SCI 250: Environmental Geology

Instructor: Colby Steelman, Ph.D., P.Geo.

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
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Chapter 2.
Rocks and Minerals: A First Look

a. Understand the fundamental properties of rocks and

minerals
b. Differentiate between different types of rocks
c. Establish foundation for understanding implications of
geologic systems to a particular environmental problem
Earth’s Most Abundant Chemical Elements by Mass

Elements may be combined

to make specific compounds
and minerals
 Atoms
Smallest particle into which an element can be
divided while still retaining the chemical
characteristics of that element

Composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons

 Nucleus is composed of protons (+) and neutrons (0)
 Number of protons defines the chemical element and atomic number ( H = 1,
He = 2, Li = 3, …)
 Number of neutron adds mass to the atom
 Number of electrons (-) orbiting nucleus determined by the number of
positively charged protons
 Negatively charged electrons balance the positive charges of the protons
 Elements and Isotopes
 Element – substance composed of atoms with the same
number of protons
 All nuclei, except the simplest hydrogen atoms, contain neutrons
 The number of neutrons is similar to or somewhat greater than the
number of protons
 Isotopes – number of neutrons for an element may not be the same;
variable numbers of neutrons possible
 Atomic Mass Number is the number of protons and neutrons in the
element’s nucleus
 Some isotopes have more neutrons and are heavier (carbon-14 has 6
protons and 8 neutrons)
 Some isotopes have fewer neutrons and are lighter (carbon-12 has 6
protons and 6 neutrons)
The Periodic Table
 Ion
 An ion is an atom that is positively charged or
negatively charged
 Anion has gained electrons (-); has more electrons relative to the number
of protons (+)
 Cation has lost electrons (-); has fewer electrons relative to the number of
protons (+)
 The electrical attraction of ions will cause an ionic bond to form
between oppositely charged ions.
 Na+ + Cl- = NaCl (halite also known as salt!)
Compounds

 Mixing of two or more chemical elements in

particular proportions that have distinctive physical
properties

 Elements will bond because of electrical attraction,

forming ionic bonds, or the atoms may share
electrons, forming covalent bonds
 What is a Mineral?
 Naturally occurring
 Inorganic
 Solid element or compound
 Definite chemical composition
 Regular internal crystal structure Galena (PbS)

 Characterized by a set of unique physical properties

 Minerals
 Although over 4000 minerals have been identified, only a few hundred are
common enough to be generally important to geology (rock-forming or $$)

 Over 90% of Earth’s crust is composed of minerals from only 5 groups (feldspars,
pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, quartz)
 Mineral: Halite (Sodium Chloride, NaCl)
 Naturally occurring
 Inorganic
 Solid element or compound
 Definite chemical composition
 Regular internal crystal structure
 Identified by recognizing different physical
properties
Mineral: Calcite (Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3)
 Rocks
Any solid mass of mineral
or mineral-like matter that
occurs naturally as part of
planets

Most rocks are aggregates

of several kinds of minerals,
but some are single-mineral
(e.g., obsidian, limestone)

quartz hornblende feldspar

 Identifying Minerals
The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral are its
chemical composition and its crystal structure
 Analyze the mineral composition
 Technology based
 Measure crystal structure and symmetry
 Technology based
 Observe and measure physical and special properties
 Easy for humans to see and recognize
 Identifying Minerals
1. Color: Visible hue of a mineral

2. Streak: Color left behind when

mineral is scraped on unglazed
porcelain

3. Luster: Manner in which light

reflects off surface of a mineral

4. Hardness: Scratch-resistance

5. Crystal form: External geometric

form
 Some Identifying Properties

 Cleavage: Breakage along flat planes

 Fracture: Irregular breakage
 Specific gravity: Density relative to
that of water
 Magnetism: Attracted to magnet
 Chemical reaction: Calcite fizzes in
dilute HCl
 Physical Properties of Minerals: Colour
 Color may vary as a result of minute amounts of impurities
 General guidelines for color:
 Ferromagnesian silicates (Fe, Mg-bearing) are generally black, brown or
dark green.
 Non-ferromagnesian silicates are often light in appearance
Ferromagnesian

Non-ferromagnesian
Colour is not a unique characteristic
Citrine (yellow quartz)
quartz

Smoky
Amethyst quartz
(purple (gray to
quartz) black)
 Physical Properties of Minerals: Streak
 Test color of the powdered mineral by the (ceramic) streak plate
 The color of the powdered mineral [its streak color] is less prone
to variation than color of the mineral form itself
 Physical Properties of Minerals: Luster
 Luster may be metallic or non-metallic
 Metallic: reflects light only from the
surface of the mineral; may have “brilliant”
or “dull” appearance
 Non-metallic: reflects light from within as
well as from the surface of the mineral

Mineral Lustre (Press & Siever)

Metallic Strong reflections produced by opaque substances
Vitreous Bright, as in glass
Resinous Characteristic of resins, such as amber
Greasy The appearance of being coated with an oily substance
Silky The sheen of fibrous materials, such as silk
Pearly The whitish iridescence of such materials as pearl
Adamantine Brilliant, like a diamond
Physical Properties of Minerals: Hardness
 Physical Properties of Minerals: Crystal Form
 When a mineral is permitted
to grow freely it will develop
well-formed crystal faces
 Most of the time intergrowth
of crystals occurs and often
none exhibit its crystal form
 Types of Minerals: Silicate Group
 Silicate group – variety of compounds based on silicon and oxygen
 Quartz – glass manufacturing
 Feldspar – ceramic manufacturing
 Mica
 Muscovite (white mica)
 Biotite (black mica)
 Clays – used as drilling mud, in building materials, and as a soil modifier

 Ferromagnesian silicates
 Olivine – peridot (semiprecious gem)
 Garnet – abrasives; semiprecious gems
 Amphibole – industrial products
Silicate Mineral
Groups

Crystal structures will

have unique physical
properties
 Types of Minerals: Silicate Group
Peridot Tremolite Mica
(amphibole)

Potassium Quartz
Feldspar

Quartz
Types of Minerals: Non-Silicates
 Carbonates – CO3
 Useful for building materials and manufacturing (limestone)
 Sulfates – SO4
 Useful for building materials (e.g. gypsum, wallboard)
 Sulfides – S
 Host for many metallic ores (Pb, Cu, Zn, and others)
 Oxides – any metal combined with oxygen
 Iron and aluminum ores
 Native elements – minerals composed of single element
 Carbon as diamond and graphite
 Copper, gold, silver, or platinum
 Rocks are Formed from Minerals
 A solid aggregate of one or more minerals, or mineral materials
 Consists of many mineral grains or crystals forming a solid mass
 Each rock contains a record of its own history (i.e., formation or
alteration due to external processes or forces

 Three broad categories

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle defines

the relationship
between the Earth’s
internal and external
processes and the three
major rock groups
 Igneous Rocks
 Magma, at high enough temperatures, rocks and
minerals melt, this molten rock material is called
magma
 Silicates are the most common minerals, and
magmas are thus rich in silica.
 Magmas can also contain dissolved water and gases,
and even solids!
 An Igneous Rock is a rock formed by the
solidification and crystallization of a cooling magma
Magma vs. Lava
Magma is found
under the Earth’s
surface as hot molten
(liquid) rock

Lava is magma
which has
erupted through Terms used together to explain
various volcanic processes
the crust and is
now on the
Earth’s Surface
 Formation of Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks form as molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies
 Most magma originates from partial melting of pre-existing rocks
 Once formed, liquid magma is less dense than surrounding rocks
and so rises by buoyancy
 If magma solidifies under the Earth’s surface the igneous rock that
formed is termed an intrusive or plutonic rock
 If lava solidifies on the Earth’s surface the igneous rock that formed
is termed an extrusive or volcanic rock
 Mineral crystal growth is controlled by the rate of cooling
Types of Igneous Rocks
Felsic (light coloured) Igneous Rocks
Rhyolite (extrusive) Granite (intrusive)

Close-up Close-up
Intermediate (medium coloured) Igneous Rocks
Andesite Porphyry (extrusive) Diorite (intrusive)

Porphyry – some larger

crystals formed before
being extruded

Close-up Close-up
Mafic (dark coloured) Igneous Rocks
Basalt (extrusive) Gabbro (intrusive)

Close-up Close-up
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are products of the mechanical and chemical
weathering as well as the erosion of pre-existing rocks
 Accumulation of sediments leads to compaction and
cementation of individual grains, i.e., sedimentary rocks
 Account for ~ 5 percent (by volume) of Earth’s outer 16 km
(crust)
 Contain evidence of past environments
 Often contain fossils
 Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sediments are loose, unconsolidated
accumulations of mineral or rock
particles
2. Sediments are eroded, transported, and
deposited in many sedimentary
environments
3. Sediments that may be buried can experience lithification
4. Lithification involves compacting the sediments with burial and
cementation of the sediments forming a sedimentary rock (over
Geological Time)
 Weathering: Making Sediment (e.g., soil)
 Weathering occurs by mechanical fragmentation (disintegration)
OR by chemical alteration (decomposition and dissolution) of rock
 Why does weathering occur?
 It is a response of Earth materials to naturally changing (i.e., different)
environmental conditions (physical and chemical)
 Example: intrusive igneous rock crystallized at 50 km depth and
1200°C is now exposed at the Earth’s surface to atmospheric pressure
and -20°C , and water, so the rocks begin to break down…… which is
how soil is created (clays, silt, sand etc.)
Layers of Sedimentary Rocks exposed by weathering
Grand Canyon, AZ, USA
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
 Clastic sedimentary rocks
 Formed by the lithification of mechanically weathered pieces of rocks
and minerals
 Grain sizes range from boulder, gravel, sand, silt, and mud
 Grains are continually broken down in size and shape until deposited
 Once deposited these clastic particles are cemented
 Chemical sedimentary rocks
 Chemical process occur in water bodies such as lakes, seas, or oceans
 Minerals precipitate from the water and form thick deposits
 Examples: Halite, Calcite, and Gypsum
 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
 Fossils are the traces or remains of prehistoric life now
preserved in rock
 Fossils are generally found in
 sediments or sedimentary rock
 very rarely in metamorphic
 and never in igneous rock
Geologically, fossils are very important:
Aid interpretation of geologic past
Serve as important time indicators
Allow for correlation of rocks from different places
Coal is a Sedimentary Rock

PEAT

LIGNITE

BITUMINOUS

ANTHRACITE
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic rocks result from the transformation of
other rocks while essentially remaining in the solid
state
 Transformation results from exposure of preexisting
solid rock to sufficient heat, pressure, and/or fluid
chemical activity to change the mineral composition
and texture of the original rock
 Metamorphic Rocks
 The temperatures required to form metamorphic rocks are
below magmatic temperatures
 Significant changes can occur in a rock at temperatures well below
melting
 Temperature and pressure can cause the minerals in the rock to
recrystallize
 Pressure may cause the rock to be deformed
 Sources of elevated temperatures of metamorphism: burial,
magma, mountain-building, and plate tectonic movement
 Sources of elevated pressures of metamorphism: burial,
mountain-building, and plate tectonic movement
 Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism – localized metamorphism of
rocks adjacent to a magma chamber

 Regional metamorphism – large scale stressing and

heating of a rock by deep burial or continental plates
moving and colliding
Contact Metamorphism

Tarbuck and Lutgens (2002)

Regional Metamorphism of a Shale

Temperature and pressure increases

Tarbuck and Lutgens (2002)
 Common Metamorphic Rocks
 Any kind of preexisting rock (another rock) can be
metamorphosed
 Foliation: when a rock is subjected to directed stress, its minerals
form elongated/platy crystals and line up parallel to each other
 Metamorphic rocks without foliation do not show directed stress
 Marble is metamorphosed limestone
 Quartzite is metamorphosed quartz-rich sandstone
 Metamorphic rocks with foliation show directed stress or pressure
 Slate – low grade foliated metamorphic rock
 Schist and Gneiss (nice) – high grade metamorphic rocks
 Foliation (the effect of stress)

“granite” “gneiss”
The Rock Cycle
 Summary of the Rock Cycle
 Igneous rocks, formed from magma or lava
 Sedimentary rocks, formed from low-temperature
accumulations of particles or by precipitation from
solution
 Metamorphic rocks, formed from pre-existing rocks
through changes in temperature and pressure
 Geologic processes working on old rocks change the
old rocks into new and different ones and tell a story
of its past …..which is what geology is all about!
 Reminders
 Quiz 1 will be available on LEARN at 2:30 PM (today)
 Will be available until 1:00 PM on Tuesday (next week)
 10 questions (T/F, MC, Fill-in-the-blanks)
 Testing of this weeks material (Chapter 1 and 2)
 12 pts available, scored out of 10
 20 min time limit
 SmartBook Activities (optional)
 Log into McGraw Hill Connect (link provided on LEARN)
 Chapter 1 – 4 modals are available; try them! 2 week trial period
 Complete Chapter 1 and 2 modals before you attempt the quiz