

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object (ms-2)

• Acceleration is a vector.
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
• There are three types of motion graphs to represent displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
• The three graphs are displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and
acceleration-time graphs
• You most likely learned the first two graphs in IGCSE or SPM

Displacement-time graphs

• slope equals velocity

• the y-intercept equals the initial displacement
• a straight line represents a constant velocity
• a curved line represents an acceleration
• a positive slope represents motion in the positive direction
• a negative slope represents motion in the negative direction
• a zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest
• the area under the curve is meaningless
 Velocity-time graphs

• slope equals acceleration

• the y-intercept equals the initial velocity
• a straight line represents uniform acceleration
• a curved line represents non-uniform acceleration
• a positive slope represents an increase in velocity in the positive direction
• a negative slope represents an increase in velocity in the negative direction
• a zero slope (horizontal line) represents motion with constant velocity
• the area under the curve equals the change in displacement

• On an acceleration-time graph…
• slope is meaningless
• the y-intercept equals the initial acceleration
• a zero slope (horizontal line) represents an object undergoing constant
acceleration
• the area under the curve equals the change in velocity
• Kinematic equations of motion are a set of four equations which can describe
any objects moving with constant acceleration
• The four equations are:

v = u + at
d = 0.5(v+u)t
d = ut + 0.5at2
v2=u2+2ad

For A-levels you must know how they are derived

• Below is a description of an experiment to determine acceleration of free fall
using a falling object
• Apparatus
Metre rule, ball bearing, electromagnet, electronic timer, trapdoor

• Method
When the current to the magnet switches off, the ball drops and the timer
starts.
When the ball hits the trapdoor, the timer stops.
The reading on the timer indicates the time it takes for the ball to fall a
distance, h.
This procedure is repeated several times for different values of h, in order to
reduce random error.
The distance, h, can be measured using a metre rule as it would be preferable to
use for distances between 20 cm – 1 m.

• Analysing data
The known quantities are
Displacement s = h
Time taken = t
Initial velocity u = 0
Acceleration a = g
The equation that links these quantities is
s = ut + ½ at2
h = ½ gt2
Using this equation, deduce g from the gradient of the graph of h against t2
• Sources of error
Systematic error: residue magnetism after the electromagnet is switched off
may cause the time to be recorded as longer than it should be
Random error: large uncertainty in distance from using a metre rule with a
precision of 1mm, or from parallax error

• For A-levels it is not sufficient to know about motion only in 1 dimension. The
candidate must be able to solve motion in 2 dimensions as well.
• An object undergoing projectile motion consists of 2 components; vertical and
horizontal.
• The key terms in solving projectile motion problems are
Time of flight: how long the projectile is in the air
Maximum height attained: The height at which the projectile is momentarily at
rest
Range: The horizontal distance travelled by the projectile
• From the diagram below, it can be inferred that to attain maximum range, the
optimal angle of flight is 450.
3 Dynamics

3.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion

• Mass is a physical quantity that measures the amount of matter in an object

• The SI unit for mass is kilograms (kg)
• Weight is a force
• Since it is a force, the SI unit for weight is Newtons (N)
• You can calculate a body’s weight (W) if you take the product of its mass (m)
with the acceleration of free fall (g).

W = mg

g is the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational field strength

on Earth, this 9.81 ms-2

• Free fall is falling solely under the influence of gravity.

• On Earth an object in free fall accelerates towards the Earth at 9.81 ms-2 if
air resistance is absent.
• Generally, the heavier the planet, the higher its free fall acceleration would be
and vice versa.
• This means while your mass will stay the same on Mars, your weight will much be
much lower!
• Newtons second law states that an object will accelerate (a) proportionally to
the resultant force (F) acting on the object and inversely proportional to its
mass (m)
F = ma

• Acceleration will always be in the same direction as the resultant force.

• The resultant force is the vector sum of all forces acting on the body
• The resultant could also be at an angle which can be determined by using
triangle or parallelogram method (Chapter 1.4).
• Newton’s First Law states that a body will remain at rest or move with constant
velocity unless acted on by an external force.
• Newton’s Third Law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will
exert a force on body A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.
• Linear momentum (p) is defined as the product of mass (m) and velocity (v)
p = mv
• The SI unit for momentum is kgms-1
• Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum on a body.

𝛥𝑝
𝐹=
𝛥𝑡
Here the change in momentum (𝛥𝑝) = pfinal - pinitial
3.2 Non-uniform motion

• Drag forces are forces acting on the opposite direction to an object moving
through a fluid
• Eg. friction and air resistance
• Drag forces increases ad the speed of the object increases
• Terminal velocity is reached when the force moving the object equals to the
drag force.
• The resultant force in this case is zero and acceleration is zero (constant
velocity)
• Eg. for a body in free fall, the only force acting is its weight and the
acceleration is g.
• The drag force increases as the velocity increases causing the acceleration of
the body to decrease.
• At some point, the drag force will equal the weight of the body and the
resultant force will be zero.
• The diagram below shows the velocity-time graph to describe the motion of a
skydiver
3.3 Linear momentum and its conservation

• The principal of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of

a system remains constant provided no external force acts to it.
• Or as I would like to say mom before = mom after
• You cannot change your mom
• External forces are forces that act on a body on the outside
• Eg. friction, weight, reaction, etc.
• Internal forces are forces exchanged by particles in the system.
• Eg. tension in a spring
• In A-levels the candidate must be able to solve collision problems in both one
and two dimensions for both elastic and inelastic collisions.
• Elastic collisions are collisions when two objects collide and they spring apart
conserving all of their kinetic energy.
• Inelastic collisions is one where the kinetic energy is not conserved.
• An easier way to remember which collision is elastic or inelastic is to remember
that inelastic collisions always result in both objects sticking together after
collision.
• The reason behind this is because during an inelastic collision, some kinetic
energy is used to deform both objects.

Principle of the Conservation of

Momentum

1-Dimension 2-Dimensions

Elastic Inelastic Elastic Inelastic

• An eg. of an elastic one-dimension collision is shown below

• An eg. of an inelastic one-dimension collisions is shown below

• An eg. of an elastic 2-D collision.

Chapter 4 Forces, density and pressure

4.1 Turning effects of forces

• The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the
object may be considered to act.
• A moment is the turning effect of a force
• Think of moments as a force that causes an object to rotate instead of moving
in a straight line
• The equation for moment is
Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from the pivot
• The SI unit for moment is Nm
4.2 Equilibrium of forces

• The principle of moment states that for a system to be balanced, the resultant clockwise
must be equal to zero
• Clockwise Moment = Counter Clockwise Moment
• Recall earlier that for a system to be in equilibrium it must satisfy two criteria:
1) The resultant force must be equal to zero
2) The resultant moment must be equal to zero

4.3 Density and pressure

• Density is the mass per unit volume of an object

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
• The SI unit for density is kg/m3
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
• The SI unit for pressure is N/m2 or Pa
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a
given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity
• The magnitude of the pressure depends on the depth (h) the object is
submerged in the fluid, the density of the fluid (𝜌) and the gravitational
acceleration (g)
• The equation of hydrostatic pressure is given by

𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝑔

• The derivation is shown below:

Rewrite the pressure formula in terms of ρ, h and g.

Hint 1 Write out the “original” pressure formula

Hint 2 What is the equation for weight (or force)?

Hint 3 Mass is equal to density x volume

Hint 4 Volume is equal to area x height of the fluid.

Hint 5 Assume both area are the same.

• You can measure pressure by using a manometer

When both arms are not connected to anything

When one arm is connected to a gas supply and the gas pressure > atmospheric
pressure

When one arm is connected to a gas supply and the gas pressure < atmospheric
pressure
 There are several steps in order to find pressure using a manometer.

Step 1 Draw equal pressure lines. Remember the pressure is only the same for
same
fluids.
Step 2 Draw arrows showing the direction of force caused by the weight of the
Fluids on the equal pressure lines.
Step 3 Write the relevant equations down.
Step 4 Solve the problem
• Don’t forget that
Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure (101325 Pa)
Try the problem below using the steps above:

Water
Mercury
h 10cm

The manometer consists of water and mercury. You are asked to find h.

Step 1 Draw equal pressure lines. Hint: It’s obvious this time.
Step 2 Draw arrows showing the direction of force caused by the
weight of the fluids
Hint: Both arms are exposed to the atmosphere
Step 3 Write the relevant equations down. Hint: P = hρg
Step 4 Solve the problem
• Upthrust is a force which pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid
• Think boat or submarine
• Another name for upthrust is buoyancy force
• Buoyancy is caused by the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top and
bottom of a submerge vessel

• Archimedes’ principle states that an object submerged in a fluid at rest has

an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
• An example is shown below
Chapter 5 Work, energy, and power

5.1 Energy conservation

• In physics, work (W) is the energy transferred to or from an object through the application
of force (F) along a displacement (d)

𝑊 = 𝐹 ×𝑑
• The SI units for work is in Joules
• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
But may transform from one type to another.
• E.g. work can be transformed to heat (friction!), electric to light.
• Not all energy transferred is useful. E.g. when transferring electric to light, some energy is
wasted in the form of heat!
• Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy output from the system to the total energy input

𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

• Power is the amount of energy (E), transferred per unit time

𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡

• The SI units for work is in Watt or Joules/ second.

• Moving power is defined by the equation

𝑃 =𝐹×𝑣

• This equation is used when a force is moving a body at a constant velocity

• Below is how you derive the equation

𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡
 Substitute E with

𝑊 = 𝐹 ×𝑑

𝐹 ×𝑑
𝑃=
𝑡

Recall d/t is velocity (Chapter 1). Therefore

𝑷 = 𝑭×𝒗

5.2 Gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy

• The change in Gravitational potential energy (∆E) is the energy stored in a mass (m) relative
to its position in a gravitational field (∆h)

𝛥𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝛥ℎ

Derivation
• Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy an object possesses due to its velocity.

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Derivation

Start with

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑑
(Chapter 1)

Assume initial velocity is 0 (u = 0) and rearranging

𝑣2
𝑎=
2𝑑

Recall F = ma (Chapter 2)

Substituting

𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑚( )
2𝑑
and finally, into the work equation

W = Fd

We have

𝑣2
𝑊 = 𝑚( )𝑑
2𝑑
Therefore

𝑣2
𝑊 = 𝑚( )
2
Or

𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
Chapter 6 Deformation of solids

6.1 Stress and strains

• Forces can deform an object.

• When an object is stretched by the force we say it is under a tensile load.
• When an object is compressed it is under compressive load.
• Recall when a tensile load is applied onto a spring, the spring will extend by x
amount.
• Below is a revision of the terminology used in IGCSE/ SPM for the force-
extension graph above.
• Hooke’s Law: Springs extend in proportion to loads, as long as they are under
their proportional limit.
• Limit of proportionality: Point and which load and extension are no longer
proportional.
• Elastic limit: Point at which spring will not return to its original shape even
after the load is removed.
• Spring constant k: The gradient of the graph is the spring constant which
measures the stiffness of the spring in Nm-1.
• A material obeys Hooke’s Law if its extension (x) is directly proportional to its
applied load (F).

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

• If we normalize the tensile and compressive load with the area (divide F with A),
we obtain the stress the object is under.

𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴

• Likewise, if we normalize extension (x) with the original length of the object (L)
we obtain its strain (ε).
𝑥
𝜀=
𝐿

• We can plot stress vs strain just like the way we did force vs extension
 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Likewise we can find the slope of the linear part of the curve (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛).
• The linear slope is called the Young’s Modulus (E) of the object.
• E also measures the stiffness of the object.
• The SI unit is in Pa.

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
• A description of an experiment to find Young’s Modulus.
6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour

• Elastic deformation is the deformation that occurs before the elastic limit.
• If you removed the load before this point, the object will remove to its original
shape.
• Plastic deformation is the deformation that occurs after the elastic limit.
• Load removal will not restore the object to its original shape.
• Recall that the area under a force-extension graph represents the work done to
deform the material.
• The work done is equal to the elastic potential energy stored in the object
(think spring).
• For an object that is deformed within the limit of proportionality (still linear),
the EPE can be found from
1
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹𝑥
2

or
1
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
7 Waves

7.1 Progressive waves

• Waves are created when particles oscillate or vibrate.

• Energy is transferred through these moving oscillations.
• You can represent waves on two types of plots:
1) Displacement-distance plot

Displacement (meters)
Wavelength, λ

Amplitude, A
Distance
(meters)

2) Displacement-time plot

Displacement (meters)
Period, T

Amplitude, A
Time
(seconds)

• Below are some terminology for waves:

• Amplitude, A: The maximum displacement from the original position. The SI unit
for amplitude is in meters.
• Wavelength, λ: The horizontal distance between two wave fronts. The SI unit
for wavelength is in meters
• Period, T: Time taken for the wave to complete a cycle or return to its original
displacement. The SI unit for periods is seconds.
• Frequency, f: The number of complete cycle’s in a second (How many times did
the wave go up, down and up again or down, up, and down again in 1 second). The SI
unit for frequency is hertz (Hz) OR seconds-1.
• Hence, relationship between frequency and period is

f= 1/T

• A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) can be used to display the waveform of

electrical signals.

• Below is an example of a CRO display with the x-axis being time and y-
axis being voltage

• The period of the wave can be determined from the time based (how
many seconds each box represents usually measured in s cm-1)
Worked example

Assuming from the diagram above each cm represent 1 second, find the
frequency of the wave
• Wave equation is given by

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Here v is the speed of the wave, f is the frequency of the wave and λ is the
wavelength of the wave

Derivation for the equation above

• Progressive waves transfer energy.

• The amount of energy passing per unit time (P) through a unit of area (A) is the
intensity, I of the wave
𝑃
𝐼=
𝐴

• The area the wave passes through is perpendicular to the direction of its
velocity
• The intensity of a progressive wave is also proportional to its amplitude squared
and frequency squared

𝑰 ∝ 𝑨𝟐

𝑰 ∝ 𝒇𝟐
7.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves

• Transverse waves are waves where the particles vibrate perpendicular along the
lines of motions and consists of a series of “crest” and “troughs”.
• Examples include electromagnetic waves, water ripples and vibration on a guitar
string.
• Longitudinal waves are waves where the particles vibrate along the lines of
motion and consist of a series of compression and expansions (rarefractions).
• Examples include sound waves.
• Visual and graphical representation of transverse waves

• Visual and graphical representation of longitudinal waves

7.3 Doppler effect for sound waves

• The sound of a siren changes as it moves closer or further from you.

• This phenomenon is due to the doppler effect.
• When the observer and the source sound are both stationary, the waves are at
the same frequency for both observer and source.

• Here f’ is the observed frequency, f is the frequency from the source, V is the
wave velocity and Vs is the source velocity.
7.4 Electromagnetic spectrum

• Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.

• It consists of electric field and magnetic field components.
• It can propagate without the need of a medium to carry them unlike mechanical
waves.
• The speed that electromagnetic waves travel at is 3x108 ms-1
• If this number seems familiar it’s because that’s the speed of light. Light is a
wave or more specifically an electromagnetic wave.
• There are 7 types of waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.
7.5 Polarisation

• Only transverse waves can be polarized.

• Polarization means that vibrations are restricted to one direction.
• Waves can be polarised through a polariser or polarising filter.
• Example polaroid sunglasses.
• Polarising a wave reduces its amplitude.
• Malus’ Law is used to find the intensity of light after passing through a number
of filters.

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

Here I is the remaining intensity (W m-2), I0 is the original intensity, θ is the

angle between polarised light and transmission axis (degrees)
Chapter 8 Superposition

8.1 Stationary waves

• The principle of superposition states then who two opposing waves with the
same frequency overlap, the resultant displacement is the sum of the amplitude
of each wave.
• Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase and both
opposing waves have the same frequency and amplitude.

• Destructive interference occurs when the waves with the same frequency are
in anti-phase and the peak of one wave coincides with the trough of the other.
• Stationary waves are produced by the superposition of two opposing waves of
the same frequency and amplitude.
• Usually produced by a travelling wave and its reflection.
• Produces a wave there the peaks and troughs do not move.

• Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound

waves. E.g. guitars.

• Standing waves can be created by microwaves as well.

• Stationary waves can form inside an air column through sound waves. E.g. organs.

• A stationary wave consists of nodes and antinodes.

• Nodes are where there is no vibration.
• Antinodes is where amplitude is at a maximum.
• Unlike a normal wave antinodes and nodes do not move from their position (see
gif above)

• Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of

the vibration. In AS, you will need to know how to measure the wavelength for
two fixed ends and one or two open ends in air column.
8.2 Diffraction

• Waves spread out when it passes through an opening or an edge.

• This phenomenon is called diffraction.
• Diffraction results in the waves having reduced amplitude.
• The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared with the
wavelength of the waves.

• Ripple tanks is a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water waves

• Here’s a good video on Youtube to watch the experiment!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKne0XydXVU&list=PLkFn4UxH72Z-iRqb1C-
6573pthmbU8vwF&index=10&t=2s&ab_channel=kamalWafi
8.3 Interference

• Interference occurs when waves overlap and their resultant displacement is the
sum of the displacement of each wave.
• Based on the principle of superposition, the resultant waves may be smaller or
larger than either two individual waves:
i) Waves that are in phase causes constructive interference

ii) Waves that are in anti-phase causes destructive interference

• Waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and constant phase
difference.
• Two-source interference can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks.
• Laser through two slits can also form interference patterns.

• For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of wave must

be coherent and monochromatic (single wavelength).

• For constructive interference (maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be an

integer number of whole wavelengths.
• For destructive interference (minima) it will be an integer number of whole
wavelengths plus a half wavelength.
• Young’s Double Slit experiment demonstrates how light waves produced an
interference pattern.

• Since both diffracted light are coherent they will create an observable
interference pattern made up of bright (constructive) and dark fringes
(destructive).
• The distance between two successive antinodal lines or nodal lines can be
calculated using:

𝑎𝑥
𝜆=
𝐷

• Where x is the distance between two successive lines, a is distance between two
coherent sources of waves and D is the distance from the waves sources to the
line
8.4 The diffraction grating

• A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel,

identical, close-spaced slits.
• The angles at which maxima of intensity are produced, can be deduced by the
diffraction grating equation

ⅆ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) = 𝒏𝝀

• The wavelength of light can be determined by rearranging the grating equation

ⅆ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜆=
𝑛

• We can find θ by using

ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐷
Chapter 9 Electricity

9.1 Electric current

• Electrical charge, Q consist of either ‘+’ or ‘-’ charge.

• The SI unit for charge is in coulomb.
• Like charges repel each other while opposite charges attract.
• Electrons and protons are the cause of the charge. Remember that electrons are
negatively charged while protons are positively charged.
• Each electron has a charge of -1.6x10-19 C while each proton has a charge of
1.6x10-19 C.
• In a conductor, current is due to the movement of charge carriers.
• Current, I is defined as the rate of charge flow in a conductor

𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡

• Where I is the electric current measured in ampere (A), Q is the charge (C) and t
is the time is seconds.
• Note: The current always flows in the opposite direction of the electron.
• The drift speed (v) is the average speed the charge carriers are travelling through
the conductor.
• Current can also be expressed in terms of the drift speed (v), the number of
density (number of charge carriers per unit volume, n) and the charge of the
carriers (q)

I = Anvq
9.2 Potential difference and power

• Potential difference is defined as the work done to transfer one unit of charge
across two points of different potential (charge).

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄

• Here V is the potential difference in volts (V), W is the work done in joules and Q
is the charge in coulombs.
• Recall that power is the rate of work done or rate of energy transferred i.e.

𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡

• Depending on the info given in the question, the above equation can be written in
many forms e.g.
𝑄𝑉
𝑃=
𝑡

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
9.3 Resistance and resistivity

• Resistance, R of a conductor is the opposition to an electrical current.

• The higher the resistance of a conductor the more work needs to be applied to
push the same amount of current through a conductor (Think friction when pushing
a box).
• Resistance is measured in ohms, Ω.
• Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference (V) is directly proportional to the
Current (I) that flows through a conductor.

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

• This law is only obeyed provided that the temperature and other physical
properties remain constant and that the conductor is ohmic.
• Below are several I-V plots
• Several factors affect the resistance of a conductor:

1) The length of the conductor (L): The longer the length of the conductor, the
higher its resistance.
2) Area of the conductor (A): The bigger the area of the conductor, the higher
its resistance.
3) Temperature of the conductor: The higher the temperature of the conductor,
the higher its resistance.
4) The type of material of a conductor (ρ): depends on material type (conductive
or insulative type).

• Combining the factors above and assuming the temperature of the conductor is
constant, the resistance of a conductor can be found from

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴

• A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a non-ohmic conductor and sensory

resistor.
• As light intensity on the LDR increases, the resistance decreases.
• Another non-ohmic resistor is a thermistor.
• As the temperature increases the resistance of a thermistor decreases.
10 D.C. Circuits

10.1 Practical circuits

• Candidates must be able to interpret circuit diagrams (refer to IGCSE Chapter

4 Notes (https://www.senpaicorner.com/course-notes)
• Welcome to the big confusion which is e.m.f and potential difference aka Volts!
• There is a very small distinction between the both of them so people often get
confused.
• As you know (you should at this point…) the potential difference, V is defined as
the work done to move a unit of charge across a component (i.e. resistors,
capacitors, inductors, wires, etc.).
• Potential difference is measured in volts.
• The definition for electromotive force or e.m.f of a cell is defined as the work
done by the cell to drive a unit of charge around a complete circuit.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐸. 𝑚. 𝑓, 𝐸 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

• The units for e.m.f is also in Volts…

• The difference between the both of them is best illustrated below
 e.m.f Potential difference

• Common sense dictates that if I attach a voltmeter (in parallel) to both battery
sources I should get the same reading. Right?
• However in actual experiments, the voltage on the left is bigger than the right.
• The answer to this is due to the internal resistance of the battery.
• Yes you read that right. The battery itself has a resistance, however for the sake
of simplicity we have ignored it, up till now….
• The internal resistance of battery/ cell is caused by the resistance against the
moving charge by the electrolyte in the cell.
• Again lets illustrate this

e.m.f Potential difference

• You can see here why e.m.f is always greater than the potential difference.
• This voltage difference is due to the potential difference required to drive the
current (I) across the internal resistance (r) and the resistance in the circuit.

𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟
Label the voltmeter and ammeter. The figure above shows an electrical circuit
with a 20 Ω resistor.
When the switch is open the voltmeter gives a reading of 3V.
When the switch is closed, the voltmeter gives a reading of 2.8V.
i) Calculate the reading of the ammeter when the switch is closed
ii) The internal resistance of the battery
10.2 Kirchhoff’s laws

• Kirchhoff’s first law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction
always equal the sum of the currents out of the junction

• E.g.
• Kirchhoff’s second law states that the sum of the e.m.f’s in a closed circuit
equals the sum of the potential differences.

• Recall the formulas used to calculate resistance in series and parallel.

Series Parallel
10.3 Potential dividers

• According to Kirchhoff’s Second Law, the potential difference across a power

source is divided when two resistors are connected in series.

• The larger the resistance the larger the voltage share (the big eater gets more
pie!)
• A potential meter is similar to a variable resistor
• In the diagram above, the total resistance of the potentiometer is R.
• When the slider is moved it divides R into R1 and R2
• If the slider is moved further to the top, R2 becomes bigger because it becomes
longer (big eater!)
• The opposite is true, if the slider is moved further down, R1 becomes longer and
bigger.
• A Galvanometer is a type of ammeter
• It is used to measure current.

• The arrow on a galvanometer deflects depending on the amount of current

passing through.
• When the arrow is facing directly upwards, there is no current.
• This is called null deflection.
• Recall that Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) and thermistors are special
resistors called sensory resistors.

• The higher the light intensity, the lower the resistance of the LDR.
• The hotter the thermistor, the lower the resistance and vice versa.
Chapter 11 Particle Physics

11.1 Atoms, nuclei and radiation

• α-particle scattering provided the proof of the structure of the atom.
• When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through
but a small number bounce straight back.
• From this experiment Ernest Rutherford inferred that
1) a atom is mainly empty space since most of the α-particles went straight
through.
2) a positive nucleus is at the center since some α-particles deflected
through small angles of <100
3) the nucleus is extremely small, and this is where the mass and charge of
the atom is concentrated since only a small number of α-particles deflected
straight back at angles >900

• Atoms of all elements are made up of three types of particles: protons,

neutrons, and electrons.
• The proton number is the number of protons in an atom.

• Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

• The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
• Their total number is called the nucleon number.
• Nuclear processes such as fission and fusion can be represented using nuclear
equations.
• For e.g., the nuclear fission equation

• From the equation above, you can see that the nucleon number and charge on the
right and left side of the equation are always conserved.
• Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same proton numbers but
different nucleon numbers obviously because the number of neutrons is different.
• Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical quantities (eg.
molecular mass, density, etc.).
• So think of protons as a type of atomic DNA.
• E.g., of isotopes
• Protium, Deuterium, Tritium are isotopes of the hydrogen element.

• Uranium-232, Uranium-233, Uranium-234, Uranium-235, Uranium-236, Uranium-

237, Uranium-238 and Uranium-239 are isotopes of the uranium element.
• Since isotopes have an imbalance of neutrons and protons, they are unstable.
• To maintain stability, they emit radiation.
• Below are the three types of radiation and their properties
 α β γ

Charge Positive Negative No charge

Ionization Strongest Less than α Less than β

ionization

Penetration Least More than α Most penetrating

Protection A thick A few Several centimetres of lead

sheet of millimetres of
paper Perspex or
aluminium

Deflection in electric Can be Can be Not deflected

field deflected deflected

Deflection in Can be Can be Not deflected

magnetic field deflected deflected

• Also, all matter particles have antimatter counterparts.

• Antimatter are particles that are identical to their matter counterpart but with
opposite charge.

• Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons

• Beta (β-) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (emitted
by nuclei that have too many neutrons).
• Beta (β+) particles are high energy positrons (antimatter of electrons) also
emitted from the nucleus (emitted by nuclei that have too many protons).

• Gamma (ϒ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves.

• If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionizing the
atom.

• An electron neutrino is a type of subatomic particle with no charge and negligible

mass which is also emitted from the nucleus.
• Anti-neutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino.
• Electron anti-neutrinos are produced during Beta (β-) decays and electron
neutrinos are produced during Beta (β+) decays

• When the number of alpha (α) particles is plotted against kinetic energy,
• there are spikes that appear on the graph while beta particles shows a curve (see
below).
• This shows that α particles have discrete energies while β have continuous
energies.
• The energy released in beta decay is shared between the β particles and
neutrinos.
• This indicates the presence of neutrinos.
• Below are steps to represent α and β using a radioactive decay equation

Alpha decay

𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒

1) During an alpha decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits an alpha

particle ( 42𝐻𝑒).
2) Atom X losses 2 neutron and 2 proton and become atom Y.
e.g.
238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒
Beta decay

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −10𝑒

1) A beta particle is an electron emitted from a nucleus.

2) The beta particles are very small and move with very high speed.
3) During a beta decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits a beta particle
( −10𝑒).
4) One of the neutron is disintegrated to become proton and electron. The
electron is emitted out from the nucleus whereas the proton stay in the
nucleus
5) Hence, the proton number goes up by 1 while the nucleon number remains
unchanged.
e.g.
234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −10𝑒

The unified atomic mass unit (u) is roughly equal to the mass of one proton or
neutron:

1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

• The mass of an atom in amu is approximately equivalent to the nucleon number.

• E.g., the amu for Carbon-12 is 12u
11.2 Fundamental particles

• Fundamental particles are particles that cannot be broken down into even
smaller parts.
• An example of a fundamental particle are electrons.
• Quarks are fundamental particles that make up other subatomic particles such
as protons and neutrons.
• Quarks are never alone.
• They are always in pairs or groups of three.
• There are six types of quarks (see diagram above).
• Protons and neutrons are a group of particles called hadrons.
• Hadrons are made up of quarks.
• There are two types of hadrons:
1) Baryon (made up of three quarks)
2) Mesons (made up of a quark and an anti-quark)
• The charge of a baryon (proton, anti-proton, neutron or anti-neutron) is
determined by the sum of the charges of its quarks
• Each type of quark has a relative charge:

• E.g., a neutron has 0 charge hence it is made up of 1 up and 2 down quarks.

• The anti-particle of a quark is the anti-quark.

• Leptons are another group of fundamental particles.
• There also six leptons altogether (see diagram above).
• Neutrinos are the most commonly available leptons.
• The three types of neutrinos are electron, muon and tau.
• The muon and tau particle are very similar to the electron with a slight higher
mass.
• Electrons, muon and tau have a charge of -1e and a mass of 0.0005u.
• A β- decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron and anti-
electron neutrino.
• In fundamental particle terms, this happens because a down quark turns into
an up quark.

• A β+ decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting a positron and an

electron neutrino.
• In fundamental particle terms, this happens because an up quark turns into a
down quark.