Human Nutrition

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Human Nutrition
8.1 Diet
8.2 Human Digestive System
8.3 Absorption and Assimilation

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CAIE Syllabus Outline

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 The Need for food
All living organisms need food

 For Growth
New cells and tissues are made
 As a source of energy
Energy is released when food is broken down during respiration.
This energy can be utilized for driving different chemical
reactions including maintenance of body temperature,
movement, heart beat and nerve impulses
 For replacement of worn and damaged tissues
RBCs are replaced with new cells to replace the skin that is worn
away and to repair wounds.
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What is a balanced Diet
 A balanced diet is a diet that provides all the nutrients in
the correct amounts needed to carry out life processes.
 A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the
correct proportions. The necessary food groups are:
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Dietary Fibre also known as roughage
 Water

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Classes of Food
There are three classes of food
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids

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 Energy Requirements
 We can get energy from carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
 The Cheapest energy giving food is carbohydrate
 Greatest amount of energy is present in fats
 Proteins give about the same energy as carbohydrates but
they are expensive
 The total energy obtained from a balanced diet is used to
 To keep our internal body processes working e.g breathing,
heart rate
 To maintain our body temperature
 To allow us to do work and other activities

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Energy Requirements
 1 gram of protein or carbohydrate provides 16 or 17kJ
(kilojoules)
 1 gram of fat provides 37kJ
 We need to obtain about 12000kJ from our food each day
 In most cases, men and women require similar nutritional
proportions, but there are exceptions. Women tend to have
lower calorie needs because they carry less muscle. Women
should eat more nutritional-dense food e.g. complex
carbohydrates. Calcium should be consumed in higher
amounts by women as they have higher chances of
Osteoporosis i.e. fragile bones.
 An athlete has different nutritional requirements compared
to that of a worker. Exercise improves metabolic efficiency in
some people and increases nutrient requirements.
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Carbohydrates
 Sugar and starch are important carbohydrates in our diet
 Potatoes, bread, maize, cereals and rice are good sources of
starch.
 Sucrose (table sugar) present in many drinks, cakes, jams
and biscuits
 Glucose and fructose are sugars present in many fruits and
vegetables
 Chemical composition of carbohydrates is carbon, hydrogen
and Oxygen
 They are the cheapest source of energy

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How Energy is released from
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are oxidised to release
energy by the process of respiration
and release carbondioxide and water.
 1 gram of carbohydrate give 16kJ of
energy
 If we consume more carbohydrates
than our body requirements, the
excess is converted in the liver to
glycogen or lipids.
 Glycogen is stored in the liver and
muscles
 Lipids are stored in the fat deposits
in the abdomen, round the kidneys
or Under the skin

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Lipids
 Found in egg yolk, meat, milk, cheese and butter
 Lipids are used in the cells of the body to make part of the
cell membrane and other membrane systems
 Lipids releases energy when they are oxidised during the
process of respiration i.e they can be oxidised to
carbondioxide and water
 1 gram of lipid provides 37kJ energy
 They are used for long term storage
 The fatty tissue forms a layer under the skin which can
reduce heat loss from the body thus providing insulation.

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Proteins
 Proteins are a key part of the diet because
they supply the amino acids needed to
build up body structures e.g skin, blood,
muscle and bones
 Lean meat, fish, eggs, milk and cheese are
good sources of animal protein
 Soybeans, pumpkin seeds and nuts are
good sources of plant protein
 1 gram of protein can provide 17 kJ energy

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 The Amino acids
that are not used for
making new tissues
can not be stored,
but the liver removes
their amino groups
(-NH2) and coverts
in to glycogen that
can be stored in liver.

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Vitamins
 All proteins are like each other in their chemical
structure as are all carbohydrates.
 Vitamins are a group of organic substances that have a
different chemical structure.
 Features shared by all vitamins
 They are not digested or broken down for energy
 They are vital in small quantities for human health
 They are needed for chemical reactions in the cells
working with enzymes

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Classes of Vitamins
 Plants can make these vitamins in their leaves
 Humans have to eat animals or plants for getting
these vitamins
 15 vitamins have been identified
 Two classes
 Fat Soluble vitamins
Found in animal fats or vegetable oils
 Water Soluble Vitamins
Found in Green leaves, fruits and cereal grains
 Vitamin deficiency disease may develop if anyone of
these vitamins are missing from the diet.

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Mineral Ions
 Called as mineral salts or minerals.
 Proteins, carbohydrates and fats provide the body with
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen , sulphur and
phosphorous, but there are several more elements that
the body needs.
 Iron
 Calcium

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Iron
 RBCs contain the pigment haemoglobin.
 Part of the haemoglobin molecule contains iron. This
is needed to carry oxygen around the body,
 Sources of Iron
Red meat like liver and kidney are the best source of iron
in the diet. Other sources include eggs, groundnuts,
whole grains, spinach, brown rice and green vegetables

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Iron Deficiency Anemia
 Disease caused by iron deficiency
 Decrease in the number of RBCs.
 Symptoms include feeling weak, tiredness and being
irritable
 RBCs when mature have no nucleus. This limits their
life span uptil 3 months. After which, they are broken
down and replaced in liver
 Adults need about 15mg of iron everyday. Without
sufficient iron, body is unable to produce enough
haemoglobin. Thus Oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood is reduced.

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 Calcium
 Calcium in the form of calcium phosphate is
deposited in the bones and the teeth and make
them hard.
 It is very important for normal blood clotting.
 Calcium is also needed by the muscles to contract
and for the transmission of nerve impulses.
 Best sources include milk and cheese.

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Calcium
 Calcium salts are not soluble in water, so it can not
be absorbed directly. Vitamin D and some bile
salts are needed for efficient absorption of calcium
 A shortage of vitamin D results in poor absorption
of calcium in the intestine.
 Lack of calcium may result in rickets, weak and
brittle nails and muscle cramps

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Dietary Fibre (Roughage)
 We take in large quantities of cellulose
through vegetables and fruits.
 Humans donot have enzymes for
digesting cellulose. The result is that
plant cell walls reach large intestine
undigested.
 The undigested part of diet is called as
fibre or roughage.

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Dietary Fibre
 Fibre is required for healthy digestive
system. The fibre increases the contents
of colon and help it to retain water. This
softens the faeces and prevents
digestive system disorders such as
constipation
 Sources include vegetables , fruits and
wholemeal bread.

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Water
 About 70% of most tissues consists of water.
 It is vital part of cytoplasm
 The body fluids, blood and tissue fluid composed
mainly of water.
 Digestion uses water
 Water plays a vital role in many reactions in a cell as a
reactant and solvent
 Water is lost by evaporation, sweating, urination and
breathing, so we must take adequate water in diet.

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 8.2 Human
Digestive System

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CAIE Syllabus Outline

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why most foods must be digested
before they can be absorbed
 Digestion is important for breaking
down food into nutrients, which the
body uses for energy, growth, and cell
repair.
 Food and drink must be changed into
smaller molecules of
nutrients before the blood absorbs
them and carries them to cells
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throughout the body.
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The Alimentary Canal
Responsible for Digestion
Long tube that runs from mouth
and ends at anus
The soluble products are absorbed
and the indigestible food
molecules are expelled from the
body
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 General
Structure of
Alimentary
Canal
 The inside of the
alimentary canal is
lined with layers of
cells called as
epithelium.

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The Alimentary Canal
 Some of the digestive enzymes are produced
by cells in the lining of alimentary canal e.g
stomach lining
 Other enzymes are produced by glands that
are outside the digestive system e.g salivary
glands and pancreas
 These glands releases digestive enzymes
through tubes known as ducts inside the
alimentary canal.
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The Digestive System
 The digestive system is an example of an organ system in
which several organs work together to digest and absorb
food
 Digestion is a process in which relatively large, insoluble
molecules in food (such as starch, proteins) are broken
down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream and delivered to cells in the
body
 These small soluble molecules (such
as glucose and amino acids) are used either to provide
cells with energy (via respiration), or with materials with
which they can build other molecules to grow, repair
and function
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The Digestive System
 The human digestive system is made up of the
organs that form the alimentary canal and
accessory organs
 The alimentary canal is the channel or passage
through which food flows through the body,
starting at the mouth and ending at the anus
 Digestion occurs within the alimentary canal
 Accessory organs produce substances that are
needed for digestion to occur (such
as enzymes and bile) but food does not pass
directly through these organs

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 The Stages of Food Breakdown
 Food taken into the body goes through 5 different
stages during its passage through the alimentary canal (the
gut):
 Ingestion – the taking in of substances, e.g. food and drink, into
the body through the mouth
 Mechanical digestion – the breakdown of food into smaller
pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
 Chemical digestion – the breakdown of large, insoluble
molecules into small, soluble molecules
 Absorption – the movement of small food molecules and ions
through the wall of the intestine into the blood
 Assimilation – the movement of digested food molecules into
the cells of the body where they are used, becoming part of the
cells
 Egestion – the passing out of food that has not been digested or
absorbed (as faeces) through the anus

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Peristalsis
 Peristalsis is a mechanism that helps moves
food along the alimentary canal
 Firstly, muscles in the walls of the oesophagus
create waves of contractions which force
the bolus along
 Once the bolus has reached the stomach, it is
churned into a less solid form, called chyme,
which continues on to the small intestine

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 Peristalsis
 Peristalsis is controlled
by circular and longitudinal muscles
 Circular muscles contract to reduce the diameter of the
lumen of the oesophagus or small intestine
 Longitudinal muscles contract to reduce the length of that
section the oesophagus or the small intestine
 Mucus is produced to continually lubricate the food
mass and reduce friction
 Dietary fibre provides the roughage required for the
muscles to push against during peristalsis

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Mechanical Digestion
 It is the breakdown of food into
smaller molecules without any
chemical change to the food particles.
This is done by teeth, through a
process known as Mastication.
 Also Known as physical digestion
 It occurs in Mouth primarily.

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Mechanical Digestion
 Teeth are used to chew the food.
This increases the surface area of
food for the action of enzymes in
chemical digestion
 Other examples
 Action of muscles in the stomach
 Emulsification of fats by the liver

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  Fat emulsification is the process of increasing
the surface area of fats in the small intestine
by grouping them into small clusters. This is
the responsibility of bile, a liquid created by the
liver and stored in the gallbladder. Actual
digestion of the fats is then accomplished by
lipase, an enzyme from the pancreas.

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Human Teeth

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Internal Structure of tooth

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Structure of Human Teeth
 The top, visible part of the tooth is called the crown
 The bottom part is known as root.
 The gums overlay the jaw i.e teeth are embedded in
gums
 Enamel is the shiny, hard outer shell that covers the
crown.
 Beneath the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is
the substance that makes up the tooth. It contains a
pulp cavity, which has blood, lymph vessels, and
nerve fibres. It supplies nutrients to the dentine.
 Cement is the tissue covering the surface of the root.
It fixes the teeth.
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Chemical Digestion
 chemical digestion is the breakdown of large
molecules into small molecules by the action of
enzymes inside the alimentary canal
Enzyme Site of Action Conditions Substrate Products
Amylase Mouth, Slightly Starch Maltose,
Duodenum alkaline Glucose

Protease Stomach, Acidic in the Protein Amino acids

Duodenum stomach,
Alkaline in the
duodenum

Lipase Duodenum Alkaline Fat Fatty acids,

Glycerol
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 Main
Regions of
Digestive
System

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The Mouth
 Saliva is a digestive juice that lubricates the food.
 The salivary gland produces a special enzyme,
known as salivary amylase. This works on pH 8.
 It digests starch into maltose. Maltose breaks
down into its monomers in the other part of the
body.
 This semi-digested food is known as a bolus.
 The bolus is passed to the oesophagus through the
food pipe.

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Oesophagus

 The Oesophagus connects your mouth to your

stomach. Food moves through a wave-like contraction
into the stomach, known as peristalsis.
 Circular and longitudinal muscles work together but
opposite to each other. These are antagonistic pairs.
 In front of the bolus, circular muscles relax and
longitudinal muscles contract. Behind the bolus,
longitudinal muscles relax and circular muscles
contract.

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Stomach
 Pepsin is a protease enzyme produces in the stomach.
It requires a low pH to function, which is why the
stomach produces hydrochloric acid.
 The bolus reaches the stomach and lets the walls
secrete gastric juices.
 The hydrochloric acid lowers the pH (2-3). It also
denatures enzymes in harmful microorganisms in
food and gives the optimum pH for pepsin activity. It
stimulates the digestion of protein through the
protease enzyme. It will be partially digested, and this
partially digested food becomes liquefied and is
known as a chyme.

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Functions of hydrochloric acid in
our stomach
 It creates the acidic conditions necessary for the action
of the enzyme pepsin.
 It activates pepsin to act on proteins.
 It also destroys the structure of proteins so that the
enzymes can digest them easily.
 It gets mixed with food and kills the bacteria present
in food.

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How pepsin is made?

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Small Intestine
 The sphincter is a circular muscle. When it is released, it
allows materials to pass through the opening. When
contracted, it closes the opening. The food passes from the
stomach to the small intestine when sphincter opens.
 The small intestine is 6 meters long and highly coiled up in
the abdominal cavity.
 In the duodenum, major absorption takes place. It has
glands (lining), and it produces three different types of
juices (Intestinal juice from itself, bile from the liver, and
pancreatic juice from the pancreas).
 The chime enters the duodenum, which is the first part of
the small intestine.

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Bile
 The liver, situated above the small intestine, secretes
bile.
 Bile is a green watery fluid stored in the gall bladder
and is poured into the intestine through the bile duct.
 It is an alkaline juice that neutralizes the acidic
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH
for enzyme action.
 Bile also emulsifies fats to increase the surface area for
the chemical digestion of fats to fatty acids and
glycerol through the enzyme, lipase.
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 Function of Bile in Chemical
Digestion
 Bile is slightly alkaline as it contains sodium
hydrogen carbonate
 Bile along with the pancreatic juice has the
function of neutralising the acidic mixture
of food and gastric juices as it enters the
duodenum. This is important because
enzymes secreted in to the duodenum need
alkaline environment for their work.
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  • Pancreatic juice: Pancreas secretes the
pancreatic juice which pours into the gall bladder.
Emulsified lipids in the pancreatic juice into
pancreatic lipase to fatty acids and glycerol. Semi-
digested starch is digested by pancreatic amylase.
As a result, it produces maltose.
 • Intestinal Juice: This is secreted by the small
intestine. It contains an enzyme, known as
intestinal lipase, which changes into fatty acids
and glycerol.

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Ileum
 The Small intestine
consists of
duodenum and
ileum.
 Nearly all the
absorption of
digested food and
most of the water
takes place in ileum

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Large Intestine
 The material passing in to the large intestine
consists of water with undigested matter
mainly cellulose and fibres.
 It secretes no enzymes. But bacteria in the
colon digest fibre to fatty acids which can be
abssorbed
 First part of large intestine is called as colon
in which bile salts are absorbed and
returned to the liver. It also absorbs water
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Rectum
 Second part of large intestine and stores faeces
 Faeces are passed out through anus. This is known as
egestion.
 Egestion is different from excretion as faeces are not an
excretory product

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 Different
digestive
enzymes
work on
different
PH

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Summary
 mouth – ingestion, physical digestion, chemical digestion
of starch by amylase
 salivary glands – secretion of saliva containing amylase
 stomach – physical digestion, chemical digestion of protein
by protease, presence of hydrochloric acid in gastric
secretions
 small intestine (duodenum and ileum) – chemical
digestion of starch by amylase, maltose by maltase, protein
by protease and lipids by lipase
 liver – production of bile and storage of glycogen
 gall bladder – storage of bile
 pancreas – alkaline secretion containing amylase, protease
and lipase
 ileum and colon – absorption
 rectum and anus – egestion
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Digestive Enzymes
 amylase breaks down starch to maltose
 maltase breaks down maltose to
glucose
 protease (pepsin and trypsin) breaks
down protein to amino acids
 lipase breaks down lipids to fatty acids
and glycerol
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Digestion of Carbohydrates

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Digestion of carbohydrates

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Digestion of carbohydrates
 Starch Digestion takes place in mouth by
salivary amylase.
 As food remains for a less time in mouth,
only a small amount of starch is digested to
maltose.
 No digestion of starch takes place in
stomach.
 Further digestion of starch takes place in
small intestine
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Protein Digestion
 In stomach by pepsin to polypeptides
 In small intestine by trypsin polypeptides
 Polypeptides further digested to amino acids by
peptidases

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Fat Digestion
 In small intestine by the action of bile salts

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Summary of Digestive Enzymes

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 8.3 Absorption
and Assimilation

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 Absorption of Food & Water

 Absorption is the movement of digested food

molecules from the digestive system into the
blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty
acids and glycerol)
 Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and
the colon, but most absorption of water also
happens in the small intestine
 Absorption takes place in the second section of the
small intestine, the ileum

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 Absorption
 Small intestine is the region where
nutrients are absorbed
 Absorption (by diffusion, osmosis and
active transport) is the movement of
nutrients from the intestines into cells
lining the digestive system and then
into the blood
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 How is the Ileum Adapted for
Absorption?
 The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and
has a highly folded surface with millions of villi (tiny,
finger like projections)
 These adaptations massively increase the surface area of
the ileum, allowing absorption to take place faster and
more efficiently
 Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the small intestine
and colon
 The small intestine absorbs most of the water. From the
small intestine about 1 to 1.5 litres of water pass in to the
large intestine daily and the colon absorbs 90% of that
water.

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How is the small intestine adapted
for absorption?
 The inner surface of the small intestine is folded
 The folds bear numerous minute finger like proections
called villi. (singular : Villus)
 Epithelial cells of villi in turn have numerous microvilli to
increase surface area as seen in an electron microscope.
 The villi have thin walls or membranes
 The small intestine is long to provide sufficient time for
absorption
 In each villus, lacteal also known as lymphatic capillary is
present which is surrounded by blood capillaries.
 The lymphatic capillaries of villi transports fats while the
blood capillaries transport sugars and amino acids away
from the intestine
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How does absorption takes place in
the small intestine?
 Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion and
active transport in to the blood capillaries of the villi
 Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse in to the epithelium.
Here they combine to form minute fat globules which
enter the lacteals
 Lacteals form a component of the lymphatic system,
which is designed to absorb and transport material
that is too large to enter the blood stream directly.
 Lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary
fats in the villi of the small intestines.
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 Role of blood capillaries and
lacteals
 Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic
vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial
cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the
intestine into these capillaries ( amino acids and
carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids).
 The main role of lacteals is the absorption of fatty acids
and glycerol from the small intestine. These are filled with
fatty liquid that continues to the lymphatic circulation and
finally drains into the venous circulation of the body. This
is required because fatty acids are large molecules and
cannot be directly absorbed into the blood from the small
intestine.

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What happens to undigested and
unabsorbed matter?
 It is stored temporarily in the rectum.
 It is then discharged as faeces through
the anus
 This removal of undigested matter
from the body is called as egestion or
defecation.

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Assimilation

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Assimilation
 After absorption, the blood in the villi are now rich in nutrients.
 The blood capillaries unite to form large blood vessels which in
turn unite to form a large vein known as hepatic portal vein. This
vein is responsible for transporting nutrients to the liver.
 Glucose is used by all the cells as a source of energy. It is
assimilated and then oxidized during tissue respiration to release
energy.
 Excess glucose is returned to the liver and stored as glycogen.
 A hormone called as insulin produced by the islets of
langerhans in the pancreas stimulates the liver cells to convert
excess glucose to glycogen. When the body needs energy, the
liver converts the stored glycogen back in to glucose. The glucose
is then transported by the blood to different cells.

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Assimilation
 Amino acids which enter the cells are converted in to
new protoplasm that is used for growth and repair of
worn out parts of the body.
 Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver i.e
amino groups are removed and converted in to urea
which is excreted from the body.

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 All the regulation of nutrients to whole body is
done by the liver. Nutrients absorbed through villi
are transported to liver through hepatic portal
vein. Then they are distributed by the liver to
different body organs.
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