Programming Techniques

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, students would be able
to appreciate the following:
1. Algorithms
2. Pseudocode
3. Flowcharts
4. Types of Errors

1
 INTRODUCTION

Pseudocode is a textual representation of

an algorithm.
It lists out all the logical functions an
algorithm will do including the input and
the output of the program.

2
 INTRODUCTION
Eg. The program:
• Declare variable a, b;
• Sum = a + b;
• Print Sum; OR Cout << sum;
Pseudocode:
1. The program:
2. Declare variable a and b
3. Input: a,b. Output-Sum
4. Enter a and b
5. a and b must be added
6. Output must be stored in Sum
7. Output must be displayed
3
 INTRODUCTION

• A flowchart is the graphical or pictorial

representation of an algorithm with the
help of different symbols, shapes and
arrows in order to demonstrate a
process or a program.

4
 CONCLUSION OF INTRODUCTION

Take note that flowchart is normally used to

represent the algorithm in a diagrammatic
manner. OR A flowchart is a diagrammatic
description of an algorithm.

Pseudocode is a method of describing

computer algorithms using a combination of
natural language and programming
language.
5
 Algorithm in programming

In programming, algorithms are the set of

well defined instruction in sequence to
solve a problem.

An algorithm should always have a clear

stopping point.

6
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD ALGORITHM

• Inputs and outputs should be defined

precisely.

• Each steps in algorithm should be clear

and unambiguous.

7
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD ALGORITHM

• Algorithm should be most effective

among many different ways to solve a
problem.

• An algorithm shouldn't have computer

code. Instead, the algorithm should be
written in such a way that, it can be used
in similar programming languages.
8
 EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHM

• Algorithm to add two numbers

• Algorithm to find the largest among
three numbers
• Algorithm to find all the roots of
quadratic equation
• Algorithm to find the factorial
• Algorithm to check prime number
9
Examples Of Algorithms In Programming

• Write an algorithm to add two numbers

entered by user.

10
Examples Of Algorithms In Programming

Write an algorithm to add two numbers

entered by user.

11
 Pseudocode

• Pseudocode is an artificial and informal

language that helps programmers
develop algorithms.

• Pseudocode is a "text-based" detail

(algorithmic) design tool.

12
 Pseudocode

• The rules of Pseudocode are reasonably

straightforward. All statements showing
"dependency" are to be indented.

• These include while, do, for, if, switch.

Examples below will illustrate this notion.

13
Pseudocode

14
 Class Exercise:
Pseudocode for Students’ Grading System
• Using KNUST grading system, write down the
pseudocode for determining student’s grades
based on the following criteria and
interpretations
• 70 – 100 – A – Excellent
• 60 – 69 – B – Very Good
• 50 – 59 – C – Good
• 40 – 49 – D – Pass
• 0 – 39 – F – Fail
15
 Class Exercise 2:
• A school conducts a 100 mark exam for its
student and grades them as follows:
Grade:
Grade A: Marks>75
Grade B: 75>Marks>60
Grade C: 60>Marks>50
Grade D: 50>Marks>40
• Write Pseudocode of the grades for a student,
using if. Else statement
16
 Class Exercise 2:
Proposed Solution
. 1.input student's grade
2.if grade < 100 AND grade > 75 { student got an A }
3.else if grade < 75 AND grade > 60 { student got a B }
4.else if grade < 60 AND grade > 50 { student got a C }
5.else if grade < 50 AND grade > 40 { student got a D }
6.else { student got an F } // didn't fit into any of the
above scenerios, so must be an F
7.print to screen what the student got

17
 Pseudocode

• Pseudocode can be very useful for

specifying the logic of a computer
program (or some critical portion of a
program) prior to that program being
written.

• It's also useful for documenting the logic

of a computer program after the fact.
18
 Pseudocode

• It can be used to express the high-level

logic of an entire program, the lower-
level details of a core function in an
operating system or run-time library, the
behaviors and methods in an agent-
based or object- oriented program, and
everything in between.

19
 FLOWCHART IN PROGRAMMING

• Flowchart is a diagrammatic
representation of an algorithm.
• Flowcharts are graphical methods of
outlining program structure and
generally utilise a set of standard
symbols known as the ANSI (American
National Standards Institute) symbols.
20
 FLOWCHART IN PROGRAMMING

• Flowchart are very helpful in writing

program and explaining program to
others.

21
 SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHARTS

• Different symbols are used for different

states in flowchart, For example:
Input/Output and decision making has
different symbols.

• The table below describes all the symbols

that are used in making flowchart
SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHARTS
SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHART
 EXAMPLES OF FLOWCHARTS IN
PROGRAMMING

• Draw a flowchart to add two numbers

entered by user.

25
Types of Programming Errors
■ Errors are common when writing programs.
■ If a test run turns up problems with the program, we must
debug it, which means we must locate and eliminate the
errors.
■ The two fundamental types of errors that can arise in
coding a program are syntax errors and logic errors.
Syntax Errors
■ A syntax error is the violation of the programming language’s
rules for creating valid statements.
■ It can be caused, for example, by misspelling a keyword or by
omitting a required punctuation mark.
■ Syntax errors are detected by the language software, either
when the invalid statement is typed or when the program is
translated by the computer into machine language.
■ When the software detects a syntax error, normally it issues a
message and highlights the offending statement. Therefore,
syntax errors are often easy to find and correct.
Logic Errors
■ A logic error results from failing to use the proper
combination of statements to accomplish a certain task.
■ It may occur due to faulty analysis, faulty design, or
failure to code the program properly.
■ Logic errors often cause the program to fail to proceed
beyond a certain point (i.e., to crash or hang or freeze) or
to give incorrect results.
– Unlike syntax errors, logic errors are not detected by
the programming language software.
The following are a few kinds of logic errors:
– Use of an incorrect formula to produce a desired
result
– Use of an incorrect sequence of statements to carry
out an algorithm.
– Failure to predict some input data that may lead to an
illegal operation (such as division by zero) when the
program is run (this kind of bug is sometimes called a
runtime error).
The following are summary of errors:
In any programming language errors is common. If
we miss any syntax like parenthesis or semicolon
then we get syntax errors.

Apart from this we also get run time errors during

the execution of code. In a similar way the errors
are classified as below:
Syntax Errors
Runtime Errors
Logical Errors
Linked Errors
Semantic Errors
QUESTIONS TIME

31
 NEXT TOPIC

• Introduction to C++ programming

• Software Installation and fundamental
concepts

32
 Reading Assignment
• Write an algorithm to find the factorial of a
number entered by user.

33
 References:
1. https://www.programiz.com/article/algorithm-programming
2. http://www.unf.edu/~broggio/cop2221/2221pseu.htm
3. (PDF) Introduction to Algorithms and Pseudocode. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309410533_Introduction_to_A
lgorithms_and_Pseudocode [accessed Aug 30 2018].
4. https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1079057/what-is-the-difference-
between-flowchart-and-pseudocode

34