TUSHAR

SHAR DAS PATTANAYAK, SR. LECT (MET)

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Dislocation, types, its basic
behavior & role in deformation.

DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
 Point defects
 Line defects
 Surface Defects
Volume Defects
 PROPERTIES

Structure sensitive Structure Insensitive

(Mechanical Properties) (Physical Properties)
E.g. Yield stress, Hardness E.g. Density, elastic modulus

PROPERTY: A measurable quantity which gives chemical and physical

characteristics of a substance.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS

0D 1D 2D 3D
(Point defects) (Line defects) (Surface / Interface) (Volume defects)

Vacancy Dislocation Surface Precipitate

Grain
Impurity
boundary Blow holes
Edge Screw
Frenkel
defect Twin
boundary Voids /
Cracks
Schottky Tilt
defect Boundary
Pores
Stacking
faults
 Vacancy
Non-ionic Interstitial
Impurity
crystals
Substitutional
0D
(Point defects) Frenkel defect
Ionic
crystals
Schottky defect

 Imperfect point-like regions in the crystal about the size of 1-2 atomic
diameters
Vacancy

 Missing atom from an atomic site

 Atoms around the vacancy displaced
 Tensile stress field produced in the vicinity

Tensile Stress
Fields ?
 Relative
size
Interstitial
Compressive
Impurity Stress
Fields
Substitutional

Compressive stress
fields

 SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY Tensile Stress

 Foreign atom replacing the parent atom in the crystal Fields
 E.g. Cu sitting in the lattice site of FCC-Ni
 INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
 Foreign atom sitting in the void of a crystal
 E.g. C sitting in the octahedral void in HT FCC-Fe
 Ionic Crystals

 Overall electrical neutrality has to be maintained

Frenkel defect

 Cation (being smaller get displaced to interstitial voids

 E.g. AgI, CaF2
 Schottky defect

 Pair of anion and cation missing from the lattice site

 E.g. Alkali halides
 Line defect- Dislocation
Dislocations- Most important 1-D or line defects. They
extend in a crystal as a line or 1-D net of lines.
Responsible for slip- Most important mechanism of
plastic deformation.
Dislocation is a line separating slipped and unslipped
region of a crystal.

10
 Deformation by Slip
1.5 Slip & Deformation.

The usual method of plastic deformation is slip.

This is sliding of one block of crystal over other block.
This takes place along a definite crystallographic plane (slip
plane) and definite crystallographic direction (slip direction).

Crude approximation, it is like distortion produced in a deck

of cards when pushed from one end.

Slip in a crystal can be understood with the help of the

Fig.1

11
Fig. 1.a Classical Idea of Slip & Slip Lines Fig. 1.b Fine Structure of Slip Band

12
1.2 Dislocation in
various crystals
DISLOCATIONS

 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
1.3 Source of dislocation Plastic Deformation in Crystalline Materials

Slip Twinning Phase Transformation Creep Mechanisms

(Dislocation
motion)

Grain boundary sliding

Vacancy diffusion

Dislocation climb
 DISLOCATIONS

EDGE MIXED SCREW

 Usually dislocations have a mixed character and Edge and Screw

dislocations are the ideal extremes

 Geometrically necessary dislocations

 Dislocation is a boundary
between the slipped and the
unslipped parts of the crystal
lying over a slip plane

Slipped Unslipped
part part
of the of the
crystal crystal
 Edge Dislocation

Fig – A represents a simple cubic lattice under an external

shear stress. The amount of slip or displacement is
assumed to be one atomic spacing. The result of this
shear is shown in the Fig. – B.
• This leaves an extra half plane cd below the slip plane in
the right hand side, outside the crystal.
• It will also produce an extra half plane located above the
slip plane and in the centre of the crystal.
• All other planes are realigned and continuity is maintained.
• The boundary of additional plane is called an edge
dislocation.

17
Fig. Continued… Edge Dislocation

18
 Edge Dislocation
• Fig. 4.5 represents a 3 – D sketch of the edge
dislocation.
• The figure clearly shows that dislocation has the
dimension of a line.
• Dislocation line marks the (separates) boundary between
sheared and un-sheared part of the slip plane.
This is the basic characteristics of a dislocation line.
Dislocation may be defined as a line that forms a
boundary on a slip plane between slipped and un-
slipped region.

19
 Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

Dislocation
line

Dislocation
movement
Atom movement
F

Displacement vector or slip vector: Burgers vector, b

20
A dislocation is associated with one vector:


b  The Burgers vector

The magnitude and direction of a dislocation can be determined by a

vector called burgers vector.
 Burgers Vector
Edge dislocation

Crystal with edge dislocation

Perfect crystal

RHFS:
Right Hand Finish to Start
convention
 Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

Dislocation
line

Dislocation
movement
Atom movement
F

Displacement vector or slip vector: Burgers vector, b

23
 Dislocation is a boundary between the slipped and the unslipped parts
of the crystal lying over a slip plane
 The intersection of the extra half-plane of atoms with the slip plane
defines the dislocation line (for an edge dislocation)
 Direction and magnitude of slip is characterized by the Burgers vector
of the dislocation
(A dislocation is born with a Burgers vector and expresses it even in
its death!)
 The Burgers vector is determined by the Burgers Circuit
 Right hand screw (finish to start) convention is used for determining
the direction of the Burgers vector
 The edge dislocation has compressive stress field above and tensile
stress field below the slip plane
 Dislocations are non-equilibrium defects and would leave the crystal
if given an opportunity
Compressive stress
field

Tensile stress
field
 STRESS FIELD OF A EDGE DISLOCATION
X – FEM SIMULATED CONTOURS

FILM
28 Å

SUBSTRATE
b
27 Å

(MPa)
(x & y original grid size = b/2 = 1.92 Å)
Positive edge dislocation
Negative edge dislocation

ATTRACTION Can come together and cancel

one another

REPULSION
 Conservative Motion of dislocations
(Glide) On the slip plane

Motion of
Edge
dislocation

Non-conservative Motion of dislocation

(Climb)  to the slip plane

 For edge dislocation: as burgers vector  dislocation line→ they

define a plane → the slip plane
 Climb involves addition or subtraction of a row of atoms below the
half plane
► +ve climb = climb up → removal of a plane of atoms
► ve climb = climb down → addition of a plane of atoms
 Edge Dislocation Glide

Shear stress

Surface
step
 Edge Climb

Positive climb Negative climb

Removal of a row of atoms Addition of a row of atoms
 Screw Dislocation
Schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.13 A.
• Here each small cube is considered to represent an atom.
Fig. B represents the same crystal with the position of the
dislocation line marked by DC.
• ABCD represents slip plane under the effect of stress.
Upper front part has been sheared by one atomic distance
to the left relative to the lower front portion.
• It is termed as screw dislocation because the lattice planes
spiral the dislocation line DC. This can be proved by
starting at point x in Fig. A then proceeding toward and
around the crystal in the indicated direction. One circuit will
end the crystal at point y. If it is continued it will finally end
at y. This deformation is known as screw dislocation.
Dislocation line // Displacement vector and
moves perpendicular to Displacement vector 32
Fig. Contd…Screw Dislocation

33
 Line
Dislocation
movement

b Dislocation line

Atom movement
34
F
 Screw dislocation

[1]

[1] Bryan Baker

chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/ topicreview/bp/materials/defects3.html -
 Slip plane 2 Screw dislocation cross-slip

b

Slip plane 1

The dislocation is shown cross-slipping from the blue plane to the green plane
The dislocation line ends on:
 The free surface of the crystal
 Internal surface or interface
 Closes on itself to form a loop
 Geometric properties of dislocations

Type of dislocation
Dislocation Property
Edge Screw
Relation between dislocation
 ||
line and b
Slip direction || to b || to b
Direction of dislocation line
|| 
relative to b
Process by which dislocation
climb Cross-slip
may leave slip plane
 Crystal-Air surface
Interphase
boundary
Crystal Boundary
Crystal-Crystal Low
Grain angle
boundary
2D DEFECTS High
Stacking Faults
(Surface) angle

Twin Boundary
 Surface Imperfections

 2D in a mathematical sense
 The region of distortion is ~ few atomic diameters in thickness
 Grain Boundary

The thickness may be of the order of few atomic diameters

 The crystal orientation changes abruptly at the grain boundary
 In an low angle boundary the orientation difference is < 10º
 In an High angle boundary the orientation difference is > 10º
Grain boundary energy is responsible for grain growth on heating
~ (>0.5Tm)
Low angle grain boundary
 1.4 Twinning & deformation. Twin Boundary

 The atomic arrangement on one side of the twin boundary is related to

the other side by a symmetry operation (usually a mirror)
 Twin boundaries usually occur in pairs
 The region between the regions is called the twinned region

Annealing twins (formed during recrystallization)

Twin

Deformation or Mechanical twins (formed during plastic deformation)

 Twin boundary in Fe doped SrTiO3 bicrystals (artificially prepared)

High-resolution micrograph

Mirror related
variants

Twin plane

[1] S. Hutt, O. Kienzle, F. Ernst and M. Rühle, Z Metallkd, 92 (2001) 2

 Stacking Fault

 Error in the sequence of stacking atomic planes → Stacking fault

FCC stacking …ABC ABC ABC ABC…

FCC stacking
with a stacking fault …ABC AB AB ABC…

Thin region of HCP type of stacking

 In above the number of nearest neighbours remains the same

but next-nearest neighbours are different than that in FCC
 Stacking fault energy : Energy associated with stacking fault
Stacking fault in FCC can lead to thin region of HCP kind of stacking
Comparison of Energy of Various 2D Defects

Type of boundary Energy (J/m2)

Surface ~ 0.89
Grain boundary ~0.85
~ 0.63
Twin Boundary
0.498 (Cu)
0.08 (Cu)
Stacking Fault
0.2 (Al)
VOLUME DEFECTS

1 Blow holes

Voids /
2
Cracks

3 Pores
Blow Holes
Voids are caused by high energy particles. e.g
material used in nuclear reactors
• A group of atoms missing
Assignment Questions of Chapter-1 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Write down difference between Twinning and Slip. (5)

2. Explain Types of dislocations. (5)
3. Differentiate Edge vs Screw Dislocation (5)
4. Explain Edge and Screw Dislocation with neat sketch (10)
5. Differentiate glide vs cross slip. (5)
6. Both edge & Screw dislocation can glide but only screw dislocation can cross slip. Why? (2)
7. Explain different types of defects. (10)
8. Write short notes on Mixed Dislocation. (5)
9. Write down line diagram showing directional relationship between force, dislocation line,
movement of dislocation and burger vector both in screw as well as edge dislocation. (5)
10. What is stacking fault? (2)
DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS

Presented by:
Tushar Das Pattanayak
1.1 Dislocation, types, its basic
behavior & role in deformation.

DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
 Point defects
 Line defects
 Surface Defects
Volume Defects
 PROPERTIES

Structure sensitive Structure Insensitive

(Mechanical Properties) (Physical Properties)
E.g. Yield stress, Hardness E.g. Density, elastic modulus

PROPERTY: A measurable quantity which gives chemical and physical

characteristics of a substance.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS

0D 1D 2D 3D
(Point defects) (Line defects) (Surface / Interface) (Volume defects)

Vacancy Dislocation Surface Precipitate

Grain
Impurity
boundary Blow holes
Edge Screw
Frenkel
defect Twin
boundary Voids /
Cracks
Schottky Tilt
defect Boundary
Pores
Stacking
faults
 Vacancy
Non-ionic Interstitial
Impurity
crystals
Substitutional
0D
(Point defects) Frenkel defect
Ionic
crystals
Schottky defect

 Imperfect point-like regions in the crystal about the size of 1-2 atomic
diameters
Vacancy

 Missing atom from an atomic site

 Atoms around the vacancy displaced
 Tensile stress field produced in the vicinity

Tensile Stress
Fields ?
 Relative
size
Interstitial
Compressive
Impurity Stress
Fields
Substitutional

Compressive stress
fields

 SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY Tensile Stress

 Foreign atom replacing the parent atom in the crystal Fields
 E.g. Cu sitting in the lattice site of FCC-Ni
 INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
 Foreign atom sitting in the void of a crystal
 E.g. C sitting in the octahedral void in HT FCC-Fe
 Ionic Crystals

 Overall electrical neutrality has to be maintained

Frenkel defect

 Cation (being smaller get displaced to interstitial voids

 E.g. AgI, CaF2
 Schottky defect

 Pair of anion and cation missing from the lattice site

 E.g. Alkali halides
 Line defect- Dislocation
Dislocations- Most important 1-D or line defects. They
extend in a crystal as a line or 1-D net of lines.
Responsible for slip- Most important mechanism of
plastic deformation.
Dislocation is a line separating slipped and unslipped
region of a crystal.

10
 Deformation by Slip
1.5 Slip & Deformation.

The usual method of plastic deformation is slip.

This is sliding of one block of crystal over other block.
This takes place along a definite crystallographic plane (slip
plane) and definite crystallographic direction (slip direction).

Crude approximation, it is like distortion produced in a deck

of cards when pushed from one end.

Slip in a crystal can be understood with the help of the

Fig.1

11
Fig. 1.a Classical Idea of Slip & Slip Lines Fig. 1.b Fine Structure of Slip Band

12
1.2 Dislocation in
various crystals
DISLOCATIONS

 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
1.3 Source of dislocation Plastic Deformation in Crystalline Materials

Slip Twinning Phase Transformation Creep Mechanisms

(Dislocation
motion)

Grain boundary sliding

Vacancy diffusion

Dislocation climb
 DISLOCATIONS

EDGE MIXED SCREW

 Usually dislocations have a mixed character and Edge and Screw

dislocations are the ideal extremes

 Geometrically necessary dislocations

 Dislocation is a boundary
between the slipped and the
unslipped parts of the crystal
lying over a slip plane

Slipped Unslipped
part part
of the of the
crystal crystal
 Edge Dislocation

Fig – A represents a simple cubic lattice under an external

shear stress. The amount of slip or displacement is
assumed to be one atomic spacing. The result of this
shear is shown in the Fig. – B.
• This leaves an extra half plane cd below the slip plane in
the right hand side, outside the crystal.
• It will also produce an extra half plane located above the
slip plane and in the centre of the crystal.
• All other planes are realigned and continuity is maintained.
• The boundary of additional plane is called an edge
dislocation.

17
Fig. Continued… Edge Dislocation

18
 Edge Dislocation
• Fig. 4.5 represents a 3 – D sketch of the edge
dislocation.
• The figure clearly shows that dislocation has the
dimension of a line.
• Dislocation line marks the (separates) boundary between
sheared and un-sheared part of the slip plane.
This is the basic characteristics of a dislocation line.
Dislocation may be defined as a line that forms a
boundary on a slip plane between slipped and un-
slipped region.

19
 Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

Dislocation
line

Dislocation
movement
Atom movement
F

Displacement vector or slip vector: Burgers vector, b

20
A dislocation is associated with one vector:


b  The Burgers vector

The magnitude and direction of a dislocation can be determined by a

vector called burgers vector.
 Burgers Vector
Edge dislocation

Crystal with edge dislocation

Perfect crystal

RHFS:
Right Hand Finish to Start
convention
 Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

Dislocation
line

Dislocation
movement
Atom movement
F

Displacement vector or slip vector: Burgers vector, b

23
 Dislocation is a boundary between the slipped and the unslipped parts
of the crystal lying over a slip plane
 The intersection of the extra half-plane of atoms with the slip plane
defines the dislocation line (for an edge dislocation)
 Direction and magnitude of slip is characterized by the Burgers vector
of the dislocation
(A dislocation is born with a Burgers vector and expresses it even in
its death!)
 The Burgers vector is determined by the Burgers Circuit
 Right hand screw (finish to start) convention is used for determining
the direction of the Burgers vector
 The edge dislocation has compressive stress field above and tensile
stress field below the slip plane
 Dislocations are non-equilibrium defects and would leave the crystal
if given an opportunity
Compressive stress
field

Tensile stress
field
 STRESS FIELD OF A EDGE DISLOCATION
X – FEM SIMULATED CONTOURS

FILM
28 Å

SUBSTRATE
b
27 Å

(MPa)
(x & y original grid size = b/2 = 1.92 Å)
Positive edge dislocation
Negative edge dislocation

ATTRACTION Can come together and cancel

one another

REPULSION
 Conservative Motion of dislocations
(Glide) On the slip plane

Motion of
Edge
dislocation

Non-conservative Motion of dislocation

(Climb)  to the slip plane

 For edge dislocation: as burgers vector  dislocation line→ they

define a plane → the slip plane
 Climb involves addition or subtraction of a row of atoms below the
half plane
► +ve climb = climb up → removal of a plane of atoms
► ve climb = climb down → addition of a plane of atoms
 Edge Dislocation Glide

Shear stress

Surface
step
 Edge Climb

Positive climb Negative climb

Removal of a row of atoms Addition of a row of atoms
 Screw Dislocation
Schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.13 A.
• Here each small cube is considered to represent an atom.
Fig. B represents the same crystal with the position of the
dislocation line marked by DC.
• ABCD represents slip plane under the effect of stress.
Upper front part has been sheared by one atomic distance
to the left relative to the lower front portion.
• It is termed as screw dislocation because the lattice planes
spiral the dislocation line DC. This can be proved by
starting at point x in Fig. A then proceeding toward and
around the crystal in the indicated direction. One circuit will
end the crystal at point y. If it is continued it will finally end
at y. This deformation is known as screw dislocation.
Dislocation line // Displacement vector and
moves perpendicular to Displacement vector 32
Fig. Contd…Screw Dislocation

33
 Line
Dislocation
movement

b Dislocation line

Atom movement
34
F
 Screw dislocation

[1]

[1] Bryan Baker

chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/ topicreview/bp/materials/defects3.html -
 Slip plane 2 Screw dislocation cross-slip

b

Slip plane 1

The dislocation is shown cross-slipping from the blue plane to the green plane
The dislocation line ends on:
 The free surface of the crystal
 Internal surface or interface
 Closes on itself to form a loop
 Geometric properties of dislocations

Type of dislocation
Dislocation Property
Edge Screw
Relation between dislocation
 ||
line and b
Slip direction || to b || to b
Direction of dislocation line
|| 
relative to b
Process by which dislocation
climb Cross-slip
may leave slip plane
 Crystal-Air surface
Interphase
boundary
Crystal Boundary
Crystal-Crystal Low
Grain angle
boundary
2D DEFECTS High
Stacking Faults
(Surface) angle

Twin Boundary
 Surface Imperfections

 2D in a mathematical sense
 The region of distortion is ~ few atomic diameters in thickness
 Grain Boundary

The thickness may be of the order of few atomic diameters

 The crystal orientation changes abruptly at the grain boundary
 In an low angle boundary the orientation difference is < 10º
 In an High angle boundary the orientation difference is > 10º
Grain boundary energy is responsible for grain growth on heating
~ (>0.5Tm)
Low angle grain boundary
 1.4 Twinning & deformation. Twin Boundary

 The atomic arrangement on one side of the twin boundary is related to

the other side by a symmetry operation (usually a mirror)
 Twin boundaries usually occur in pairs
 The region between the regions is called the twinned region

Annealing twins (formed during recrystallization)

Twin

Deformation or Mechanical twins (formed during plastic deformation)

 Twin boundary in Fe doped SrTiO3 bicrystals (artificially prepared)

High-resolution micrograph

Mirror related
variants

Twin plane

[1] S. Hutt, O. Kienzle, F. Ernst and M. Rühle, Z Metallkd, 92 (2001) 2

 Stacking Fault

 Error in the sequence of stacking atomic planes → Stacking fault

FCC stacking …ABC ABC ABC ABC…

FCC stacking
with a stacking fault
…ABC AB AB ABC…

Thin region of HCP type of stacking

 In above the number of nearest neighbours remains the same

but next-nearest neighbours are different than that in FCC
 Stacking fault energy : Energy associated with stacking fault
Stacking fault in FCC can lead to thin region of HCP kind of stacking
Comparison of Energy of Various 2D Defects

Type of boundary Energy (J/m2)

Surface ~ 0.89
Grain boundary ~0.85
~ 0.63
Twin Boundary
0.498 (Cu)
0.08 (Cu)
Stacking Fault
0.2 (Al)
VOLUME DEFECTS

1 Blow holes

Voids /
2
Cracks

3 Pores
Blow Holes
Voids are caused by high energy particles. e.g
material used in nuclear reactors
• A group of atoms missing
 2.0 Deformation of Metals

2.1 Elastic & Plastic Behaviour of Metals

Fundamentally – atoms arranged in periodic order
A crystal is an orderly array of atoms in space.
Most metals crystallize: bcc, fcc & hcp
Unit cells: Smallest group of atoms possessing the
symmetry of crystal

51
 Lattice Defects

Real crystals deviate from perfect periodicity and known

as lattice defects.
Defects affect Physical & Mechanical Properties.

Structure sensitive and insensitive properties

• Structure sensitive - Mechanical Properties
• Structure insensitive - Physical Properties

52
 Contd… lattice defects

Lattice defects
1. Point Defects: Vacancies, Interstitials & Impurities
2. Line Defects : Dislocations
3. Surface Defects: Stacking fault, Grain boundary, Low
angle grain boundary, Twinned region etc.

53
 Line defect- Dislocation
Dislocations- Most important 2-D or line defects. They
extend in a crystal as a line or 2-D net of lines.
Responsible for slip- Most important mechanism of
plastic deformation.
Dislocation is a line separating slipped and unslipped
region of a crystal.

54
 Deformation by Slip

The usual method of plastic deformation is slip.

This is sliding of one block of crystal over other block.
This takes place along a definite crystallographic plane (slip
plane).

Crude approximation, it is like distortion produced in a deck

of cards when pushed from one end.

Slip in a crystal can be understood with the help of the

Fig.1

55
Fig. 1.a Classical Idea of Slip & Slip Lines Fig. 1.b Fine Structure of Slip Band

56
 Effect of Shear Stress

• Slip takes place along certain crystallographic planes and

directions (there are only limited no. of planes and directions).

• Stress must exceed a critical level.

• Slip displacement is an integral multiple of atomic distance
(each atom moves an integral multiple of atomic spacing).

Due to symmetry of a crystal lattice, the crystal structure is

perfectly restored, if deformation is uniform. Each atom in the
slipped part move by the same integral multiple of lattice
spacing.

Slip lines appears as changes in elevation. Under Electron

Microscope the change in elevation of slip appears as a band.
The band in actually composed of number of individual slip
steps. 57
 Slip Plane & Direction
Slip occurs most readily in specific direction on a
certain specific crystallographic planes.
Generally, slip planes are plane of greatest atomic
density. Slip directions are closest–packed directions
within the slip planes.
• Since the planes of highest atomic density are most
widely spaced planes in the crystal systems, the resistance
to slip is least along the set of planes.
• Slip directions are closed packed direction, therefore the
movement of atoms in the direction is least.
• The slip plane together with the slip direction is
considered as slip systems.

The most common crystation lattice in metallic materials

are bcc, hcp and fcc. The figures show the hard ball
model and stacking sequences in the above crystal
systems 58
Fig. 2

59
 hcp Crystals
In hcp crystals basal plane, (0001) has maximum atomic
density: slip plane (closed packed plane).
The axes [11 -2] are the closed packed directions and
hence the slip directions
No. of Basal Plane - 1
No. of Slip direction - 3
In each basal plane
No. of my slip system = 1x3=3
This is the reason hcp crystals are highly orientation
dependent.
Mg, Zn, Co, Ti.
In case of hexagonal closed packed system, Miller Bravais
indical notation is used to describe the direction and
planes. Four coordinates are used, Fourth Indical notation
by (a1 a2 a3 c) [a1 a2 a3 c].
Unit vector direction is a/3 [2 Ī Ī 0] 60
Fig. 3

61
(110) Plane & [1 -1 -1] Direction in bcc &
(111) and [1 -1 0] in fcc Systems

62
(001) Plane & [100] Direction in Simple Cubic Systems

63
 fcc Crystals

• (111) planes are closed packed planes / planes of highest

atomic density.
• <110> are closed packed direction.
There are eight {111} planes but opposite plane are
parallel. Therefore, there are only four set of octahedral
planes. Each plane contains three closed packed
directions.
No. of slip systems = 3 x 4 = 12

Ag, Cu, Ni, Pt, γ-Fe

64
Slip planes/ directions in fcc

65
Slip planes/ directions in bcc

66
 bcc Crystals
bcc is not a closed packed structure.
Not even a single closed packed plane.
{110} planes have higher atomic density.
<111> direction are as closed as <110> in fcc and {11-20}
in hcp.
The slip planes are not definite
• Common slip planes {110}, {112} & {123}
• Directions always {111}.
There are 48 slip systems. But planes are not really closed
packed, therefore, the shear stress required is higher.
Slip moves (cross slip) from one plane to other resulting
into irregular wavy slip bands.
The examples of bcc metals α – Fe, Mo, Cr, Nb.

67
Displacement vectors in cubic system

68
 Slip in a Perfect Lattice
Calculation of Theoretical Shear Strength

Slip is translation of one atomic plane over other. This

movement of atomic plane requires a critical level of shear
stress.
Fig.

69
• Continued .. Slip in perfect crystal

70
71
Continued… Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

72
 Continued… Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

The shear stress is a periodic function of the displacement.

A sinusoidal relationship can be assumed
2 x here  m is amplitude of sine wave. a is
   m sin
b interatomic spacing, b is period & x is
small displacement
x
Now   Gr  G
a
G b
For small displacement,  m 
2  a
x 2x
G  m
a b

73
As a rough approximate a ≈ b

 max = G
2

74
 Continued… Slip in perfect lattice Fig.

Shear Modulus = 20 – 150 GP in metals.

Theoretical shear stress = 3 to 30 GPa.
However, shear stress to cause shear in metal single
crystals are 0.5 to 10 MPa
Even more refined calculation shows:
m  G for fcc metals
16
G
= for NaCl crystals
8
G
= 4
for Covalent bonded diamond structure
Since the theoretical shear stress of metal is 100 times
greater than the actual. It indicates the mechanism either
than bodily satisfying of atoms is responsible for slip. 75
 Theoretical shear strength, explanation

The concept of dislocation was first introduced to explain

discrepancy between the observed and theoretical shear
strength of metals
The concept of dislocation was first introduced to explain
discrepancy between the observed and theoretical shear
strength of metals. If this concept is true it is necessary to
show: 1) they are visible, 2) the motion of a dislocation
requires a shear stress much smaller than the theoretical
shear strength. 3) the movement of dislocation produces a
steps at the free surface. All three concepts are found to be
true in real crystals. This indicates the validity of the
concept of dislocation.
76
• It is possible to see these dislocations with aid of
Transmission Electron Microscope.
For this purpose very thin slice of metal is taken (few
thousand Ǻ thick) from a deformed crystal.

• Etch Pit Technique revels the location of intersection of

dislocation line with the surface.

77
 Figs. Disl. Network & Etch pits

78
Fig. Observation of Disl. in thin foil

79
 Edge Dislocation

Fig – A represents a simple cubic lattice under an external

shear stress. The amount of slip or displacement is
assumed to be one atomic spacing. The result of this
shear is shown in the Fig. – B.
• This leaves an extra half plane CD below the slip plane in
the right hand side, outside the crystal.
• It will also produce an extra half plane located above the
slip plane and in the centre of the crystal.
• All other planes are realigned and continuity is maintained.
• Distortion decrease as moved away from the edge of the
extra plane.
• The boundary of additional plane is called an edge
dislocation.

80
Fig. Continued… Edge Dislocation

81
 Edge Dislocation
• Fig. 4.11 represents a 3 – D sketch of the edge
dislocation.
• The figure clearly shows that dislocation has the
dimension of a line.
• Dislocation line marks the (separates) boundary between
sheared and un-sheared part of the slip plane.
This is the basic characteristics of a dislocation line.
Dislocation may be defined as a line that forms a
boundary on a slip plane between slipped and un-
slipped region.
Displacement vector: Burgers Vector, bֿ .

82
Fig. Continued Edge Disl.

83
84
 Screw Dislocation
Schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.13 A.
• Here each small cube is considered to represent an atom.
Fig. B represents the same crystal with the position of the
dislocation line marked by DC.
• ABCD represents slip plane under the effect of stress.
Upper front part has been sheared by one atomic distance
to the left relative to the lower front portion.
• It is termed as screw dislocation because the lattice planes
spiral the dislocation line DC. This can be proved by
starting at point x in Fig. A then proceeding toward and
around the crystal in the indicated direction. One circuit will
end the crystal at point y. If it is continued it will finally end
at y. This deformation is known as screw dislocation.
Dislocation line // Displacement vector and
moves perpendicular to Displacement vector 85
Fig. Contd…Screw Dislocation

86
87
Fig. Cont.d…Screw Dislocation

88
 Edge vs Screw Dislocations

• The Fig. A, shown earlier has an incomplete plane which

lies above the slip plane. These dislocations are repres-
ented by and ┴. Here the “―” represents slip plane and
“I” vertical line extra-half plane.
• It is also possible to introduce an incomplete plane below
the slip plane these dislocations are differentiated by
calling the first one as positive(┴) and second a negative
(┬)edge dislocation.
• It may be noted that the difference between these
dislocations is arbitrary. A single rotation of a positive
edge dislocation by 180° turns it into negative edge
dislocation.

89
 Cont… Edge vs Screw dislocations

The illustrated Screw dislocation is Left Hand Dislocation.

Because the lattice planes spiral the dislocation line like a
left hand screw.

In other case, lattice planes spiral the dislocation like a

right hand screw (anti-clock wise movement of lattice
planes results the advancement towards its operator/
right). All there dislocations are shown in the Figs. 4.14.

90
Fig. Continued… Edge, Screw Disl.

91
 Cont… Edge vs Screw dislocations

• In (+) edge dislocation, line move to the left, when stress

is applied on the upper half.
• In (-) edge dislocation, line moves in the right direction
when stress is applied on lower half.
• Similarly anti-clock wise movement makes the
advancement towards left in left handed screw.
• Anti-clock wise movement makes the advancement in
the right direction in case of right hand screw dislocation.

What is common?
Continue shearing of the crystal in all cases result
into formation of steps on both the surfaces.

92
Cont… Edge vs Screw dislocations

In the above cases dislocations are terminated on the

surface of the crystals. However, they can also form a
continues loop within it.

• In a loop two basic types of dislocations. Screw and

edge dislocations.

• An irregular area can also get sheared inside the

crystal.

In all the cases displacement is equal to a vector (length

equal to an atomic spacing or its multiple). This is a
discontinuity at which lattice shifts from un-sheared to
shear state.
93
Dislocation loop

94
 Mixed Dislocation
If b.v. is ┴ar to line, an Edge Dislocation.

If bv is║ to line, a Screw Dislocation.

At any other angels, dislocation is mixed in nature, a

Mixed Dislocation.
The Fig. 4.13 (a) shows an effect, atoms in area
A – C – B have shifted to one atomic distance relative to
the atoms below. The boundary of shift is not linear
rather curved. The top view of crystal is shown in Fig.
4.13 (b).

95
Mixed Dislocation

96
 Cont… Mixed dislocation
• Shift vector is same at all the points.

• A mixed distance can be resolved into an edge and a

screw dislocation. These resolved dislocation is called
edge and screw components of the line.

• The generation of mixed dislocation is very difficult to

visualize. Fig. 4.14 shows the top view of the curved
distance presented in Fig. 4.13. The open circle (O)
represents the atoms just above the slip (glide) plane
and close circles (●) just below. Atoms are in their
equilibrium positions in region x and y. Atomic
disturbance is noticed along dislocation line.

97
98
 Contd…Mixed Dislocation
. C –Pure E Disl, A- Pure S Disl. Between A & C Mixed Disl

99
 Imperfect /Partial Dislocation
• When atoms move from one equilibrium position to next
lattice site- perfect dislocation. (Fig.b)

When a perfect dislocation moves along its slip plane,

leaves behind the atoms in position equivalent to those
they occupied originally.

• In Fig.(c) shows an imperfect dislocation resulting a

relative displacement ‘a/2’. It can be seen that as the
imperfect dislocation moves to the left the atoms are
shifted into sites that are not equivalent to their original
position.
100
Cont…. Partial Disl.

101
2.2 Yielding Criteria for Ductile
Material
 2.3 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
The extent of slip in crystal depends on the magnitude of
the shearing stress produced by external loads, geom-
etry of the crystal, structure and the orientation slip plane
/direction with respect to the shearing stress.

Slip begins when the shearing stress (resolved) on the

slip plane in the slip direction reached a critical threshold
value, called critical resolved shear stress.
This depends on composition and temperature
(introduced by Schmid).

103
Contd… CRSS

P The area of the slip = A0/cos 

The component shear stress in the slip

direction = Pcos 
Ao
Resolved shear
Ф

stress on the slip
λ plane in the slip

A
direction 
= S cos  cos 
= c (Slip occurs when RSS,
critical for the material
and that condition is
achived
P 104
Contd…CRSS

• Shear resolved stress has maximum value when =  =

45°
• Resolved shear stress has zero value if the tensile axis is
normal to the slip plane (  =90°)or
• if it is parallel to slip plane  =90°).
Slip will not occur in these conditions.
• Crystal close to these orientation fracture rather than
slip.

105
 Contd...CRSS

Cont…CRSS

CRSS is a material constant.

• It is a function of chemistry ( Importance of alloy)
• It varies with the temperature (Working at elevated temp)
• bcc materials are very sensitive to temperature
(D/B transition temp.)
• hcp crystals are very sensitive to orientation changes
106
 Dislocation Reaction
Dislocation represents a boundary between slipped and
un-slipped region of a crystal. Topographically conside-
ration requires that a dislocation can not terminate within
the crystal. b1
b3
b2

However at node 3 or 4 dislocations meet. At a node two

dislocation b1 and b2 may combine to form b3.
a0 [110] + a0 [211] ao [321]
(During addition / subtraction common unit vector must be used)
• a0 /3 [112] + a0 /6[11-1] = ao/6 [224] + a0/6 [11-1]
ao/6 [333] = a0/2 [111]

107
SLIP VS TWINING
2.4 Deformation of Polycrystalline Aggregates
 Chapter 3
• Strengthening Mechanism
 4.0 Fundamentals of Metal working:
METAL WORKING
Mechanical working of metal is defined as an intentional deformation of metals
plastically under the action of externally applied force.
4.1 Classify different metal working process.

Mechanical working of metals is classified as:

1. Hot working
2. Cold working
Recrystallization Temperature
 Recrystallization is a process in which at a certain temperature range, a new
equiaxed & stressfree grains are formed.
 Recrystallization temperature is generally defined as temperature at which
complete recrystallization occurs within approximately one hour.

4.2 Explain hot working and cold working of metals and alloys
4.3 State the advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold working
(1) Hot Working:
The working of metal above the recrystallization temperature is called hot
working.Hot working of metal has following advantage:
1. The porosity of metal largely eliminated.
2. The grain structure of metal is refined.
3. The mechanical properties such as toughness, ductility improved.
4. The deformation of metal is easy.

Disadvantages.
 It requires expensive tools
 It produces poor surface finish
 Close tolerances cannot be maintained.

(2) Cold working:

The working of metal below their recrystallization temperature is known as cold

working. Advantages of cold working:

1. Residual stresses set up in the metal

2. Strength and hardness of metal are increased.
3. Surface finish improved.
4. Close dimensional tolerances maintained.
Disadvantages ...
 Cold working distorted the material
 Requires much higher pressures than hot working.

Metal forming processes:

 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Tube and Wire Drawing
 Deep Drawing
 Punching and Blanking (due to similarity to Deep Drawing)
6.0 Rolling:
Rolling:
Rolling is the deformation process of a metal that is widely used in the metal forming
process. It is done by passing the strip of the metal between the rollers. This paper
discussion will be made about the rolling process, the working principle of the rolling
process along with that the working principle of the rolling mills. Then the types of
rolling mills will be discussed. Apart from that, in this assessment rolling and its
defects are included briefly.

Definition of Rolling process: Rolling is defined as a process to form metals where

the metal strip is pressed by two or multiple rollers, thus the uniform thickness is
formed. To do this, the temperature is essential. There are two types of processes.
One is Hot rolled and another is Cold Rolled. If the strip is rolled after heating the
strip above the re-crystallization temperature then it is termed as Hot rolled and if
that done in room temperature then it is termed as the Cold rolled. Rolling is a
process that is widely used and has very high production.
6. 1 Explain principles of rolling
Working Principle of Rolling Process: The rolling process is a metal forming
process, in which stock of the material is passed between one or more pairs of rollers
in order to reduce and to maintain the uniform thickness.
This process is mainly focused on the cross-section of the ingot or the metal which is
forming.
Mainly by this process, we reduce the thickness of the metal workpiece. Now, the
rolling processes are mainly focused on the increasing length and the decreasing
thickness without changing the width of the workpiece.
There are certain types of the rolling process, whereas, in the hot rolling process, the
metal is heated at its desirable temperature, when the metal is properly heated then
the metal should be passed between the one or more rolling mills to gain the proper
desirable shape.
This process is vastly used in respect of any other rolling process. In this process, the
metal is heated above the recrystallization temperature. In the hot working process,
the metal is changing its grain structure because of the heat, now there were a new
set of strain-free grains in the metal and this process needs less amount of force
which correspondingly reduces the quality of the surface finish, of that metal. Now
there is another rolling process, which is a cold rolling process.
This rolling process is done below the recrystallization temperature of the metal it
varies upon the metal, room temperature can also be a below recrystallization
temperature. In this process, the force is much more required than the hot working
process to pass the metal from the rollers and this process offers good surface finish.
Types of Rolling Mills:: There are five rolling mills which are commonly used for
rolling metals:

1. Two-High
High Rolling Mills
2. Three-High
High Rolling Mills
3. Four High Rolling Mills
4. Tandem Rolling Mills
5. Cluster Rolling Mills

1. Two-High
High Rolling Mills: This type of mill has two types.
Those are:
 Reversing Mills
 In reversing Mills
In this rolling mill, there are two rolls used.
Two High Reversing Mill: In this type of mill, the rollers are both adjustable. In
these mills, rotation of that two rolls is made in two different directions. In this
operation, the metal is passed between two rollers that rotate at the same speed but it
is in the opposite direction. It is used in slabbing, plumbing, rail, plate roughing work
and many other areas. As there is the need for a reversible drive, this mill is cheaper
compared to the others.
Two High Non-Reversing
Reversing Mills:
Mills: In these mills, two rolls continuously revolve in
the same direction and we can't reverse the direction of the rollers. In this operat
operation,
the motive power is less costly.

2. Three-High
High Rolling Mills:
In this mill, the three rolls stand in parallel one
by others. The rolls are rotating in opposite
directions. In this mill, between the first and
the second rolls, the material passes. If the
second roll rotates in a direction then the bottom roll rotates in another direction.
The material is rolled both in forward and return in three high rolling mills. At
first, it passes forward through the last and second roller and then comes back
through the first and second roller. In that mill, the thickness of the material is
reduced and being uniform by each pass. Here transition system and a motor are
needed which is less powerful.

3. Four High Rolling Mills: In this type of mill, there are four parallel rolls one
by another. In this operation, the rotation of the first and the fourth rolls take
place in the opposite direction of the second
and the third rolls. The second and third rolls
are smaller to provide rigidity in necessity.
So those are known as back up rolls.

It is used in the hot rolling process of the

armor and in the cold rolling process of
sheets, strips, and plates.

Mills: In this type of rolling mill, there are two or more sets
4. Tandem Rolling Mills:
of rolls in the parallel alignment which make the continuous passes and
successively decrease the thickness and make that uniform.
 5. Cluster Rolling Mills
Mills:: In this type of rolling mill, there are two basic roles
that are backed up by two or m ore rolls which are bigger than those two basic
more
rolls. These backed up rolls give more pressure to the basic rolls to heavily
press the strip.

Application of Rolling:
The rolling operation used in various industries such as:
 Rods, seamless hollow tubes are made by rolling.
 Rolling is used to producing cross section of large sections. Rolling is used to
cross-section
cutting the gears on the gear blank.
 The threaded parts, bolts, screws, etc. which have mass production is made by
automotive industries, various parts are manufactured
the rolling process. In automotive
by the rolling process.
 The rolling process is used to made plates, steel sheets, etc.
  Bearing, Turbines rings are rolling products
6.2 Compare between hot rolling and cold rolling.
Apart from that, in the rolling applications, there are two types of rolling products.
Those are as follows:
 Hot Rolled Products
 Cold rolled products
Hot rolled products are made by a hot rolling process. In that process, the process is
done at a very high temperature like over 1,700 Degree Fahrenheit. For most of the
metals, this temperature is re-crystallization temperature.
Such Hot Rolled products are as follows:
 Rods
 Rails Plates
 Sheets and strip
 Structural Bars etc.
Hot Rolled products also used to make body panel, piping and tubes, and
construction materials.

Cold Rolled Product:

Cold rolled product is made from the hot-rolled product. When the hot-rolled product
is cooled, then that is re-rolled in the room temperature. It is known as Cold Rolled
Product. It is used to do to get more exact or perfect dimensions and to make the
surface quality better.
There are such Cold rolled products.
Those are as follows:
 wire sheet etc.
 Cold-rolled products, such that the wire is used to make screws and bolts,
cold-rolled sheets are used to make strip and sheets for external applications of
the automotive industries like doors, electrical motors, etc.
6.4 State different types of rolling detects and their control
Rolling Defects:

Defects of Rolling:
As the deflection of rolls occurred by the high forces of rolling. There are two types
of rolling defects.
Those are as follows:
 Surface rolling defects
 Internal structural rolling defects

Surface Defects:
Surface defects in rolling can be categorized into following types, and those are:
Internal Structural Defects: There are some types of internal structure defects.
Those are as follows:
Wavy Edges Crack: The result is thicker as the middle portion of the rolling part is
bent or deflected by the compressive load. There are some different cases. Those are
as follows:
 For the imperfection of the roll gaps, variation occurs on the rolling sheets.
 If the thickness varies and along with that volume and width are constant then
the center is shortened than the edges. But the body is continuous.
 Then the edges portions are in the compression and the center portion is the
tension.
 The result of the edge is wavy.

Zipper Cracks in Centre of Strip: Zipper Crack is a type of Wavy Crack. If there
is an uneven stress distribution on the strip, then the crack occurs in the centreline of
the strip. It is called Zipper Cracks in the Centre
Centr of Strip. This crack looks like a zip
so that it called Zipper Cracks.

Edge Crack: Edge cracks occur when the hot rolls are cooled. It happens as
excessive quenching effects on the strip. If excess water is used to cool the edges.
ater might give the result of unflattens in the strips. The edges of
The use of excess water
the metal got rounded off as the friction force prevents the corners and increases the
length of the centre portion.
Alligator Crack: Alligator Crack is one type of cracking where the metal has any
inclusions or weakness of metallurgy. That causes factor in the strip. As this crack
separates the layers and increases the slabs openings, it looks like the mouth of an
alligator. So that name of this crack is Alligator Crack.

7.0 Forging:
FORGING:

 Forging is the process in which the work piece is shaped by compressive

forces applied through the various dies and tools.
 It is one of the oldest metal working metal working metals.
 Simple forging can be performed with a heavy hand hammer and anvil.
 Typically forged product are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts for
turbine etc.
Forging may be done at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated
temperature(warm or hot forging)
forging).
7.1 Explain types of forging process
Hot forging

It consists of heating the metal and then the pressure is applied to form it into desired
shapes and sizes.
The following processes are commonly used for hot forging:
1. Hammer or smith forging: it is also known as open die forging.
because it involves the compression of the billet between flat dies with no constraint
on the spread of the metal.

Press forging:: Hammer forging dissipates large amount of energy near surface of
metal. So when a large section of high quality is required, then press forging used.

The press operates by hydraulic or by mechanical means such as crank or screw.

Upset forging:
This process involves increasing the diameter of the end of a bar of metal by
compressing its length.
This process was developed to form heads on bol
bolts, rivets etc.

Drop or die forging:: Smith forging is not suitable for the production of large
number of identical forging.
• For this drop forging used (closed die forming)
This consist of hammering heated bars or billets of steels into closed impression dies.
Upper die fastened to the ram the lower die is fastened to the anvil.

Advantages:
1. Relatively good utilization of material.
2. Good dimensional accuracy.
Cold forging:
 The cold forging is also called swaging.
 In this process, the metal is allowed to flow in predetermined shape according
to design of dies, by a compressive force or impact
 Some cold forging process:

1. Sizing
2. Cold heading:: the process is extensively used for making bolts,rivets and other
similar headed parts, this is done on cold header machine
Equipment must be able to withstand the high pressure.
pressure

Fig: cold heading

Rotary swaging: this method is used for reducing the diameters of round bars and
tubes by rotating dies, which open and close rapidly on the work. End of rods
reduced in size by a combination of pressure and impact.
8.0 Extrusion:
EXTRUSION:
8.1 Explain the elementary principle of extrusion

• In Extrusion Process, a billet is forced through a Die, in a manner similar to

squeezing toothpaste from tube.
Typical products made by extrusion are tubing's having various cross
cross-sections,
structural and architectural shapes.

Extrusion (Indirect):
In indirect Extrusion metal flows to the direction opposite to the ram motion
This require less force as compare to the direct process because there is no friction
between the billet and inside wall of container.

Direct extrusion:
In this extrusion process, the direction of ram and the direction of extruded metal is
in the same direction. This mode of extrusion is also called forward extrusion. The
main advantage of this process is, by this type we can extrude longer workpieces.
workpi

Fig: Direct extrusion

Advantages of Extrusion Process: Extrusion includes several advantages which are

as follows;
 The extrusion process is widely used to create a complex profile of materials
within the least time as compared to other metal forming process.
 The extrusion process is very useful to work with brittle and ductile materials.
 Mechanical properties which cancan be developed by the extrusion process is very
precise that enhance the life cycle of products.
Process: Some disadvantages of extrusion is listed
Disadvantages of Extrusion Process:
below:
 The time consumption of this process is very high.
 Set-up cost at the initial
itial stage is also very high.
  The amount of compressive force that required for the extrusion process is also
very high, and due to which the operator needs to ensurethat the plunger is
fixed in the press appropriately.

9.0 Wire Drawing:

9.1 Explain the elementary principle of wire drawing
• In Drawing, the cross--section
section of a round rod, or wire is typically reduced by
pulling it through a die.

Examples
xamples of wire drawing are:
1. High carbon steel wires for springs
2. wires for musical instruments.
10.0 Forming methods
Forming Method:
Forming Process also known as Metal Forming is a large set of manufacturing
process by which a raw material converted into a product. In this process, we apply
stresses like tension, compression, shear, etc. to deformed the raw material. The
example of forming processes are sheet metal manufacturing, forging, rolling,
extrusion, wire drawing, thread rolling, rotary swinging, and so on.
Classification or Types of Forming Process in Detail:
Forming Process can broadly be categorized into there types, and those are:
1. Bulk Forming
o Rolling Process
o Extrusion Process
o Forging Process
o Wire Drawing
o Squeezing
2. Sheet metal Forming
o Bending
o Deep Drawing
o Shearing
3. Powder Metal Forming
o Powder Forging
o Powder Injection
o Powder Extrusion Moulding
10.2 Explain different sheet metal forming - bending shearing aid blanking
Sheet Metal Forming:
Another important forming process is the Sheet Forming process. This sheet forming
process works due to either the tensile force or the shear force. Usually, this force
can be used in Hydraulic presses in order to produce the product from the sheets
however some
Bending Operation Diagram, Learn Mechanical Deep Drawing Operation Diagram,
Learn Mechanical more steps like squeezing, bending and so on are also included in
this process.
In this process, no material is added or removes. Example of this type of forging is
bending, deep drawing, shearing, etc.
a. Bending:
Bending is the process of forming where an angle is used in order to pressed by the
compressive force of the metal plate that helps the material to bend in a particular
angle so that, the plate can get its necessary shape. The shape of the angle usually
looked like either the English letter "V" or "U".
10.1 Describe the elementary concept
c of deep drawing
b. Deep Drawing:
In this operation, a hollow cup shape die is used. The die is clamped using the blank
holder. In this process, the workpiece (sheet metal) placed over the die and a punch
force sheet metal extend and filled the
exerted the force on the workpiece, by this force
cavity and takes the shape of the die.

c. Shearing:
Shearing operation Diagram, Learn Mechanical In this operation, the metal sheet is
in cantilever position, and a punch coming from the top exerted the force on the
cantilever position of the sheet. Shearing is just a cutting operation of the metal sheet.
Applications of Metal Forming Process:
Process
Some major applications of the forming process are as follows:
 Seamless tubes, rods can be made with the help of the aforementioned process.
 Turbine rings can be produced by this method.
 Cement kilns can also be made with the help of this process.
 Bearings, plates, steel sheets, and various components of an automotive car
can be developed with the help of this forming process.
 The missile, aircraft components are also manufactured through this process.
 Along with that, hinge, bolt, nails can also be formed by this process.
 Moreover, agricultural tools, military products are also produced with the help
of this process.
 Furniture, hook, pin, screws can also be made from this process.
 components of a car can be developed with the
Windows, doors, and other components
help of the forming process. Furthermore, the forming process can also be
used in order to develop plastic products.
Assignment Questions of Chapter-1 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Write down difference between Twinning and Slip. (5)

2. Explain Types of dislocations. (5)
3. Differentiate Edge vs Screw Dislocation (5)
4. Explain Edge and Screw Dislocation with neat sketch (10)
5. Differentiate glide vs cross slip. (5)
6. Both edge & Screw dislocation can glide but only screw dislocation can cross slip. Why? (2)
7. Explain different types of defects. (10)
8. Write short notes on Mixed Dislocation. (5)
9. Write down line diagram showing directional relationship between force, dislocation line,
movement of dislocation and burger vector both in screw as well as edge dislocation. (5)
10. What is stacking fault? (2)
Assignment Questions of Chapter-2 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Write down yielding criteria. (2)

2. Derive critically resolved shear stress with neat sketch (10)
3. Explain deformation of polycrystalline aggregates. (5)
4. Derive theoretical shear stress required for slip with neat sketch (10)
5. Derive relationship between True stress vs engineering stress and true strain vs Engineering
strain (10)
Assignment Questions of Chapter-3 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Define Hall Petch equation (2)

2. Describe yield point phenomenon. (10)
3. Explain strain-aging (5)
4. Explain solid solution strengthening from fine particles (5)
5. Describe fiber strengthening (5)
6. Describe martensitic strengthening (5)
7. Explain strain hardening (5)
8. Write short Notes on Bauschinger‘s effect. (5)
Assignment Questions of Chapter-4 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Classify different metal working process. (2)

2. Explain hot working and cold working of metals and alloys (5)
3. State the advantages and disadvantages of hot and cold working (5)
Assignment Questions of Chapter-5 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Explain the following phenomena,

(a) Recovery (10)
(b) Recrystallization
(c) Grain growth

Assignment Questions of Chapter-6 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Explain principles of rolling (2)

2. Compare between hot rolling and cold rolling. (5)
3. Explain the types of roll pass-open pass and box pass. (5)
4. State different types of rolling detects and their control (10)

Assignment Questions of Chapter-7 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Explain types of forging process (5)

2. Describe the properties of forged products (5)
3. Explain the defects of forged products and their control (5)

Assignment Questions of Chapter-8 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Explain the elementary principle of extrusion (2)

2. Classify the defects in extruded product (5)
3. Explain the manufacturing of seamless pipes (5)

Assignment Questions of Chapter-9 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Explain the elementary principle of wire drawing (2)

2. Classify the defects of wire drawing (5)

Assignment Questions of Chapter-10 (Right side indicates Marks of that particular question)

1. Describe the elementary concept of deep drawing (2)

2. Explain different sheet metal forming - bending shearing aid blanking (10)