COMPUTER SYSTEMS & MAINTANANCE

ASSIGNMENT PRESENTATION OF GROUP 5, NC2

QUESTION:
Learning Outcome 03- Determine strorage media
IDENTIFY STORAGE MEDIA
1. Identify internal and external memory
2. Draw computer memory hierarchy
CATEGORISE STORAGE MEDIA ACCORDING TO TECHNOLOGY
3. Explain the three types of storage media
4. Explain file organization methods
5. Explain file access methods
SELECT APPROPRIATE STORAGE MEDIA
6. Outline criteria for selecting storage media
7. Justify the appropriateness of each storage media

PRESENTED IN THE FOLLOWING ORDER, BY THE FOLLOWING PRESENTERS:

QUESTION 1: CHANTELLE MATAMBO

QUESTION 2: BRENDON MARAMBA
QUESTION 3: AMANDA MANDISHONA
QUESTION 4: TINOTENDA MAPOSA
QUESTION 5: ELTON MAGWABA
QUESTION 6: BASIL MANOKORE
QUESTION 7: TENDAI MAMIRE
SUMMARISATION: MICHEAL MANDEWE & TENDAI MAMIRE

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 NUMBER 1: CHANTELLE MATAMBO
1. INTERNAL MEMORY
Internal memory, also known as primary memory or main memory, refers to the storage space directly accessible by the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) of a computer. It is used to store data and instructions that are actively being processed by the CPU. The main types
of internal memory are RAM (random access memory) and ROM (read-only memory):
Random Access Memory (RAM):RAM is a volatile form of memory that stores data and instructions temporarily while the computer is
running. It is used to hold the operating system, software applications, and data that are actively being used by the CPU. RAM allows
for fast and temporary storage, but its contents are lost when the computer is powered off.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is a type of internal memory that can retain its data even when the computer is turned off. It contains
firmware or software instructions that cannot be modified or erased by normal computer operations. ROM stores the basic input/output
system (BIOS) in a computer, which initializes hardware components during startup.
2. EXTERNAL MEMORY
External memory, also known as secondary memory or auxiliary memory, refers to storage devices that provide long-term storage for
data and programs. Unlike internal memory, external memory is not directly accessible by the CPU but can be accessed and used for
data storage when needed. Some examples of external memory devices include:
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Hard Disk Drives (HDD): HDDs are magnetic storage devices commonly used in computers for long-term data
storage. They provide high-capacity storage at a relatively low cost and are typically used to store the operating system, software
applications, and user data.
Solid State Drive (SSD): Another type of external memory is a solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are storage devices that use flash
memory to store data. They offer faster data access and transfer speeds compared to HDDs and are increasingly used in modern
computers as primary storage or for external storage purposes.
Optical Discs: Optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, can store data using optical technology. They are commonly used
for software distribution, media storage, and backup purposes.
USB Flash Drives: USB flash drives, also known as thumb drives or USB sticks, are portable storage devices that use flash memory to
store data. They can be easily connected to a computer's USB port and provide a convenient way to transfer and store data.
Cloud storage: is a way of storing data on remote servers that can be accessed from any device with an internet connection, making it
very convenient and accessible. It offers automatic data backup and easy sharing.
Differences between internal and external memory

Internal memory External memory

Located inside the device Storage is separate from the device
Faster and more reliable Slower and less reliable
Limited capacity Vastly more capacity

NUMBER 2: BRENDON MARAMBA

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CPU REGISTERS

A CPU register is a small amount of fast memory that is built into the central processing unit (CPU). Registers are used to temporarily
store data and instructions that
the CPU is working with, and they are much faster than the main memory (RAM) used by the computer. Registers typically have a
capacity of only a few bytes, but they can be accessed much more quickly than RAM. There are different types of registers, including
general-purpose registers, special-purpose registers, and control registers. Each register has a specific purpose, and the CPU uses the
appropriate registers depending on the task it is performing.

CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a type of high-speed memory that is used to temporarily store frequently accessed data or instructions. Cache
memory is faster than main memory (RAM), but it is smaller in capacity. There are different levels of cache memory, with the fastest
and smallest level (level 1 cache) being closest to the CPU, and the slowest and and largest level (level 3 cache) being furthest from
the CPU. By using cache memory, the CPU can access data more quickly and efficiently, improving overall system performance.
However, cache memory is not persistent, so it is lost when the system is powered off.

MAIN MEMORY
Main memory, also known as random-access memory (RAM), is the primary storage space for a computer. Unlike the CPU registers
and cache memory, main memory is slower and larger in capacity. RAM is volatile, meaning that it is lost when the system is turned off.
It is used to store the operating system, programs, and data that are currently being used by the CPU. As the CPU works on data and
instructions, it transfers them from main memory to cache memory or registers for faster access. When the data is no longer
needed, it is transferred back to main memory. RAM is accessed via a system bus.

MAGNETIC DISK
A magnetic disk, also known as a hard disk drive (HDD), is a type of non-volatile storage device that uses a magnetic storage medium
to store data. The magnetic disk is made up of a circular platter with a magnetic coating, which is read and written to by a read/write
head. Magnetic disks are typically found in desktop computers and servers, where they are used to store large amounts of data. They
are also used in backup systems, where they can store data for long periods of time without losing it. However, magnetic disks are
slower and have less capacity than newer storage technologies, such as solid-state

OPTICAL DISK
An optical disk, such as a compact disc (CD) or digital versatile disc (DVD), is a type of storage medium that uses optical technology to
read and write data. Unlike magnetic disks and tapes, optical disks use laser light to read and write data. This makes them faster and
more resistant to damage than magnetic storage media. Optical disks can store a large amount of data, and they are commonly used
for storing music, movies, and software. However, they are typically read-only and have a limited capacity compared to other storage
technologies.

MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape is a type of storage medium that uses magnetic tape to store data. Like magnetic disks, magnetic tape is a non-volatile
storage medium that can retain data for long periods of time without power.
However, unlike magnetic disks, magnetic tape is sequential, meaning that the data is stored in a linear fashion and must be read from
beginning to end. As a result, magnetic tape is not as fast as magnetic disks, but it is more cost-effective for archiving large amounts of
data. Magnetic tape is typically found in backup systems, where it can be used to store data offsite for disaster recovery purposes.

NUMBER 3: AMANDA MANDISHONA

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Storage media refers to the physical devices or material used to store. There are three main types of storage media commonly used in
computing that are
OPTICAL STORAGE
Optical storage refers to the storage of data on an optically readable medium, typically using a laser to read and write data. This
technology involves recording data by making marks in a pattern that can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser
light precisely focused on a spinning optical disc. Optical storage is different from other data storage techniques that make use of
technologies such as magnetism (e.g., floppy disks and hard disks) or semiconductors (e.g., flash memory).

How Optical Storage Works: Optical storage devices, such as optical disc drives in computers, can read various types of optical discs,
including CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These discs are composed of several layers, including a visible label, the data-containing
plastic, reflective aluminium, and protective polycarbonate to protect the disc from damage. When data is written onto an optical disc, it
is done by creating little pits in the shiny surface to reflect the laser back into a sensor.

Common Examples of Optical Media: Optical storage is commonly used in audio players, digital cameras, and as auxiliary storage for
computer systems. It is often used for archiving and distributing various forms of media content, such as music, movies, and other
multimedia files.

Advantages and Disadvantages: Some advantages of optical storage systems include low cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks, large
storage capacity, and the ability to handle, store, and transport them easily due to their compact size and light weight. However, optical
storage is a read-only (permanent) storage medium, meaning that data once recorded cannot be erased, and the data access speed
for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks
Optical Discs vs. Other Storage Media:Optical discs provide greater memory capacity than magnetic storage, as laser beams can be
controlled and focused much more precisely than tiny magnetic heads, enabling the condensation of data into a much smaller space.
Additionally, optical storage is less likely to degrade over time compared to magnetic tape,hard disk drives (HDDs), or solid-state drives
(SSDs).

In summary, optical storage is a method of storing and retrieving data using optically readable media, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
discs, and it offers advantages such as large storage capacity and durability, while also having limitations such as being read-only and
slower data access speed compared to other storage technologies.

MAGNETIC STORAGE
Magnetic storage is a method of storing data using magnetized medium, where information is recorded by altering the polarity of the
magnetic medium to create waveforms or intensities of colour and brightness. This technology has been around since 1888 and is
used in a variety of analog and digital devices, including audio and video storage mediums, hard disks, zip disks, and floppy disks.

How Magnetic Storage Works: Magnetic storage involves the use of read and write heads to align the magnetic fields on the recording
medium. The medium can be in the form of a tape, disk, or stripe, and the data is stored in the form of tracks, spots, and sectors. When
data is accessed, the read-write head detects the magnetic fields' orientation and interprets the information as binary data.
Applications and Advantages: Magnetic storage devices are widely used to store computer data, audio, and video signals. They offer
high storage capacities, relatively fast read and write speeds, and non-volatility, meaning they retain data even without power. This
makes them valuable for long-term storage solutions. Additionally, magnetic storage is less likely to degrade over time compared to
other storage technologies.

Types of Magnetic Storage Media: Common examples of magnetic storage media include hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tape, and
magnetic stripes on credit cards. These media are used to store vast amounts of data and are suitable for applications where quick
access to individual files is not required.

In summary, magnetic storage is a versatile and enduring method of storing data using magnetized medium, offering high storage
capacities, non-volatility, and relatively fast read and write speeds. It is widely used in various analog and digital devices, including
computer data storage, audio and video recording, and credit card information storage.

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SOLID STATE STORAGE
Solid-state storage (SSS) is a type of computer storage media that stores data electronically and has no moving parts. It is made from
silicon microchips and offers several advantages over traditional electromechanical storage, such as hard disk drives (HDDs). Some
key points about solid-state storage include:

- No Moving Parts: Solid-state storage devices, such as solid-state drives (SSDs), solid-state cards (SSC), and solid-state modules
(SSM), do not contain any mechanical parts, allowing for much faster data transfer and a more predictable lifespan for the storage
media.
- Faster and More Consistent Performance: Solid-state storage provides faster and more consistent input/output (I/O) times compared
to traditional HDDs. This results in quicker boot-up times, faster program loading, and quicker data saving.

- Form Factors: Solid-state storage can be found in various form factors, including internal drives that connect directly to a computer's
motherboard and external drives that connect via USB, eSATA, or Thunderbolt connections.

-Flash Memory: Solid-state storage devices typically use electrically-programmable non-volatile flash memory, which allows for rapid
data read and write operations. This makes them ideal for use as secondary memory in modern computing systems.

-Advantages Over HDDs: SSDs have no moving parts, use less power, produce less heat, and offer higher data integrity and
endurance compared to HDDs. They also provide faster access times, making them popular in laptops and other mobile devices.

-Replacement of HDDs: SSDs are capable of replacing traditional HDDs in computers and are known for their speed, resilience, and
ability to significantly improve overall system performance.

In summary, solid-state storage is a modern and efficient form of computer storage that offers numerous advantages over traditional
electromechanical storage devices like HDDs. It is characterized by its use of flash memory, lack of moving parts, and significantly
faster performance.

NUMBER 4: TINOTENDA MAPOSA

File organization in storage media refers to the way in which data is arranged and stored on a storage device such as a hard drive or
solid-state drive. There are various methods of organizing files on storage media, including:
1. Sequential organization: In this method, files are stored one after another in a continuous sequence. This is a simple and
efficient way of organizing files, but it can lead to slower access times for specific files if they are located far apart on the
storage device.
2. Indexed organization: In this method, a separate index file is maintained that contains information about the location of each file on
the storage device. This allows for faster access to specific files, as the index can be used to quickly locate the desired file.
3. Hierarchical organization: In this method, files are organized into a hierarchical structure of directories or folders. This allows for easy
categorization and organization of files, making it easier to find and manage specific files.
4. Clustered organization: In this method, files are stored in clusters or groups of sectors on the storage device. This can help to
improve access times for files that are frequently accessed together, as they are stored in close proximity to each other.
Overall, the choice of file organization method depends on factors such as the type of storage device, the size and type of files being
stored, and the intended use of the files. Different file organization methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, so it is
important to choose the most appropriate method based on specific requirements and considerations.

NUMBER 5: ELTON MAGWABA

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File access methods are essential for managing how data is read from and written to storage media. There are three primary file
access methods: Sequential Access, Direct Access, and Indexed Sequential Access
1. SEQUENTIAL ACCESS

Sequential access is the simplest and oldest access method. Data is read in order, one record after the other, just like a tape recorder.
It's efficient for reading large chunks of data but inefficient if you need to find a specific piece of data quickly.
The sequential access method in file systems is one of the simplest and most traditional forms of accessing files. Here's a more
detailed explanation:
Orderly Processing: Information in the file is processed in a linear order, one record after another.
Automatic Pointer Movement: When a 'read' operation is performed, it reads the next position in the file and advances the file pointer,
which keeps track of the I/O location.
Appending on Write: A 'write' operation appends data to the end of the file and moves the pointer to the newly written material.
Common Use Cases: This method is commonly used by applications like text editors and compilers, which typically process files from
beginning to end.
Advantages: Its simplicity makes it easy to implement and use, especially for applications that process data linearly.
Disadvantages: It can be inefficient for random access operations or when dealing with large files, as it requires starting from the
beginning of the file and processing each record sequentially to reach the desired point.
Sequential access is akin to reading a book page by page; you start at the beginning and continue in order until you reach the end. It's
well-suited for situations where you need to process every piece of data in a file, but not as much when you need to quickly access
specific, non-sequential pieces of information.
Example: Consider a music playlist where you can only skip songs sequentially. To get to the fifth song, you must skip through the first
four.
2. DIRECT ACCESS

Also known as random access, direct access allows data to be read or written in any order. The time to access data is uniform,
regardless of its position in the storage media
- Allows direct access to data from any location within the file, without reading or writing all preceding records.
- Based on the disk model of a file, as disks allow random access to any file block.
- Key points: Data is accessed one record at a time, without a specific order.
- Read commands move the pointer ahead by one record.
- Write commands allocate memory and move the pointer to the end of the file.
- Ideal for scenarios where rapid access to fixed-length logical records is required.
In summary, sequential access processes data sequentially, while direct access allows random access to any part of the file based on
physical addresses or positions¹²³.
Example: Think of a book where you can flip directly to the page you want to read, without going through all the previous pages.
3. INDEXED SEQUENTIAL ACCESS

This method combines elements of both sequential and direct access. An index is created to keep track of where data is stored,
allowing for efficient data retrieval.
The Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) is a file organization technique that combines the efficiency of sequential access with
the flexibility of direct access. Here's a more detailed explanation:

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ISAM consists of three main components:
1. Data File: This is where the actual records are stored in sequential order based on a key attribute.
2. Index File: This contains indexes to the records in the data file, allowing for faster search operations.
3. Overflow Area: When new records are inserted and there's no space in the data file, they are stored here.
How ISAM Works: When a record is searched, ISAM uses the index to find the appropriate block in the data file where the record is
likely to be.
- If the record is not found in the expected block due to insertions, the overflow area is then searched.
Advantages of ISAM:
Efficient Searching: By using an index, ISAM allows for quick retrieval of records.
Range Queries: It supports range retrieval, meaning you can efficiently find all records within a certain range of key values.
Limitations of ISAM:
Static Index: The index does not dynamically adjust to insertions and deletions, which can lead to inefficiencies.
Overflow Management: The overflow area can become large and unwieldy, affecting performance.
ISAM was a significant step in the evolution of database technology, providing a balance between the need for quick data retrieval and
efficient storage utilization¹²³.
Example: Imagine a library with a catalog. To find a book, you first go to the catalog (index), which tells you the book's location so you
can directly retrieve it.
These methods are crucial in file system design, affecting the system's performance and efficiency.

NUMBER 6: BASIL MANOKORE

STORAGE SELECTION
- Capacity: How much storage space you need for your media. This will depend on the size and number of files you want to store.
- Performance: The speed and responsiveness of the storage device. You'll need to consider whether you need fast access to your
media, or if you're willing to accept slower access times.
- Reliability: The reliability and lifespan of the storage device. It should be able to withstand regular use and keep your media safe for a
long time.
Cost: The overall cost of the storage device
Compatibility: The storage device should be compatible with your other devices and software. Make sure it can connect to your
computer and be used with your preferred media player.
Usability: The storage device should be easy to use and navigate. It should have intuitive controls and menus that make it easy to find
and manage your media.
Features: The storage device may have additional features, such as password protection, cloud storage, or other special features.
Consider if these features are important to you.
Support: The storage device should have good customer support in case you have any issues or questions.

MEDIA SELECTION
Budget: A firm with a limited budget for promotion and advertising needs to limit the coverage amount a specific media will provide. It
should keep a balance between its budget and the coverage amount.

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Objectives of the Campaign: The campaign’s objectives are one of the factors that will affect the budget and the amount of coverage. If
the campaign objective is raising the firm’s brand awareness among the youth market then it will affect any decision the firm makes
above. In this case, the firm needs to spend more on specific publications to meet the objectives.

Target Audience: The media the firm selects is certainly influenced by its target audience. The firm needs to select the media that its
target audience is related to such as the newspapers or magazines, they read or the social media sites they use.
Concentration: The firm’s campaign message’s concentration or focus should also be considered whether it should be emotional or
clear cut.
Media’s Readership: Readership means the number of times readers have read the publication.

Media’s Circulation: A firm needs to calculate the total circulation of the chosen media.

Timing: The firm will also consider when it wants to start the promotional campaign while media selection.

ASSURE MODEL

Strengths Of the ASSURE Model

Listens to learners — ASSURE is a learner-centric instructional design model, meaning learners are constantly being analyzed and
considered. This helps to keep programs aligned with learners’ needs and ensures the content and objectives are conducive to
learning.
Utilizes technology — The ASSURE model is unique because it promotes planning and delivering learning materials through
incorporated technology and media. With the proven benefits of integrated technology in learning, learners may be more likely to retain
more information for longer periods of time.
Provides guidance for writing objectives — A major strength of the ASSURE model is that it creates learning objectives
based on the ABCD model. This model formulates well-stated learning objectives by considering the audience, behavior, conditions,
and degree of mastery.

Weaknesses Of the ASSURE Model

Too focused on an academic setting — Compared to ADDIE, ASSURE is more known for its strong focus on academic settings. Some
argue that the ASSURE model should be modified to better keep up with its use in a workplace setting.
Narrow scope — Unlike a more big-picture model, the ASSURE model is regarded as having quite a narrow focus on a single lesson,
topic, or module.
Time-consuming — Although this model is considered easy to follow, it can be time-consuming to create lessons. Constantly
confronting learners, deciding on objectives, and determining what technologies to integrate can take up a lot of time.

NUMBER 7: TENDAI MAMIRE

Optical storage media includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These types of media use laser light to read and write data. CDs are the
oldest of these technologies, followed by DVDs, and Blu-ray is the newest and offers the highest capacity. Optical media is popular for
storing and sharing media such as music and movies.
- Solid-state storage media includes flash drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and memory cards. Flash drives and SSDs use integrated
circuits (ICs) to store data, and memory cards are used in cameras and other devices. Solid-state storage is becoming increasingly
popular, thanks
- . Hard disk drives (HDDs) are a good choice for applications that require a large capacity for storage at a relatively low cost. HDDs
are available in a variety of sizes and can hold a large amount of data. They are also durable, with an average lifespan of around five
years. However, HDDs can be slow to access data and are prone to failure if they are dropped or exposed to excessive vibration. They
also consume more power than other storage media.

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- Solid-state drives (SSDs) offer several advantages over HDDs. SSDs are much faster than HDDs, which means they can load data
more quickly.
- Flash drives and memory cards are both solid-state storage devices that are portable and convenient. Flash drives are typically
larger than memory cards, but they both offer the advantage of being small and easy to carry. They are also more resistant to damage
from shock and vibration than HDDs.
- However, flash drives and memory cards have limited capacity and can be more expensive than other storage media. They also
have a shorter lifespan than other storage media.
- Cloud storage offers several advantages over other types of storage media. It is easy to access from any device with an internet
connection, making it convenient for sharing and collaboration. Cloud storage is also highly secure, as data is stored in a data center
that is often protected by multiple layers of security. However, cloud storage can be expensive, especially for large amounts of data. It
can also be slow to access data if the internet connection is not fast enough. In addition, cloud storage can be vulnerable to outages,
so it is important to have a backup plan in place.
Each type of storage media has its own advantages and disadvantages. The most appropriate choice will depend on the specific
needs of the application. To help make a decision, it is important to consider factors such as cost, capacity, speed, and security. In
some cases, it may be necessary to use multiple types of storage media to meet the specific needs of an application. For example, a
database that requires fast access to large amounts of data might use a combination of SSDs and HDDs. Or, an application that
requires high security and reliability might use cloud storage with a local backup. The key is to understand the trade-offs and make a
choice that is most appropriate for the specific needs of the application.

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