DAMS

 A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a

river to create a reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for
various purposes.
 A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other.
 Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous reach of the river
where the valley is narrow and the foundation is good.
 Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at or near the dam site
to develop hydropower.
 Dams are probably the most important hydraulic structure built on the
rivers.
 These are very huge structure and require huge money, manpower and
time to construct.

A.Purposes of dam construction.

i. Water supply.
 Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted from
rivers pent up behind low dams or weirs.
 Examples include London – with water from the River Thames and Chester
with water taken from the River Dee.
 Other major sources include deep upland reservoirs contained by high dams
across deep valleys such as the Claerwen series of dams and reservoirs.

ii. Flood control.


Dams such as the Black water Dam of Webster, New Hampshire and the
Delta Works are created with flood control in mind. [54]

iii. Water diversion

 A typically small dam is used to divert water for irrigation, power
generation, or other uses, with usually no other function.
 Occasionally, they are used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir
to increase flow there and improve water use in that particular area.
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 iv. Land reclamation
 Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent
ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be submerged, allowing its
reclamation for human use.

v. Stabilize water flow / irrigation

 Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for agricultural
purposes and irrigation.[52]
 Others such as the Berg Strait dam can help to stabilize or restore the water
levels of inland lakes and seas, in this case the Aral Sea.[53]

vi. Navigation
 Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water
downstream.
 This can in return affect upstream and downstream navigation by altering
the river's depth.
 Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for water vessels.
 Large dams can serve this purpose but most often weirs and locks are used.

vii. Recreation and aquatic beauty

 Dams built for any of the above purposes may find themselves displaced by
time of their original uses.
 Nevertheless the local community may have come to enjoy the reservoir
for recreational and aesthetic reasons.
 Often the reservoir will be placid and surrounded by greenery, and convey
to visitors a natural sense of rest and relaxation.

viii. Hydro-electric power generation

 Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world.
 Many countries that have rivers with adequate water flow, that can be
dammed for power generation purposes.
 For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River in South America
generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the energy consumed by Paraguay
and 20% of that consumed by Brazil as of 2005.
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 B. Site Selection
 During the feasibility studies, the preliminary site selection will be
dependent on the project purposes within the Corps’ jurisdiction.
 Purposes applicable to dam construction include navigation, flood damage
reduction, hydroelectric power generation, fish and wildlife enhancement,
water quality, water supply, and recreation.
 The feasibility study will establish the most suitable and economical
location and type of structure.
 Investigations will be performed on:
1. Hydrology
2. Meteorology
3. Relocations,
4. Foundation
5. Site geology
6. Construction materials
7. Appurtenant features,
8. Environmental considerations
9. Diversion methods.

Geological factors for dam site selection.

 Apart from the construction of the dam, selecting proper site for the dam is
very crucial
 Selecting the proper site will help carrying out construction of the strong
dam and it will also help reduce risks due to natural disasters like earth
quake.
 Here are some of the important factors to be considered while selecting the
site for the dam for hydroelectric power plants and other purposes:

(a) Stream narrowing or good topographical location along the path of river.

 The topography is an important factor in the selection and location of a

concrete dam and its appurtenant structures.
 Construction as a site with a narrow canyon profile on sound bedrock close
to the surface is preferable, as this location would minimize the concrete
material requirements and the associated costs.
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 The best location along the path of the river is river canyon or at the location
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where there is narrowing of the river.

  If the aim is to store maximum amount of water, then the volume of basin
above dam should be calculated so that sufficient quantity of water can be
stored in it. The perfect site is one where there is wide and flat valley.
 One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river
valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls.
 The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural
reservoir line left by the stream channel.
 The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the
required storage capacity.
 The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a
masonry dam flanked by earth embankments.
 The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

(b) Geological structure or Rock types of the site.

 The rock structure on which the dam will be constructed should be strong
enough to sustain the weight of dam and water stored in the dam.
 The rock structure should be able to sustain all the visible and invisible
forces.
 The rock structure should be stable and there should be least occurrence of
the earthquakes in the region.

(c) Permeability of the surrounding rock or soil site formation.

 The rock structure should not allow the seepage of water and it should be
waterproof.

(d) A concrete dam requires a sound bedrock foundation.

 It is important that the bedrock have adequate shear strength and bearing
capacity to meet the necessary stability requirements.
 When the dam crosses a major fault or shear zone, special design features
(joints, monolith lengths, concrete zones, etc.) should be incorporated in
the design to accommodate the anticipated movement.
 All special features should be designed based on analytical techniques and
testing simulating the fault movement.
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 (e) The criteria set forth for the spillway, powerhouse, and the other project
appurtenances will play an important role in site selection.
 The relationship and adaptability of these features to the project
alignment will need evaluation along with associated costs.

(f) Additional factors of lesser importance that need to be included for

consideration are the relocation of existing facilities and utilities that lie
within the reservoir and in the path of the dam.
 Included in these are railroads, powerlines, highways, towns, etc.
Extensive and costly relocations should be avoided.

(g) The method or scheme of diverting flows around or through the dam site
during construction is an important consideration to the economy of the
dam.
 A concrete gravity dam offers major advantages and potential cost
savings by providing the option of diversion through alternate
construction blocks, and lowers risk and delay if overtopping should
occur.

(h) Sedimentation/ silting of reservoir.

(i) Stability of reservoir slopes and floor.
(j) Earthquake faults.
(k) Landslides and slope stability.
(l) Water table.
(m) Peak flood flows.
(n) Environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife.
(o) Impacts on human habitations.
(p) Compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement.
(q) Removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir
area

Outline of the survey methods:

 Generally, a subsurface dam site is selected according to the following
procedure:
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a) Interpretation of satellite images and aero-photographs.

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 b) Geological and topographical survey by preliminary exploration.
c) Estimate of the geological structure by geophysical surveys such as
electric soundings.
d) Verification of the geological structure by test drillings and permeability
tests.
e) Estimate of the flow mechanism of ground water by observation of
ground water level.

Geological studies:
 This is carried out to collect data regarding:
i. Geological features, folds, faults, fissures etc their nature and
extent.
ii. Water tightness of the reservoir basin
iii. Existing and potential slide area
iv. Assessment of valuable minerals in reservoir area
v. Ground water condition
vi. Seismic conditions etc.

 Borehole logging and testing should be utilized to enhance the amount

of information obtained from each hole drilled.
 Certain techniques work better in some environments than in others;
thus, the following techniques listed must be utilized discriminately
according to their applicability to the site conditions.
 Borehole logging systems include caliper logs, resistivity logs, SP logs,
sonic logs, radioactive logs, etc.

Foundation Studies:
 Foundation Investigation for earth, rock fill and masonry dams includes
investigation to determine properties of foundation soil, hidden weak
spots and shear zones etc and depth of overburden.
 Usual methods of exploration include:
i. Boreholes
ii. Excavation of open pits
iii. Tunnelling into the side of the valley
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iv. Core drilling

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 Meteorological studies:

 On the watershed plan, normal annual isohyets (rain fall contours) location
of rain gauge stations, gauge and discharge sites and interprovincial
boundaries are supposed to be shown.
i. Assessment of rainfall in the catchments
ii. Collection and evaluation of data and frequencies of heavy rain fall
iii. Mean monthly temperature,

Hydrological Studies:
 Gauge and discharge observation, past flood, hydrographs to fix spillway
capacity, rain fall runoff correlation studies etc.
a. Loss of storage capacity by silting is a very vital issue for determining the useful
life of the reservoir.
b. Sediment observation shall be carried for 3 years for suspended load, bed load
and natural soil conditions including catchment characteristics from point of
erosion.
 Ground water investigations and permeability testing are necessary for
several reasons. These investigations provide the basis for design of any
dewatering systems required during construction.
 They also provide the data to evaluate the reservoir’s capability to impound
water and to design seepage and uplift control required in the foundation
beneath the dam and in the abutments.
 These data also provide the basis for making assumptions of uplift on rock
wedges.

C. Associated geological problems.

i. Leakage from reservoir.
ii. Reservoir siltation.
iii. Earth tremors.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS
1. Based on Function Served
i. Storage dams
ii. Detention dams
iii. Diversion dams
iv. Debris dams
v. Coffer dams - a temp dam constructed for facilitating construction. It is an
enclosure constructed around a site to exclude water so that the
construction can be done in dry.
2. Based on Materials of Construction
i. Masonry dam
ii. Concrete dam
iii. Earth dam
iv. Rock fill dam
v. Timber dam
vi. Steel dam
vii. Combined concrete-cum-earth dam
viii. Composite dam.

3. Based on Rigidity
i. Rigid dams: A rigid dam is quite stiff.
 It is constructed of stiff materials such as concrete, masonry, steel and
timber.These dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to water
pressure and other forces
ii. Non-rigid dams: A non-rigid dam is relatively less stiff compared to a rigid
dam.
 The dams constructed of earth and rock fill are non-rigid dams. There are
relatively large settlements and deformations in a non-rigid dam.
 Rock fill dams are actually neither fully rigid nor fully non rigid.These are
sometimes classified as semi-rigid dams.
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 4. Based on structural action
i. Gravity dams
ii. Embankment dams
iii. Earth dams
iv. Rock fill dams
v. Arch dams
vi. Buttress dams
vii. Others
a) Steel dams
b) Timber dams
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 I. Gravity dams
 In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push
from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. [39]
 The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn
the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side
of the dam).
 The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the
other way about its toe.
 The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight
wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant
of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam
acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.
 Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to
consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam
itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. I.e. there is no
tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down.
 The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of
material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together
against vertical tension.
 Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also
eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face,
providing additional economy.
 For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with
high bearing strength. When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can
prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams.
 When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably
represents the best developed example of dam building.
 Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams
are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been
more economical.
 Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of
either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the
two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct.
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 Advantages of Gravity dams
i. Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
ii. Are quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and gorges having steep
slopes where earth dams, if constructed, might slip.
iii. Can be constructed to very great heights, provided good rock foundations
are available.
iv. Are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section. Earth dams
cannot be used as an overflow section. Even in earth dams, the overflow
section is usually a gravity dam.
v. Are specially suited to such areas where there is very heavy downpour. The
slopes of the earth dams might be washed away in such an area.
vi. Maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
vii. Does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the imminent failure
and the valuable property and human life can be saved to some extent.
viii. Can be constructed during all types of climatic conditions.
ix. Sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a gravity dam can be
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somewhat reduced by operation of deep-set sluices

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 Disadvantages of Gravity dams
i. Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on sound rock
foundations. These cannot be constructed on weak or permeable
foundations on which earth dams can be constructed.
ii. Initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that of an earth dam. At
the sites where good earth is available for construction and funds are
limited, earth dams are better.
iii. Usually take a longer time in construction than earth dams, especially when
mechanized plants for batching, mixing and transporting concrete are not
available.
iv. Require more skilled labour than that in earth dams.
v. Subsequent raising is not possible in a gravity dam

II. Embankment dams

 Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main
types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams.
 Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like
gravity dams made from concrete.

a) . Earth dams
 Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply
earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted
earth.
 An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) and resists the forces exerted upon
it mainly due to shear strength of the soil.
 Are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments).
Can be homogeneous when the height of the dam is not great.
 Are of zoned sections, with an impervious zone (called core) in the middle
and relatively pervious zones (called shells or shoulders) enclosing the
impervious zone on both sides.
 A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of
material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water.
 A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material,
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typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core.

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  Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect
and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell
zone.
 An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill
to produce a watertight core.
 Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the
manner of a rock-fill dam.
 An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high
latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through
pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

Advantages of earth dam

i. Are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable earth for construction is
available near the site.
ii. Can be constructed on almost all types of foundations, provided suitable
measures of foundation treatment and seepage control are taken.
iii. Can be constructed in a relatively short period.
iv. Skilled labour is not required in construction of an earth dam.
v. Can be raised subsequently.
vi. Are aesthetically more pleasing than gravity dams.
vii. Are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.

Disadvantages of earth dam

i. Are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes.
ii. Cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has to be located
away from the dam.
iii. Cannot be constructed in regions with heavy downpour, as the slopes
might be washed away.
iv. Maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It requires constant
supervision.
v. Sluices cannot be provided in a high earth dam to remove slit.
vi. Fails suddenly without any sign of imminent failure. A sudden failure causes
havoc and untold miseries.
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 b) . Rock fill dams
 A rock fill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size.
 An impervious membrane (cement concrete or asphaltic concrete or earth
core) is placed on the rock fill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam.
 A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rock fill and the membrane for
the distribution of water load and for providing a support to the
membrane.
 Side slopes of rock fill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of rock
(1.4:1 or 1.3:1).Rock fill dams are quite economical when a large quantity of
14

rock is easily available near the site.

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  Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth
with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high
percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill.
 The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry,
concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The
impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is
referred to as a core.
 In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is
referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the
rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter.
 Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine
grain soil particles.
 When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to
cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage
from earthquakes.
 However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor
compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of
the rock-fill during an earthquake.
 Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material
from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during
construction.
 A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of
such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material.
 Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the
first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built
so far have an excellent performance record.
 The type of asphalt used is a viscous elastic-plastic material that can adjust
to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a
whole, and to settlements in the foundation.
 The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in
earthquake regions.[41]
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 c) . Concrete-face rock-fill dams
 A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs
on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious
wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift
pressure.
 In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct
and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the
California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-
face dams for sluice operations.
 The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to
irrigation and power schemes.
 As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted
and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved
vertical joints.
 In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42]
 Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya
Dam in China which was completed in 2008. [43]

Advantages of Rock fill

i. Rock fill dams have almost the same advantages and disadvantages over
gravity dams as discussed for earth dams.
ii. Particular advantages and disadvantages over earth dams.
iii. Are quite inexpensive if rock fragments are easily available.
iv. Can be constructed quite rapidly.
v. Can better withstand the shocks due to earthquake than earth dams.
vi. can be constructed even in adverse climates

Disadvantages of Rock fill

i. Rock fill dams require more strong foundations than earth dams.
ii. Rock fill dams require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and
compacting rocks.
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 III. Arch dams
 An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream
side. Transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the
abutments by arch action.
 Is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of
resisting the thrust produced by the arch action. Section is triangular and is
comparatively thinner.
 May have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane. Are
subjected to large stresses because of changes in temperature shrinkage of
concrete and yielding of abutments.
 In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity
action.
 If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried
to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal
hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will
depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction.
 When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated.
The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the
arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as
described above.
 For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either
buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place
for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of
sound rock.[38]
 The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall
abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls
but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a multiple-arch buttress dam.

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  Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and
the constant-radius dam.
 The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of
the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the
bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam
becomes smaller.
 Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams.
 A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam.
 This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary
for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and
abutments.
 The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical
curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as
viewed from downstream.
 The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with
concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the
Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada.
 The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow
gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads
are heavy.

IV. Arch-gravity dams

 The Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity dam.A gravity dam can be
combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive
amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam.
 The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral
(horizontal) force acting on the dam.
 Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam
does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves
resources.
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 Advantages of An arch dam
i. An arch dam requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam as the
section is thinner.
ii. Arch dams are more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep
slopes.
iii. Uplift pressure is not an important factor in the design of an arch dam
because the arch dam has less width and the reduction in weight due to
uplift does not affect the stability.
iv. An arch dam can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation
because a small part of load is transferred to base, whereas in a gravity
dam full load is transferred to base.

Disadvantages of An arch dam

i. An arch dam requires good rock in the flanks (abutments) to resist the
thrust. If the abutments yield, extra stresses develop which may cause
failure.
ii. The arch dam requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labour and
richer concrete.
iii. The arch dam cannot be constructed in very cold climates because spalling
of concrete occurs due to alternate freezing and thawing.
iv. The arch dams are more prone to sabotage.
v. The speed of construction is relatively slow.

V. Buttress dams
 Buttress dams are of three types:
a) Deck type,
b) Multiple arch-type, and
c) Massive-head type.
 A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by
buttresses.Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit
the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
 Buttresses are compression members.
 The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the
buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.
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  In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by
horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of
small span and made of concrete.
 In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab.
 Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared
to form massive heads which span the distance between the
buttresses.
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 Advantages of Buttress dams
i. Buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams.
ii. Uplift/ice pressure is generally not a major factor
iii. Can be constructed on relatively weaker foundations.
iv. Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed between
buttresses.
v. Vertical component of the water pressure on deck prevents the dam
against overturning and sliding failures. can be designed to accommodate
moderate movements of foundations without serious damages.
vi. Heat dissipation is better in buttress dams.
vii. Back of the deck and the foundation between buttresses are accessible for
inspection.
viii. Can be easily raised subsequently by extending buttresses and deck slabs.

Disadvantages of Buttress dams

i. Buttress dams require costlier formwork, reinforcement and more skilled

labour. Consequently, the overall cost of construction may be more than
that of a gravity dam.
ii. Buttress dams are more susceptible to damage and sabotage.
iii. Buttress dams cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling of concrete.
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iv. Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may have very
serious effect on the stability.
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 VI. Barrages

The Koshi Barrage

 A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates
that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the
dam.
 The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for
supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water
flow for irrigation systems.
 Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal
incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal
barrages.[40]

Classification of dams based on size

 International standards (including International Commission on Large
Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams
as over 150 meters in height.[44]
 The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large
category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 meters high
with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic meters. [40]
 The tallest dam in the world is the 300-meter-high Nurek Dam in
Tajikistan.[45]
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 Classification of dams based on use
a) Saddle dam
 A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir
created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and
storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency.
 An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the
reservoir would otherwise escape.
 On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to
prevent inundation of nearby land.
 Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow
lake.
 This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river
or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

b) Weir
 A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow
dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment
lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow
measurement or retardation.

c) Check dam
 A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control
soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts
a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of
sediment.

d) Dry dam
 A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to
control flooding.
 It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely,
24

except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding
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downstream.
 e) Diversionary dam
 A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the
flow of a river from its natural course.
 The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or
hydroelectric power production.

f) Underground dam
 Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it
below the surface for extended use in a localized area.
 In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a
freshwater aquifer.
 Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water
resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts
and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan.
 They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil
while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India,
Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.[46]
 There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-
storage dam.
 A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an
impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface.
 They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones,
concrete, steel or PVC.
 Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is
then extracted with wells.
 A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must
be strong as floods will wash over its crest.
 Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store
water and most importantly, prevent evaporation.
 The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or
by means of a drain pipe.[47]
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 g) Tailings dam
 A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store
tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating
the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore.
 Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost,
a tailings dam is more viable.
 Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession
throughout the life of the particular mine.
 Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture
of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include
the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.[48]
 There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and
centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising.
 The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate,
the type of tailings and cost.
 An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being
constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further
upstream.
 This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side
which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment.
 The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment
that positions the fill and crest further downstream.
 A center lined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly
on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support
and slurry supports the upstream side.[49][50]
 Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process,
they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage.
 Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and
environmental purposes as well.[50]
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 Classification of dams based on material
a) Steel dams

Red Ridge steel dam, built 1905, Michigan.

 A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of
the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing
beams as the structure.
 Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed)
experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that
was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber
crib dams.

b) Timber dams

A timber crib dam in Michigan, photographed in 1978.

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  Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution
and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction.
 Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited
height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet
in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration
by rot, similar to a barrel.
 The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those
where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and
either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue.
 Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west,
but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments or been
replaced with entirely new structures.
 Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.
 Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the
manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble.
 The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the
water.
 Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
 Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety
of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water
retaining arrangement of planks.

Other types
a) Cofferdams
28

A cofferdam during the construction of locks at the Montgomery Point

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Lock and Dam.

  A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water
from an area that is normally submerged.
 Made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are
used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges,
and similar structures.
 When the project is completed, the cofferdam may be demolished or
removed.
 Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore
oil platforms.
 In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into
place under water.
 Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work
environment below the surface.
 Upon completion the cofferdam is usually deconstructed unless the area
requires continuous maintenance.

b) Natural dams
 Dams can also be created by natural geological forces.
 Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the
path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural
impoundment.
 An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8
million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in
northern Arizona in the United States.
 The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres (500 mi) in length
before the failure of its dam.
 Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the
Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the
7,780 km2 (3,000 sq mi) Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice
Age.
 Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes,
such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).
 Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create
landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology.
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  Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the
Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft) high, it is the tallest
dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams.
 A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a
landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.
 Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and
infrastructure.
 The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure
of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western
Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town
of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

c) Hydroelectric Power Plant Dams

 As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of
the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. [51]
 Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale
hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world
use of this type of power.[51]
 Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed
water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power
generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe
called a penstock before the turbine.
 A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to
produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving
water between reservoirs at different elevations.
 At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to
pump water into the higher reservoir.
 When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower
reservoir through a turbine.
 The dam or water reservoir is a crucial part of the hydroelectric power
plants.
 Water stored in the dams is used for generating electricity in hydroelectric
power plants.
 The dam also called as water reservoir is the most important part of the
hydroelectric power plants.
30

 All the water that is used for generation of electricity in the hydroelectric
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power plants is stored in the dam.

  Since huge quantities of water are stored in the dam, it is very important that
the bed and walls of the dam should be able to sustain all the hydraulic
pressures of water.
 Water has mass and large quantities of water have huge weight which is
exerted on the bed and the walls of the dam.
 If the walls of the dam are not strong enough to sustain the forces of water,
the walls will break and water will spread to the surrounding areas
producing devastating floods that have potential to cause large scale
destruction of human, animal and plant life.
 Large hydroelectric dams are among the most controversial of all types of
development projects.
 They have been the focus of much criticism of the World Bank and other
international financing agencies.
 The “large dams” debate is often highly polarized. Critics of large
hydroelectric projects point to a wide range of negative environmental and
related social impacts, from the destruction of unique biodiversity to the
displacement of vulnerable human populations.
 Defenders of large dams note that they are often the economically least-
cost source of electric power available, especially to large urban centers;
they are a renewable electricity source; and most other power generation
technologies also imply significant adverse environmental impacts.
 Worldwide, many countries rely upon hydropower for a substantial portion
of their electricity.
 In developing countries, rapid urbanization and continued population
growth will ensure increased demand for electric power for decades to
come, even with the most successful of demand management and energy
efficiency measures.
 Electricity remains a key ingredient for improving the lives of millions of
poor people throughout the developing world.
 Energy planners in many countries are likely to continue seeing
hydroelectric dams as a promising, renewable source of electricity.
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 Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

d) Spillways
 A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream
side of a dam to the downstream side.
 Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the
spillway.
 Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes
normal flow.
 An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service
spillway.
 An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a
serious malfunction of the service spillway.
 A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and
washed away in the event of a large flood.
 The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side
by side which work without any remote control.
 They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising
the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually
evacuated for exceptional events.
 They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.
 The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or
turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure.
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  It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-
topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the
infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").
 Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by
shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes
turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

Spillway on Llyn Brianne dam, Wales, soon after first fill.

D.Associated geological problems.

a) Leakage from reservoir.
b) Reservoir siltation.
c) Earth tremors.
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 Adverse Environmental Impacts of
dams
 The range of adverse environmental and related social impacts that can
result from hydroelectric dams is remarkably diverse.
 While some impacts occur only during construction, the most important
impacts usually are due to the long-term existence and operation of the dam
and reservoir.
 Other significant impacts can result from complementary civil works such
as access roads, power transmission lines, and quarries and borrow pits.

1) Flooding of Natural Habitats

 Some reservoirs permanently flood extensive natural habitats, with local and
even global extinctions of animal and plant species.
 Very large hydroelectric reservoirs in the tropics are especially likely to
cause species extinctions (although such losses are only infrequently
documented due to the lack of scientific data).
 Particularly hard-hit are riverine forests and other riparian ecosystems,
which naturally occur only along rivers and streams.
 From a biodiversity conservation standpoint, the terrestrial natural habitats
lost to flooding are usually much more valuable than the aquatic habitats
created by the reservoir.
 One occasional exception to this rule is that shallow reservoirs in dry zones
can provide a permanent oasis, sometimes important for migratory
waterfowl and other terrestrial and aquatic fauna.
 To offset the loss of natural habitats to reservoir flooding or other project
components (such as borrow pits), one or more compensatory protected
areas can be established and managed under the project.
 If an existing area is protected “on paper” only, a useful project option is to
strengthen it on the- ground protection and management.
 The area protected under the project should ideally be of comparable or
greater size and ecological quality to the natural area lost to the project.
 Under the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy, hydroelectric and other
projects should not be sited where they would cause the significant
conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats that do not occur
elsewhere (and, hence, cannot be adequately compensated).
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 2) Loss of Terrestrial Wildlife
 The loss of terrestrial wildlife to drowning during reservoir filling is an
inherent consequence of the flooding of terrestrial natural habitats, although
often treated as a separate impact.
 Although they may be useful for public relations purposes, wildlife rescue
efforts rarely succeed in restoring wild populations.
 Instead of drowning, the captured and relocated animals typically starve, are
killed by competitors or predators, or fail to reproduce successfully, due to
the limited carrying capacity of their new habitats.
 Wildlife rescue is most likely to be justified on conservation grounds if:
(a) The species rescued are globally threatened with extinction and
(b) the relocation habitat is ecologically suitable and effectively protected.
 However, the money spent on rescue would usually do much more for
wildlife conservation if it were invested in compensatory protected areas.
 The most effective way to minimize wildlife mortality in hydroelectric
projects is to choose dam sites which minimize the wildlife habitat flooded.

3) Involuntary Displacement
 Involuntary displacement of people is often the main adverse social impact
of hydroelectric projects. It can also have important environmental
implications, such as with the conversion of natural habitats to accommodate
resettled rural populations.
 For physical displacement, the main mitigation measure is the resettlement
of displaced populations, including new housing, replacement lands, and
other material assistance, as needed.
 Success usually requires consultation and participatory decision making by
both the resettled and host populations (mandatory for World Bank–
supported resettlement).
 Effective resettlement of vulnerable ethnic minorities is particularly
challenging because some of these people are highly vulnerable to adverse
social changes.
 Accordingly, the World Bank’s Involuntary Resettlement and Indigenous
Peoples policies afford special consideration to these populations, specifying
that, among other requirements, all viable alternative project designs should
be explored before considering physical displacement for these groups.
 For people who are not physically displaced but suffer an economic loss of
livelihoods (based on fisheries, agricultural or grazing lands, river-edge clay
35

for brick and tile production, or other resources), mitigation measures should
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 involve the provision of replacement resources, new job training, or other
income restoration assistance, as needed.
4) Deterioration of Water Quality
 The damming of rivers can cause serious water quality deterioration, due to
the reduced oxygenation and dilution of pollutants by relatively stagnant
reservoirs (compared to fast-flowing rivers), flooding of biomass (especially
forests) and resulting underwater decay, and/or reservoir stratification
(where deeper lake waters lack oxygen).
 Water pollution control measures (such as sewage treatment plants or
enforcement of industrial regulations) may be needed to improve reservoir
water quality.
 Where poor water quality would result from the decay of flooded biomass,
selective forest clearing within the impoundment area should be completed
before reservoir filling.

5) Down river Hydrological Changes

 Major downriver hydrological changes can destroy riparian ecosystems
dependent on periodic natural flooding, exacerbate water pollution during
low flow periods, and increase saltwater intrusion near river mouths.
 Reduced sediment and nutrient loads down river of dams can increase river-
edge and coastal erosion and damage the biological and economic
productivity of rivers and estuaries.
 Induced desiccation of rivers below dams (when the water is diverted to
another portion of the river or to a different river) kills fish and other fauna
and flora dependent on the river; it can also damage agriculture and human
water supplies.
 These adverse impacts can be minimized through careful management of
water releases.
 Objectives to consider in optimizing water releases from the turbines and
spillways include adequate down river water supply for riparian ecosystems,
reservoir and down river fish survival, reservoir and down river water
quality, aquatic weed and disease vector control, irrigation and other human
uses of water, downriver flood protection, recreation (such as whitewater
boating), and, of course, power generation.
 From an ecological standpoint, the ideal water release pattern would usually
closely mimic the natural flooding regime (although this may not be feasible
for densely settled floodplains where flood protection is a high priority).
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  Dams that generate base load electricity are typically more capable of
replicating near-natural down river flows than those that produce peaking
power (where daily water releases may fluctuate sharply, often to the
detriment of aquatic organisms that are adapted to less frequent flow
changes).
 Environmental management plans for hydroelectric projects should specify
environmental water releases, including for dams owned or operated by the
private sector.

6) Water-Related Diseases
 Some infectious diseases can spread around hydroelectric reservoirs,
particularly in warm climates and densely populated areas.
 Some diseases (such as malaria and schistosomiasis) are borne by water-
dependent disease vectors (mosquitoes and aquatic snails); others (such as
dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis A) are spread by contaminated water, which
frequently becomes worse in stagnant reservoirs than it was in fast-flowing
rivers.
 Corresponding public health measures should include preventive measures
(such as awareness campaigns and window screens), monitoring of vectors
and disease outbreaks, vector control, and clinical treatment of disease cases,
as needed.
 Control of floating aquatic weeds (see below) near populated areas can
reduce mosquito-borne disease risks.

7) Fish and Other Aquatic Life

 Hydroelectric projects often have major effects on fish and other aquatic life.
 Reservoirs positively affect certain fish species (and fisheries) by increasing
the area of available aquatic habitat.
 However, the net impacts are often negative because :
a) the dam blocks up river fish migrations, while down river passage through
turbines or over spillways is often unsuccessful;
b) many river adapted fish and other aquatic species cannot survive in artificial
lakes;
c) Changes in downriver flow patterns adversely affect many species, and
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 d) Water quality deterioration in or below reservoirs (usually low oxygen
levels; sometimes gas super-saturation) kills fish and damages aquatic
habitats.
 Fresh water molluscs, crustaceans, and other benthic organisms are even
more sensitive to these changes than most fish species, due to their limited
mobility.
 Management of water releases may be needed for the survival of certain
fish species, in and below the reservoir.
 Fish passage facilities (fish ladders, elevators, or trap-and-truck operations)
are intended to help migratory fish move upriver past a dam; they are usually
of limited effectiveness for various reasons (including the difficulty of
ensuring safe downriver passage for many adults and fry).
 Fish hatcheries can be useful for maintaining populations of native species
which can survive but not successfully reproduce within the reservoir.
 They are also often used for stocking the reservoir with economically
desired species, although introducing non-native fish is often devastating to
native species and not ecologically desirable.
 Fishing regulation is often essential to maintain viable populations of
commercially valuable species, especially in the waters immediately below a
dam where migratory fish species concentrate in high numbers and are
unnaturally easy to catch.

8) Floating Aquatic Vegetation

 Floating aquatic vegetation can rapidly proliferate in eutrophic reservoirs,
causing problems such as:
a) degraded habitat for most species of fish and other aquatic life,
b) improved breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other nuisance species
and disease vectors,
c) impeded navigation and swimming,
d) Clogging of electro-mechanical equipment at dams, and (e) increased
water loss from some reservoirs.
 Pollution control and pre-impoundment selective forest clearing will make
reservoirs less conducive to aquatic weed growth.
 Physical removal or containment of floating aquatic weeds is effective but
imposes a high and recurrent expense for large reservoirs.
 Where compatible with other objectives (power generation, fish survival,
etc.), occasional drawdown of reservoir water levels may be used to kill
38

aquatic weeds.
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  Chemical poisoning of weeds or related insect pests requires much
environmental caution and is usually best avoided.

9) Loss of Cultural Property

 Cultural property, including archaeological, historical, paleontological, and
religious sites and objects, can be inundated by reservoirs or destroyed by
associated quarries, borrow pits, roads, or other works.
 Structures and objects of cultural interest should undergo salvage wherever
feasible through scientific inventory, careful physical relocation, and
documentation and storage in museums or other appropriate facilities.
 However, it is often not possible to replace the loss of, or damage to, unique
or sacred sites which may have great religious or ceremonial significance to
indigenous or other local people.

10) Reservoir Sedimentation

 Over time, live storage and power generation are reduced by reservoir
sedimentation, such that much of some projects’ hydroelectric energy might
not be renewable over the long term.
 If effectively implemented, watershed management can minimize
sedimentation and extend a reservoir’s useful physical life, through the
control of road construction, mining, agriculture, and other land use in the
upper catchment area.
 Protected areas are sometimes established in upper catchments to reduce
sediment flows into reservoirs, as with the Fortuna Dam in Panama and the
proposed Rio Amoya (Colombia) and Nam Theun II (Laos) projects.
 Aside from water shed management, other sediment management
techniques for hydroelectric reservoirs may at times be physically and
economically feasible; they include, among others, upstream check
structures, protecting dam outlets, reservoir flushing, mechanical removal,
and increasing the dam’s height.

11) Greenhouse Gases

 Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) are released into the
atmosphere from reservoirs that flood forests and other biomass, either
slowly (as flooded organic matter decomposes) or rapidly (if the forest is cut
39

and burned before reservoir filling).

 Greenhouse gases are widely considered to be the main cause of human-
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induced global climate change.

  Many hydroelectric reservoirs flood relatively little forest or other biomass.
Moreover, most hydro projects generate sufficient electricity to more than
offset the greenhouse gases which would otherwise have been produced by
burning fossil fuels (natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) in power plants.
 However, some projects which flood extensive forest areas, such as the
Balbina Dam in Amazonian Brazil, appear to emit greenhouse gases in
greater amounts than would be produced by burning natural gas for many
years of comparable electricity generation.
 Greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs can be reduced by a thorough
salvage of commercial timber and fuel wood, although frequently this does
not happen because of:
a) High extraction and transportation costs,
b) Marketing constraints, or
c) Political and economic pressures not to delay reservoir filling.
 The surest way to minimize greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs is to
choose dam sites that minimize the flooding of land in general and forests in
particular.

12) Access Roads

 New access roads to hydroelectric dams can induce major land use
changes— particularly deforestation—with resulting loss of biodiversity,
accelerated erosion, and other environmental problems.
 In some projects (such as Arun II in Nepal), the environmental impacts of
access roads can greatly exceed those of the reservoir.
 The siting of any new access roads should be in the environmentally and
socially least damaging corridors.
 Forests and other environmentally sensitive areas along the chosen road
corridor should receive legal and on-the-ground protection.
 Road engineering should ensure proper drainage, to protect waterways and
minimize erosion.
 Environmental rules for contractors (including penalties for
noncompliance) should cover construction camp siting, gravel extraction,
waste disposal, avoiding water pollution, worker behavior (such as no
hunting), and other construction practices.

13) Power Transmission Lines

40

 Power transmission line rights-of-way often reduce and fragment forests;

indirectly, they occasionally facilitate further deforestation by improving
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physical access.
  Large birds are sometimes killed in collisions with power lines, or by
electrocution.
 Power lines can also be aesthetically objectionable.
 Power lines should be sited to minimize these concerns and built using good
environmental practices (as with roads).
 In areas with concentrations of vulnerable bird species, the top (grounding)
wire should be made more visible with plastic devices.
 Electrocution (mainly of large birds of prey) should be avoided through bird-
friendly tower design and proper spacing of conducting wires.

14) Quarries and Borrow Pits

 Quarries and borrow pits are used to provide material for construction of the
dam and complementary works.
 They can considerably increase the area of natural habitats or agricultural
lands that are lost to a hydroelectric project.
 To the greatest extent feasible, quarries and borrow pits should be sited
within the future inundation zone.
 Where this is not feasible, the pits should be rehabilitated after use, ideally
for conservation purposes such as wetland habitats.

15) Associated Development Projects

 Hydroelectric dams often make possible new development projects with
major environmental impacts, including irrigation, urban expansion, and
industrial facilities (due to new water supplies).
 New development projects should be planned to minimize adverse
environmental and social impacts.
 Environmental impact assessment studies should be carried out in the early
stages of project planning; the resulting environmental mitigation plans
should be fully implemented.

16) Additional Dams

 The construction of the first dam on a river can make the subsequent
construction of additional dams more economical, because flow regulation
by the upriver dam can enhance power generation at the downriver dam(s).
 The environmental impact assessment study for the first dam on any river
should include a cumulative environmental assessment of the likely
impacts of proposed additional dams on the same river system.
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  Implementation of mitigation measures for cumulative (rather than dam-
specific) impacts should be completed or well underway prior to
construction of the second dam on the river.

The main problems caused by Dams

1. Water-Logging, Land Salinity and Infertility

 The introduction of surface irrigation from canals and tanks has resulted in
the rise in the groundwater-table, continuous rise in water-logging and land
salinization.
 Irrigation water unlike rainwater contains considerable amount of salt in
the solution.
 Salts like potassium sulphate or nitrates can be of direct benefit to plants,
others such as calcium sulphate can contribute to improve the soil
structure. On the other hand, salts such as sodium chloride, or compounds
containing boron may have detrimental effects on the soil or the plant.
 Water-logging is caused when the salt of the soil comes up to the surface
due to the rise of sub-soil water-level.
 Dams built for irrigation purposes bring water-logging in two ways.

a) Firstly, canals intersect drainage lines and thus cause rain or flood water to
be held up and
b) Secondly, reservoirs and canals cause their own water to seep until water
reaches the root zone level.

 If the sub-soil outflow is not enough to balance the inflow, the root zone
level rises, and all the salt of the soil comes to the surface and makes the
land unfit for the cultivation.
 In Surat and adjacent areas of Gujarat before the introduction of irrigation
(Kakrapar Project in 1959 and Ukai Project in 1972) water table was
between 6 to 9 metres from the ground level P x 2.
 In 1987-88, the water table had come within 0 to 3 metres. Soil salinity has
also increased; pH value has increased from 7.9 to 8.9.
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  Kheda and surrounding area of Gujarat has been brought under canal
irrigation, since 1959 through the pick-up weir at Kanakbori, supplemented
in 1976 by construction of Kadna reservoir on Mahi River.
 The use of water under inadequate drainage has led to rapid rise in the
water table.
 In the beginning, many major dams were built for providing irrigation,
which made possible considerable increase in crop production.
 But after two or three decades, this irrigation policy started showing its
adverse effects.
 In Hoshanga bad district of Madhya Pradesh due to the Tawa irrigation
project, a large amount of good cultivated land has been affected by
salinity and became infertile.
 This area was rich in wheat production and now cannot even produce
millets.
 Some conscious farmers of this area have started a "Mitti Bachao" (save the
soil) movement.
 In several other places in India, particularly in Punjab and Haryana, the soil
has become waterlogged and saline.
 Some of the lands become totally unfit for cultivation.
 In many places land has become so infertile that it cannot produce even the
crop, which was being produced before the introduction of irrigation.
 In Punjab in one year (1942-43), more than 280,000 hectares of land
became useless as a result of salt accumulation and water logging.
 In Sonipat, Rohtak, Jind and Gurgaon districts of Haryana, Gram and Bajra
are disappearing and cultivation of wheat, sugarcane and Jowar is
becoming difficult because of water logging.
 Water logging may become serious where river irrigation is practised as a
result of percolation of water from a dense network of rivers and canals.
 In Uttar Pradesh and Punjab due to water seepage and in the case of Karz-
kum canal in Russia, about 43 per cent water gets lost through seepage and
converts large areas unfit for cultivation.
 According to a soil survey report in Egypt, about 50 per cent of irrigated
land has deteriorated to the extent that they are low, medium or poor soils.
 Many of the developing countries are suffering from water logging and
salinization of land.
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 In the name of development, more and more irrigation projects are coming
up and making agricultural land infertile.
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  Excessive irrigation does not leave land even that much productive as
before irrigation.
 For a short period, irrigation increases production remarkably and then it
makes land worse off. Generally, developing countries face this problem as
water management is not proper.

2. Health Hazards

 Large dams have serious health hazards to human beings.

 There is a steep increase in diseases like schistosomiasis (a debilitating
intestinal and urinary disease caused by the larvae of a blood fluke),
cerebral and spinal meningitis, pneumonia, measles, and malaria.
 These diseases emerge because of continuous standing water in the
command area of the dam region.
 In the case of the Aswan dam in Egypt, schistosomiasis is prevalent among
a large population.
 According to a study conducted between the Aswan dam and Cairo city,
schistosomiasis has increased from five per cent in 1930 to 35 per cent in
1972.
 The Kano river project in Nigeria was supposed to improve health through
provision of clinics.
 But in reality, very limited clinics were provided and that too at
inconvenient locations.
 On the contrary, there has been a dramatic increase in several waterborne
diseases.
 While building dams, this aspect remains totally neglected and safety and
precautions are not taken into account

3. Silt Deprivation (Siltation)

 After construction of dams, silt, which is brought by the rivers, gathers in

the reservoirs.
 This silt makes alluvial plains fertile along the rivers.
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 Now, because of the construction of dams, this fertilizing effect has

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disappeared.
  On the contrary, siltation causes riverbed degradation and coastal erosion.
 The dam holds up the silt and releases only clear water.
 Siltation reduces the life of reservoirs, and once reservoirs are filled up with
sediment, they cannot be of much use further.
 The life span of reservoirs has frequently proven much shorter than
planned, particularly when precautions are not taken to protect the
catchment area.
 The cutting of trees and destruction of natural vegetation on mountain
slopes increase the rate of erosion and result in siltation of rivers, reservoirs
and irrigation canals.
 The life expectancy of the Bhakara dam initially estimated to be 88 years is
now expected to be 47 years and Hirakud dam from 110 years to 35 years,
because of the high rate of siltation.
 The life of Mangala dam in Pakistan was estimated to be 100 years. Its
present expectancy is 50 years.
 The Ksob dam in Algeria became first partially and now has been rendered
completely useless within 10 years.
 In South Africa, reservoirs are filled up with sediments within 15 years.
 In Philippines, the expected life of Ambuklao dam has reduced from 60
years to only 32 years, due to the increased erosion, which is leading to
massive silting of the reservoir.
 The flood silt helps the delta shores to resist well against sea waves and
currents.
 After construction of dams, silt, which forms a natural defence, does get
eroded. Silt deposition at the mouth of the river provides food to the fish.
When siltation does not take place, fish stop coming towards the seashore
and the fish industry suffers.
 Thus, majority of experiences show that siltation causes many natural
hazards.
 The life expectancy of reservoirs also causes environmental imbalance such
as delta, erosion, river bed erosion and non-availability of food for fish for
want of suitable vegetation in the offshore region.

4. Erratic Mud
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  To make a meaningful economic forecast for a planned dam, it is necessary
to be able to predict its sedimentation rate with reasonable accuracy.
 However, it is extremely difficult to estimate how much sediment will be
trapped by a reservoir.
 Collecting data on sediment discharge is even more expensive and difficult
than gathering stream flow data, and so there is little reliable information
available on the sediment carried by the world’s rivers.
 Sediment flows vary widely both annually and seasonally over time – far
more than water flows – and so calculating an annual average needs a long
run of data.
 According to Mahmood, dam planners should ideally have sediment
statistics going back over a period equal to at least half the projected life of
the dam.
 Such records, however, are available only in exceptional cases.
 As with river flows, the variability of sediment yield is greatest in arid and
semi–arid climates – where the data tends to be sparsest.
 The amount of sediment carried into a reservoir is at its highest during
floods: in the US, for example, commonly half of a river’s annual sediment
load may be transported during only 5 to 10 days flow.
 During and after a particularly violent storm a river may carry as much
sediment as it would in several "normal" years.
 Mud slides caused by earthquakes and volcanoes can also have a dramatic
and unpredictable effect on reservoir sedimentation.
 Global warming, which is predicted to cause more intense storms, will
likely increase both the unpredictability and rate of reservoir
sedimentation.

Top Issues Facing the Dam Community

1. Failure Risk
2. Increasing Hazard
3. Funding
4. Regulation
5. Emergency Preparedness
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6. Public Awareness
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 1. Risk of Failure

 Driving every other issue and all activities within the dam safety community
is the risk of dam failure.
 Although the majority of dams in the U.S. have responsible owners and are
properly maintained, still many dams fail every year.
 From 2005 to 2009, the States reported 132 dam failures. A life was
recently lost in New Hampshire as a result of a dam failure.
 In 2006, seven people were killed in Hawaii when a deficient dam broke.
Dam and downstream repair costs resulting from failures in 23 states
reporting in one recent year totaled $54.3 million.
 Dam failures are most likely to happen for one of five reasons:

i. Overtopping caused by water spilling over the top of a dam

ii. Structural failure of materials used in dam construction
iii. Cracking caused by movements like the natural settling of a dam
iv. Inadequate maintenance and upkeep
v. Piping—when seepage through a dam is not properly filtered and soil
particles continue to progress and form sink holes in the dam

 Historically, dams that failed had some deficiency, as characterized above,

which caused the failure.
 These dams are typically termed "unsafe." Currently, there are about 4,400
"unsafe" dams in the U.S.
 There are unsafe dams in almost every state.
 A majority of states and federal agencies define an "unsafe" dam as one
that has been found to have hydraulic or structural deficiencies that leave it
more susceptible to failure.

2. The Increasing Hazard

 Dams are innately hazardous structures.

 Failure or mis-operation can result in the release of the reservoir contents-
-this includes water, mine wastes or agricultural refuse--causing negative
impacts upstream or downstream or at locations remote from the dam.
 Negative impacts of primary concern are loss of human life, economic loss
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including property damage, lifeline disruption and environmental damage.

 Some dams are considered to have a greater hazard potential than others.
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  There are approximately 10,000 state-regulated "high-hazard" potential
dams in the U.S.
 "High-hazard" is a term used by a majority of state dam safety programs
and federal agencies as part of a three-pronged classification system used
to determine how hazardous a dam's failure might be to the downstream
area.
 While the definition varies from place to place, it generally means if failure
of a high-hazard dam occurs, there probably will be loss of life.
 It must be emphasized that this determination does not mean that these
dams are in need of repair--these dams could be in excellent condition or
they could be in poor condition.
 "High-hazard" just reflects the dam's potential for doing damage
downstream should it fail.
 High-hazard potential dams exist in every state and affect the lives of
thousands downstream.
 The current issue and debate is over the increasing number of these high-
hazard structures--not because more high-hazard dams are being built, but
that more development is occurring downstream.
 Dam safety regulators generally have no control over local zoning issues or
developers' property rights.
 So this issue continues to worry regulators as the "hazard creep" trend
persists.

3. Lack of Financing for and Attention to Maintenance, Upgrade and Repair

 Dams must be maintained to keep them safe.

 Occasional upgrade or rehabilitation is necessary due to deterioration,
changing technical standards and improved techniques, better
understanding of the area's precipitation conditions and increases in
downstream populations and changing land use.
 When a dam's hazard classification is changed to reflect an increased
hazard potential, the dam may need to be upgraded to meet an increased
need for safety.
 The age of a dam is not necessarily a direct indicator of its condition. Age is
indirectly an indicator in that old dams were not built to the standards of
today.
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 Some older dams are considered in poor condition for this reason alone;
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others may have been inadequately maintained as well.

  Ownership makes dams a unique part of the national infrastructure. While
most infrastructure facilities (roads, bridges, sewer systems, etc) are owned
by public entities, the majority of dams in the US are privately owned.
 A dam's owner is solely responsible for the safety and liability of the dam
and for financing its upkeep, upgrade and repair.
 Many different types of people and entities own and operate dams:

i. About 58 percent are privately owned.

ii. Local governments own about 16 percent.
iii. State agencies own about four percent.
iv. The federal government, public utilities and undetermined interests own
smaller numbers of dams.

 Lack of funding for dam upgrades is a serious national problem, especially

within the private sector.
 Operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation of dams can range in cost from
the low thousands to millions, and responsibility for these expenses lies
with owners, many of whom cannot afford these costs.
 Although some states offer loan programs, funding assistance, through
government or private sources, is minimal at best.
 In 2009, an ASDSO task group concluded that it would take approximately
$34 billion to rehabilitate the nation's non-federal dams, and $16 billion to
rehabilitate the nation's most critical (high-hazard potential) dams that are
in need of rehabilitation.
 Roughly $8.7 billion was needed to repair the publicly-owned high-hazard
potential dams with the remaining $7.3 billion needed for the privately-
owned high-hazard dams.
 In December 2012, the task group revised the estimates.
 Current figures place the total cost estimated for non-federal dams at
$53.69 billion.
 High-hazard potential dams are estimated at approximately $18.2 billion
($11.2 billion for publicly-owned and $7 billion for privately-owned).
 In 2013, the American Society of Civil Engineers updated its Infrastructure
Report Card.
 In this report, dam safety was given a 'D' - partially due to the lack of
funding available to support the repair and upgrade needs of the nation's
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dams.
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 4. Lack of Adequate Authority and Resources for State Dam Safety Programs

 States are responsible for oversight of the vast majority of dams listed in
the National Inventory of Dams (77% in 2012).
 Although most states have legislative authority to carry out a
comprehensive dam safety program, many are lacking in specific areas.
 Some states are unable, by specific language in their law, to regulate
certain types of dams, allowing these structures to fall between the
regulatory cracks.
 Other states have limited ability to enforce the law. In some states, officials
have no recourse if dam owners do not carry out safety repairs ordered by
the state.
 Many states are simply under-resourced for carrying out the letter of the
law.
 State budgets for dam safety range from $0 (Alabama) to $11 million
(California).
 But the average annual state dam safety budget is about $688,000. The
average number of regulated dams per state exceeds 1700.
 The average number of dam inspectors per state is about eight; this means
that each dam inspector is responsible for overseeing the safety of more
than 200 existing dams, plus the additional responsibilities of overseeing
new construction.
 There is, therefore, a serious need, in almost every state, to pump
additional state resources into these programs.

5. Lack of Emergency Preparedness In Case of Failure

 Emergency preparedness is improving, with the percentage of high-hazard

potential dams with an EAP increasing from 35% to 69% between 1999 and
2012.
 The goal is for all high-hazard potential dams to have an EAP so that dam
owners and local authorities are prepared for a sudden dam failure and the
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ensuing downstream consequences.

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6. Lack of Public Awareness

  Intersecting almost all the issues above is the issue of public education
about dams.
 The ordinary citizen is unaware that the beautiful lakes on which he or she
boats, or fishes are only there because of manmade dams.
 Developers build in dambreak flood inundation areas knowing nothing
about the potential that upstream dam has to cause devastation should it
fail. In fact, some developers and zoning officials are completely unaware of
dams within their community.
 Even if citizens understand and are aware of dams, they still can be overly
confident in the infallibility of these manmade structures. Living in
dambreak flood-prone areas is a risk.
 Many dam owners do not realize their responsibility and liability toward the
downstream public and environment.
 Adequate understanding of proper dam maintenance and upgrade
techniques is a typical problem among many owners across Kenya
 Some groups put forth the message that dams are bad for the environment
and advocate their removal.
 This may mislead the public into thinking that taking care of our dams is a
worthless cause. In some cases, dam removal is the best solution, but in all
instances the consequences should be considered in coming to this
decision.
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