"Ars Sine Scientia Nihil Est" Gothic Theory of Architecture at the Cathedral of Milan

Author(s): James S. Ackerman

Source: The Art Bulletin , Jun., 1949, Vol. 31, No. 2 (Jun., 1949), pp. 84-111
Published by: CAA

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 "ARS SINE SCIENTIA NIHIL EST"

GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

AT THE CATHEDRAL OF MILAN*

JAMES S. ACKERMAN

II convient de constater d'abord qu'il est imtossible de

s'parer la forme de l'architecture du XIII si'cle de sa struc-
ture; tout membre de cette architecture est la consequence
du'un besoin de la structure, comme dans le genre vegetal
et animal il n'est pas un phznomene, un appendice qui ne
soit le produit d'un necessite organique. . . . Cette forme
n'est pas le resultat d'un caprice, puisqu'elle n'est que l'ex-
pression decoree, si vous voulez, de la structure.
-E. Viollet-le-Duc, Entretiens sur l'architecture,
Paris, 1863, 1, pp. 284, 287

T HE opinion of Viollet-le-Duc, summarized in these words, typifies an approach to the inter-

pretation of Gothic architecture which has held great appeal for the modern student. The
evident harmony of this approach with the "functional" spirit of a nascent style of con-
temporary architecture partially explains its success. It is more significant, however, that the con-
flicts created in our aesthetic responses by the scientific and mechanical psyche of our age are here
neatly resolved by an interpretation which is mechanistic, which explains cultural phenomena in
terms of irreducible and demonstrable fact. Yet, granting that by this means Gothic architecture
becomes in a sense more intelligible to the modern mind, it remains to be seen whether this intel-
ligibility is not gained at the cost of understanding. Our problem is to determine whether a type of
logic which is so distinctly tinged with the flavor of experimental science fortuitously illuminates
a mediaeval creative process, or whether it forces us to see through a glass, darkly.
A considerable literature already exists on the subject of "Gothic Rationalism," as this view is
sometimes called. In France, for example, the particular views of Viollet-le-Duc have been as-
saulted by Pol Abraham and others, and in turn stoutly defended.' Much effort has been spent in
the attempt to prove, by the study of extant monuments, that certain elements believed by Viollet-
le-Duc to be essential to the structural skeleton are in reality inorganic. This controversy has con-
centrated on the problem of the function of the rib in Gothic vaulting, but in spite of bringing to
bear upon the question the most formidable tools of modern engineering, the arguments on both
sides have remained inconclusive. The failure is largely methodological, for in their painstaking
analysis of such particular elements, the adversaries of Rationalism become themselves enmeshed
in the web of inductive scientific technique. They have furthermore failed to appreciate that our
understanding of Gothic architecture would not be substantially enriched by the destruction of a
nineteenth century interpretation. If Rationalism is proven inadequate, it is the responsibility of the

* This study is based on a paper delivered at the thirty- for clarifying some difficult passages.
sixth annual meeting of the College Art Association in Janu- i. The most comprehensive criticism of Viollet-le-Duc is
ary 1948. I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Richard made in Pol Abraham, Viollet-le-Duc et le rationalisme medie-
Krautheimer for his generous assistance and criticism, and val, Paris, 1934, and a digest bearing the same title in Bul-
to Dr. Erwin Panofsky, who directed me to the Milan texts, letin Monumental, xcIII, 1934, pp. 69-88.

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 85

contemporary historian to search for data which wi

to both the facts and the spirit of Gothic architecture.
The problem we have posed is to discover whether
Gothic architecture from its structure is justified, a
proach. The method of procedure which suggests itse
of Rationalism, for if we wish to avoid the impositi
we are bound to seek for Gothic criteria. This involves
the Gothic architect with respect to the form, the pur
analysis of remaining monuments provides insufficient
the works, but to the men who created them, whose
textual remains of the period.2
It is doubtful whether a search of mediaeval source
of the practice of architecture as are found in the trea
on. The claim of the architect to be placed among creat
a doctrine of architecture, is to a degree a sign of th
writings which concern architecture are few in number
the most part of little assistance in reconstructing the
ture. However, evidence which bears directly on the pr
in startling abundance in the late fourteenth centur
the Annals of the building of Milan Cathedral. It is
produce the kind of material for which we are seeki
concerned only with matters of supply, finance, an
at Milan, and the exceptions which will be considered h
published records, are passages resulting from the u
constant changes of master-builders, recurrent inde
practice which hamper the progress of the Cathedr
criticisms and debates which give expression to a var
of construction been better organized, we might hav
of compensation, a more admirable cathedral.

The foundation of the Cathedral of Milan in 1386

artistic eclipse which began at the close of the Roma
had impoverished the duchy during the thirteenth a
by Gian Galeazzo Visconti (I347-1402), whose milita
bardy a large portion of Venetian territory, most o
monumental architecture may be attributed both to
the increase in wealth and security which resulted f

published
2. The validity of the textual by its administration
approach to the under the title: Annali della
problem of
fabbrica del Duomo
Rationalism has been ably proved bydiGeorge
Milano dall' origine
Kublerfino al presente,
in "A
Late Gothic Computation of Milan,
Rib1877-1885,
Vault makes available a wealth Gazette
Thrusts," of material which des
is almost unique
Beaux-Arts, xxvi, I94.4 (Melanges in mediaeval
Henri architectural studies.
Focillon), Compari-
pp. 135-
son with
148 (which includes a valuable the earlier
digest ofpublication
the of Ambrogio Nava, Memorie
Rationalist con-
e documenti
troversy). This study of a tract storici intorno all' origine,
on structural problemsalle vicende by
ed ai riti
the
del Duorno di Rodrigo
sixteenth century Spanish architect, Milano, Milan, I854,
Gil indicates that the Annali
de Hontaiion,
are not complete which
reveals a theory of vault construction or consistently
isaccurate, but it may be
different as-
from
those of both Viollet-le-Duc sumed
andthat they include
his the great majorityThe
opposition. of remaining docu-
mathe-
matical systems employed by
ments.
Rodrigo in the calculation of
thrusts are perhaps too advanced 4. For
tothebe history and a critical
regarded as bibliography
part of the of the Cathe-
dral, see Camillo
mediaeval tradition, but his testimony is Boito,
none II Duomo
the lessdi Milano e i disegni per
valuable
la sua facciata, Milan,of
as an essential link in the reconstruction 1889. Stylistic criticism
Gothic theory and interpreta-
of
architecture. tion of textual sources is found in Luca Beltrami, Per la fac-
3. The eight-volume edition of the records of the Cathedral,ciata del Duomo di Milano, Milan, 1887.

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 86 THE ART BULLETIN

of the foundation of the Cathedral, th

area: the reconstruction of Monza Ca
and the Cathedral at Como.7
The new architectural campaigns called for building on a scale calculated to rival the largest
Gothic cathedrals of western Europe, a goal which was not destined to be achieved easily by a so-
ciety which had so recently emerged from two centuries of cultural obscurity. The provincial char-
acter of the thirteenth and fourteenth century architectural tradition of Lombardy in itself suggests
that the architects of Gian Galeazzo Visconti were poorly prepared for a renascence of monumental
architecture.

A conservative Gothic church style had developed in Lombardy almost exclusively under the
sponorship of the monastic orders. The style is essentially a compromise between the Romanesque
cathedrals of the region and the French Cistercian forms introduced into central Italy in the twelfth
century." There is no evidence of influence from contemporary developments in the architecture
of western Europe. The flying buttress is rarely employed, fenestration remains limited, monumen-
tal sculpture is foresworn, and the exteriors are uniformly of unfaced brick. The style is modest to
the point of poverty, and yet it developed an individuality which distinguishes it from monastic
architecture elsewhere. A variety of the Cistercian plan which is typical of Lombardy is the arrange-
ment of outer chapel-rows along the side aisles, as is seen in the example in Figure 2.' This produces
in effect, a five-aisle arrangement in the western arm which has, as will appear later, an influence
on the planning of Milan Cathedral. The most distinctive feature of the style is the lively decora-

5. See A. G. Meyer, Lombardische Denkmiiler des vier- und der Renaissance in Italien, Berlin, 1889. A. Kingsley Por-
zehnten Jahrhunderts, 1893, pp. iizff. An inscription on theter's Lombard Architecture, New Haven, 1917, treats a few
cornerstone dates the completion of the facade in 1396, andGothic monuments which originated in the Romanesque period.
names the master, Matheus de Camplione. The area of the style spreads westward from Milan to
6. The Certosa was ceremoniously founded by Gian Gale- Brescia and Mantua, and is bordered by the Alps to the north,
azzo Visconti and his sons on August 27, 1396 (see Luca Bel- and Piacenza to the south. Genoa, Bologna, and Venice are
trami, Storia documentata della Certosa di Pavia, Milan, 1869,centers of styles clearly separable from that of Lombardy.
pp. 6zf., I4o). Only the foundations of the church were The chronological limits, however, are more difficult to de-
completed before the second half of the fifteenth century.termine, and the paucity of reliable dates makes even the trac-
7. The rebuilding of an older Como Cathedral was prob-ing of a stylistic development impossible. All but a few of the
ably started in 1396, but no building records remain fromremaining monuments appear to have originated in the cen-
the fourteenth century (see D. S. Monti, La Cattedrale di tury 1280-138o, while the course of the preceding century re-
Como, Como, 1897, pp. 27-32). As at the Certosa, progressmains uncharted.
on the building was virtually halted between the death of The monastic plan-type of the Lombard Gothic church is
Gian Galeazzo and the commencement of the Sforza rule evidently imported from Tuscany, while the facades reflect the
in 1450. local Romanesque style of San Michele in Pavia, Modena,
8. Although this "Lombard Gothic" style has numerous
Piacenza, etc. The cubic Romanesque bell-tower of northern
features which differentiate it from contemporaneousItaly
architec-
is transformed into a delicate and open form capitalizing
on terracotta
ture in northern Italy, its individuality has not been recog- ornament, as seen at the "Torazzo" of Cremona
nized. Perhaps because of the provincial character and dilapi- of 1284, and the mid-fourteenth century tower of
Cathedral,
dated condition of the few remaining examples of the San Gottardo
style, it in Milan. At Chiaravalle Milanese this type is
has been by-passed by recent scholarship. There was, employed
however, over the crossing of an earlier church. The Gothic
formscen-
a flurry of interest in this field during the nineteenth of central France imported into north Italy at San
tury, which, rising and fading with the Gothic Revival move-
Andrea in Vercelli in I2z9 (flying buttress, two-tower facade,
ment, maintained a uniformly superficial approach. Some con-
etc.) apparently had little influence on the architecture of the
sideration of Lombard Gothic architecture may be found
region.
in the
Besides Santa Maria del Carmine in Pavia, which is illus-
following: Thomas Hope, An Historical Essay on Architecture,
London, 18353 R. Willis, Remarks on the Architecture ofhere,
trated thethe Lombard Gothic type is well represented in
San Amico
Middle Ages, Especially of Italy, Cambridge, 1835; Agostino and San Luca in Cremona; San Bassiano and
San Francesco in Lodi5 San Francesco in Pavia; Santa Maria
Ricci, Storia dell' architettura in Italia, Modena, 1857-18595
del Carmine,
Franz Kugler, Geschichte der Baukunst, Stuttgart, 1856-1859 5 San Francesco, and San Antonio in Piacenza (the
latter with a unique western porch); San Francesco in Ver-
W. Liibke, "Reisenotizen fiber die mittelalterlichen Kunstwerke
in Italien," Mitth. der Kaiserl. Kdnigl. Centralcommission,
celli, and numerous village churches. Remaining examples in
v, x86o, pp. 112-120, 134-140, 160-173i Max Nohl,the Tage-
Milan area-among them San Giovanni in Conca, San
Marco,
buch einer italienischen Reise, Stuttgart, 18665 L. Gruner andand Santa Maria in Strada in Monza-are largely
F. Lose, The Terra-cotta Architecture of North Italy, London,
defaced by nineteenth century reconstruction.
1867; George E. Street, Brick and Marble in the Middle 9. Although
Ages, this plan-type is peculiarly Lombard, it occa-
London, 1855, znd ed., 18745 Carl Schnaase, Geschichtesionallyder
appears elsewhere, as at San Fortunato in Todi, a Tus-
bildenden Kiinste, v, Dilsseldorf, 18765 Oscar Mothes, Die of the early fourteenth century (see W. Kr6nig,
can church
Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien, Jena, 1884i L. "Hallenkirchen
Runge, in Mittelitalien," Kunstgesch. Jahrbuch der
Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Backstein-Architektur Italiens, Ber-
Bibl. Herziana, II, 1938, PP. 78ff.)-
lin, I885; Heinrich Strack, Ziegelbauwerke des Mittelalters

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 87

tive sense exercised in the rich brick-and-terracotta f

crossing-towers. Although both these features manifest
style of the twelfth century, they undergo a development
individuality. On the whole, however, the imagination
decorative aspects of his art, and there is little evidence
and fourteenth centuries.
A well-preserved and typical Lombard Gothic chu
The chapel-rows give the plan a rectangular form and
nacles and terracotta ornaments enliven the fagade, wh
interior, where the nave walls are relieved only by sma
buttresses which we see on the fagade are also employed
aside the ornamental features of this building, there is not
of the fourteenth century rather than to the end of th
It proved in practice almost impossible to adopt the Lo
aesthetic requirements of the new programs sponsored
reflected in the stylistic confusion of the Visconti mon
northern Gothic, Monza toward the Tuscan, Como towa
adds Romanesque revival and Florentine Renaissance
the Lombard architects of the end of the fourteenth c
borrowed their style from any and every foreign sou
submission to alien forms was made unwillingly. The F
to aid the architects of Milan Cathedral were bitterly r
the Cathedral is one of constant wrangling between loc
Evidently the inadequacy of the provincial tradition w
tects of Milan Cathedral. It seems, in fact, to have been
assistance from the north. The building council appoin
designs, and broke ground shortly after the Pope granted
tial lines of the foundations were established before th
consideration. The first of these to be appointed was a
became a privileged engineer of the Cathedral in July
This change in policy was evidently motivated by circu
lay deputies to admit that the self-confidence with w
unwarranted. There were already faults in the foundat
design constituted an obstacle to progress." There was a
Nicolas. On the basis of this information there may be
Gothic character of the Cathedral began to take form o
that the initial plan was conceived in the Lombard Got
of this study certain documents in support of this assu
alone is persuasive. The possibility that the council bega
ern Gothic church architecture is rendered unlikely both
and by the nature of the Cathedral plan itself. The first f
and only when it became apparent that the problems
not all be solved by Lombard Gothic masters. The app
not by admiration for French architecture, but by resp

io. The church has been traditionally

I . 4Annali, I, 25assigned
(6 July). a date of
12. Certain
1373 (see A. Ricci, Storia, II, 397i features of Remarks,
Willis, the foundations were p.
criticized
165).in
Liibke's suggestion of 1325 ("Reisenotizen,"
a conference in March 1388 (ibid.,pp.I, 16iff.),
19). The designis for the
piers which
unsupported. The decorative style of wasthe hurriedly
facade adopted (see Boito,
gives more II Duomo, p.
credence to the later date. 99) had to be abandoned in the following two years.

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 88 THE ART BULLETIN

northern stylistic concepts had to

Milanese and, like many of his succ
A remarkable document remains fr
has on the recto a plan of the Cathe
ments of certain elevations, and on
6). The author is Antonio di Vicenz
notes for his future work at San P
primary source for the history of th
tions laid before the onset of foreign
and elevation. Comparing this plan
transept is one bay longer on either
arm. Its Romanesque character, a c
Since it was evidently the problem
the aid of a Frenchman, Antonio's
by the Milanese. The crossing-piers
more complex than the others, wer
of July 1390, at which time it wa
Andrea's sketch are designed as a r
present plan (Fig. 4) shows that th
three stages: first, all piers relativ
piers enlarged. It was possibly upon
were made. The remarkable fact is t
ing their supports at a time when t
established. What the Rationalist w
flux! In this case, certainly, structu
The proposed sacristy elevation
tracery which was closely followed
northern flavor, reminding one so
dating
I3. Annali, I, 36 (31 of the sketch on a"che
July): notice in the records
si cassiof San Petronio,
maes
according to which
Bonaventuri, ingegnere Antonio leftfabbrica,
della Bologna for Milan in Febru- dal s
corresponde, e lo si arytolga
1390. intieramente dalle o
fabbrica." 15. Boito's suggestion (op. cit., p. 107) that Antonio was
14. The text confused by scaffolding
accompanying theand rubble into adding two baysreads
sketches onto
A: Nota che le navethepezole
transept is difficult to accept. The
sieno plan is executed
larghe with
piedi
commentzando dasome care, and lacking
mezo del further evidence on the early
pilastro project,
al altr
sono posti tutti li we can assume only that
pilastri perthe additional
quadro. bays were either in
Note
pilastri grosi che existence
sono or under
in consideration
mezo in 1390.
la Antonio's omission
croxeria
sono grosi piedi sette of piers in theonze
western portion of the navepiliando
otto is also intentional, t
Tutto al resto di lifor the erection of the sono
pilastri bays nearest grosi
the entrance awaited
piedi the s
B: da mezo questo pilastro al of
demolition of the fagade altro mezo
the ancient Cathedral sie p
(see Giulio
C: Piedi LI onze IIII. Carotti, "Vicende del Duomo di Milano e della sua facciata,"
D: Piedi xxv once viii. Archivio storico dell' arte, II, 1889, p. Ix8 and fig. z).
E: braza vI. 16. I refer particularly to the Cathedral of Piacenza, where
F: braza III. the relationships in plan of the principal portions of the build-
G: braza x. ing are strikingly similar to those in this sketch.
L: braza xxxx per fino soto el capitelo. 17. Annali, 1, 36 (19 July) : "Super sala reverendi domini
M: braza xxx milanese piliando el capitelo. archiepiscopi deliberaverunt quod illi quattuor pironi tiburii
N: va alta la cupola dal mezo braza cxiII. fabricae augmententur in grossitudine se ingrossentur per quar-
tas tres in quadro, taliter quod sint in circitu quartas i ii2
A milanese braccio of this period measures about -595 meters.
Since we know that the aisle bays measure 16 braccia(sic- andi /2?) plus aliis pironis." Although it is not specifically
the nave bays, 32 braccia, we are able to transpose Antonio's stated, it is reasonable to assume that at the time of this deci-
Bolognese foot to roughly .369 meters. The "unze" or "onze" sion, the crossing-piers were of the same thickness as the lesser
is analogous to our inch. piers. The precise character of this change is unclear. The
The text and the plates which accompany it have term been "quarta" is frequently employed in the records as a unit
taken from Boito, II Duomo, pp. Io6, io8. Both were copied of measurement, and may be equivalent to Y4 braccio. What-
by Luca Beltrami in the archives of San Petronio in Bologna, ever its value, it is difficult to see how the increase in the
and published in Raccolta Milanese, December 1887, circumference
a pe- of the pier (if it is Ii2 quartas) can be exactly
riodical which I have been unable to find. Beltrami bases the half of the increase in the "square" (3 quartas).

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 89

tribution of Nicolas de Bonaventure. That a decorat

originally projected is clear from the present design o
north sacristy, which is executed in the style of a Lom
In Antonio's delineation of the projected nave sec
although the drawing is not made to scale, to enab
accuracy (text figure a, below). The letter Al (t
(height of the side-aisle piers) = 40 braccia; H (hei
braccia; G (distance of the nave impost from th
ground." No measurement is provided for the heig
F are apparently extraneous to the problem of est
Frankl, in his analysis of this project, proposes tha
on the part of the designer: the employment of a b
the heights of various elements." Such a unit has a
provide measurements which might be followed re
ing stick (in this case, probably 5 braccia in length
a state as that of the supports, because a year after
to call a conference to decide on the "length of the
dows, doors and other things."" In terms of the "r
it is inconceivable that the height of a structure shou
had been completed, but this is the case at Milan.
the first of five different solutions which are known
as logical method is not unique, and it proves to ha
the Cathedral to grow haphazardly, without an ult
piers were redesigned in their present form short
begun well before the height of the capitals had bee

90)p 7CA
8o 84 8o
-0 . 70
6- -64 _ - 64
so56 48 - 52
40 42 40
30 - - - ..8.3228
-100
/1416
/4

(a) (b) (C) (d)

MILAN, CATHEDRAL. P
TIONS 90 BRACCIA WI
Project of 1391 employ
(c) Project of 1392 emp
Project accepted in 139
12 braccia within fram

As the piers grew

dissatisfaction wit
traced to the crit
venture. Annas ev

I8. See Boito, II

Duom
tonio's
desig
facciata, considered
I, 29. h
i9. "The study,
Secret to the
of wh
XXVII, 20.
I945, Annali,
PP- 5~f. Fo

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 90 THE ART BULLETIN

for he proposed that the section be

geometry in the building theory of
standpoint of this theory, its introduc
new scheme, however, the building
equilateral triangle is incommensura
advantages of simple, yardstick meas
tion of this dilemma was not in the
Stornaloco was summoned from Pia
mitted his opinion in a letter accompan
lies in the fact that it not only prov
framework with a grid as simple as th
loco solves the problem of the incom
cia already established by the found
integral 84 braccia.'2 The purpose of
from the drawing, for it permits th
14 braccia each. The coordination of
interrelation between the width of
Moreover, the geometrical figures p
the section itself, and a harmonic co
reference to a more abstract harmo
scribed, as well as the hexagon inscr
hunched character of the earlier pro
sistent means of determining the heig
is undoubtedly some significance in
vaults so that the nave is just twice t
Stornaloco's design was accepted and
and buttresses, but we shall see that it
the inconsistent growth of the Cathed
probably a matter of little concern
was the introduction of a geometrica
Meanwhile, Annas de Firimburg ha
sued. A ducal envoy to Cologne faile
accept the position, and an attractiv
Cathedral, was refused." Finally, at
2z i. The architect
cum Annas (or
inzigneriis dictae fabricae Giovanni)
de dubiis altitudinis et aliorum de
(Freiburg) is not to de
be quibus dubium
confusederat inter dictos inzignerios
with . . . dentur . .
the scul
Fernach, who was alsodono pro recognitione
active et recumpensatione
at the expensarum per eum
Cathedra
Becker, xI, 406, and xiv, 118). This architect w
factarum
appointed early in I391, veniendo.
23. A copy
presented ... "
of Stornaloco's sketch and the
hisletter which accom-
criticisms
March twelfth of panies year,
that it is reproduced in
andBeltrami, was
Per la facciata, III, pp. 12-
dismissed in
1, 45 androle 48).
as the
x5, and Frankl, His
ART BULLETIN,first foreigner t
1945, PP. 53-55-
geometrical scheme for 24. Thethe
mathematics employed by Stornaloco
section may in calculating
be recon
the incommensurable heights
a statement by a Milanese architectare interpreted by Erwin
in Panofsky
a confe
in a postscript
The latter, speaking of a later to Frankl's scheme
article ("An Explanationfor of Stor-the se
it respects "il retto naloco's
ordine Formula," ART delBULLETIN, XXVII, 1945, pp. 61-64). che
triangolo,
abbandonato senza errore, come
25. The grid employed in the first altre volte ma
project made it impossible
certo maestro Annex totedesco, determine the height ofprimo
the summits of the dilesser lui,
vaults ac- predi
e fedele voce nelle orecchie dei falsi sordi." In a consideration cording to the basic unit of io braccia. While the height of the
of this conference below, I shall attempt to prove that thenave vault was probably 90 braccia, and hence consistent with
the system, it is significant that Antonio did not record this
"retto ordine del triangolo" specifically refers to the equi-
lateral. measurement, and it is possible that the masters were interested
in fixing only the heights of the imposts.
22. Annali, I, 55 ( x 3 October, 1391): "Deliberaverunt quod
discreto viro Gabrieli Stornalocho de Placentia experto in arte 26. Annali, 1, 45 (12 March, i391), and 51 (15 July,
geometriae, pro quo missum fuit parte deputatorum dictae fa-I391). The mission of March 12 was sent prior to the dis-
missal of Annas.
bricae juxta deliberationem in consilio dictae fabricae factam
die 24 septembris p.p. et Mediolanum venit . . . causa discutendi

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 91

to the position.2 After inspecting the Cathedral, he m

readily accepted, and a great convocation of specialists w
1392. The full record of this conference follows.28
At the gathering of all the engineers named below
All [of these] gathered in the building office of the Mila
doubts which are being entertained concerning work at
specified below, and to the doubts are added replies an
the exception of this master Heinrich, who, although th
an understanding, concurs in no way with these statemen
[I.] Dubium: Whether the portions of the rear as wel
the crossing and the other, lesser, piers-have sufficie
Responsio: It was considered, replied, and stated u
aforesaid [portions] the strength, both of the who
support even more [weight].
[2.] D: Whether this church ought to shed rain (debe
be constructed from either side up to the transept?30
R: It was considered that this church ought to hav
two, to afford greater strength and light.
[3.] D: Whether this church, not counting within th
built, ought to rise according to the square or the tria
R: It was stated that it should rise up to a triangl
farther.
[4.] D: How many braccia should the piers be made which support the main nave or the
middle nave?
R: It was stated that these piers counting bases and capitals ought to rise to 40 braccia and
not farther.
[5.] D: How many braccia should the half-piers be which are to be made in the wall above
these large piers up to the vaults or arches to be made above that point, and how many
braccia ought the vaults to be made above these?
R: It was considered and stated that the half-piers should be twelve braccia, and the vault
of this main nave should rise to the triangle, that is, twenty-four braccia.
[6.] D: What is thought of the design of one double portal of the transept facing the Com-
pedum,3" and of the entire fagade of this transept?
R: When it had been seen and studied, it was stated that it was very beautiful, good and
honorable, and that work should proceed according to this [design].32
[7-] D: Whether or not the chapels of this church ought to be divided or separated one from
another, by a wall?
R: It was stated that since these chapels do not need any more strength, that they should
remain and be made without any median, or dividing wall.33
[8.] D: Whether a room or a corridor ought to be made above the second nave, which is be-
tween the main nave and the chapels of the church?
R: It was said that this room is on no account to be built, since it occupies funds and adds
expense.

27. Ibid., p. 57 (Ix December, 1391). The appointment 32. The northern transept facade was not built as planned
was made for only three months, and was extended on the here. In Cesariano's groundplan of the Cathedral (Di Lucio
following March (ibid., p. 66). Vitruvio Pollione De Architectura, Como, 1521, pl. x111),
28. Ibid., pp. 68ff. (I May). Appendix i. This, and subse- there is a single portal on each transept arm, which was closed
quent passages which appear in translation are reproduced off in by the present chapels in 1614 (see Boito, II Duomo, pp.
the original in the Appendix. 244-247).
29. A list of fourteen masters is given. After Parler's name 33. The solution of this problem was intentionally delayed
is the note, "(who does not concur)." until the arrival of a foreign expert. A record of March I9,
30. On the basis of the context in Dubium 6, "croxeria" 1391,
is which does not appear in the Annali, is quoted in Nava,
translated as "transept" in this text, although the term occa-Memorie, p. 22. At a conference of masters it is decided, "Quod
sionally is used elsewhere to mean "vault." differatur ad deliberandum supra facto intramezatarum fien-
31. The reference is to the Strada del C6mpito, which ran darum in Eccl. ne usque ad eventum inzig. teutonici quem Anes
along the north side of the Cathedral. See the map published Fernach ire debet ad accipiendum et ducendum, et sic etiam
by Carotti (A.S.A., 1889, p. 1i6, fig. 2, or the same author'ssuper facto pillonorum ad dictas capellas fiendorum."
II Duomo di Milano e la sua facciata, Milan, 1888, fig. 2).

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 92 THE ART BULLETIN

[9.] D: Whether work on the exteri

improved in any way?
R: It was said that this work was pl
that, on the contrary, work is to pr
[Io.] D: Whether [work] should pro
changed?
R: It was considered that these piers, since they have their proper proportions and parts,
are not to be moved, but perfected and refined.
[1i .] D: How many braccia ought the lesser, or chapel piers, be, and the half-piers which ought
to be made in the wall above them, up to the arches which cross over toward the main nave?
R: It was replied and stated that these lesser piers ought to be 28 braccia high, and the
half-piers above them constructed up to the arches should and ought to be 12 braccia, count-
ing bases and capitals in these measurements.
A meeting of the following day held to confirm the results of this conference, concludes:"
All the engineers gathered in yesterday's sitting confirm what is written above in all its parts,
excepting Simone da Orsenigo, who agrees in general but says that the chapels of the church ought
to be divided by a wall in the same manner in which they are joined beneath the ground.

The preamble to the report indicates the customary manner in which major problems are
solved. The master engineers summoned to the conference vote on each problem proposed, and
the solution is based on the opinion of the majority. Thus Heinrich Parler's special position as a
visiting expert does not strengthen his voice in the workshop, and his opinion is equal in weight
to that of the least experienced master. To this method of procedure may be attributed some of
the council's difficulties in forming a definite and consistent program.
This conference of 1392 is clearly the council's first defense of its modus operandi, and the first
direct evidence of its opposition to the north. Of the eleven problems considered here, the major-
ity offer two alternative proposals for the future progress of the Cathedral. Since the preamble
informs us of Heinrich's unreserved opposition to the solutions agreed upon, we assume that he
favored, in each case, those which were abandoned. In fact, a bitter debate may be inferred beneath
the calm surface of this report, which, presented in terms of Dubia and Responsiones, identifies
itself with a traditional scholastic disputation. In the subsequent conferences of 1400 and 1401
this method is abandoned, perhaps because it fails to represent the significant differences of opin-
ion.
At the time of this conference the Cathedral was beginning to rise above the level of the
foundations, and piers and buttresses had been begun in accordance with Stornaloco's formula.
The record of the conference suggests that Parler's criticisms questioned, first, the soundness of
the portions already completed, and second, the desirability of continuing to carry out the project
determined before his arrival.
In proceeding to the interpretation of this text, it is helpful to dispense with the rather illogi-
cal order in which the problems are submitted, and consider the items in order of their impor-
tance for the discussion."
The question submitted in Dubium 3: "ad quadratum an ad triangulum?" has in recent times
been the occasion for so much elegant geometrizing on Gothic architecture that one hesitates to

34. I have left untranslated the term "pilloni guerziis" forappear in Responsiones 3, 4, 5, and i i. Two problems which
lack of a convincing interpretation. Cf. its appearance in 1401 should properly be contingent upon these decisions-namely,
(Annali, I, 223), ". .. debba ... riadattari ed abbassare il the adequacy of the piers, and the design of the roofing-are
capitello che esso fece fare sopra uno dei piloni (guerziis)."considered beforehand (Dubia i and 2). Either the text fails
It is possibly a cognate of the Italian "quercia," in which caseto reproduce the original order in which the problems were
it may refer to the wooden models of the piers which are men- discussed or, what is more likely, the Milanese are so hard-
tioned in note 43. headed that they believe their piers to be sound, and their roofs
35. Ibid., p. 69 (2 May). Appendix Ia. correct, regardless of what decisions are made later on con-
36. The most important decisions made, concerning the cerning the heights of the several portions.
height of the church, and of the various supports and vaults,

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 93

explain it in simple terms. Yet this phrase refers to a pro

from the drawings of Antonio di Vicenzo and Stornaloc
figure in establishing the design of the section was obv
reaffirmed, and to such an extent that the conferees are
"how high shall the church be?" but "within what figur
seen a triangular system was already being used for the
altered to a square one is probably Heinrich's."3 What H
tem is simply to make the height of the church equal to
summit, which Stornaloco had brought down to 84 brac
up to 96 braccia (see text figure c).
Parler's suggestion has certain advantages. A section ba
mathematically, because it would be unnecessary to com
do, to achieve commensurable heights. Again, the heights
could be established on the basis of the same I6-braccia u
was based. To the Italians, however, these advantages we
for the section based on a square would provide a nave s
and buttresses would be rendered inadequate (hence the
and io). Partly on this basis, the conference spurns Parler
lar section. One would naturally assume that this implie
effect, but on reading the specifications in Dubia 4, 5, an
present Cathedral (though reduced one-half braccio in e
triangular section which is partly Stornaloco's and partl
What had already been accomplished according to St
Responsio i retains the height of the outer piers at 28 b
triangle is truncated (see text figure d and Fig. 7). The u
loco's grid give way to units of 12, as indicated by the m
4 and 5." These measurements establish a new geometric
proves to consist of figures as familiar as Stornaloco's: ad
matician was required at this point, for the short side of
with its base, and the height of the church could be calc
alteration upsets entirely the logic of the original scheme
cal systems, the chief purpose of the triangle-to provide
the whole-is ignored.
To understand this capricious shift in mid-air, we must
vides a lower nave (90o br., 86 br., 76 br.), with the e
than any. For some reason, the Milanese became incre
low, broad section." The Lombard Gothic tradition im

37. The passage quoted in note 2z informs

section. us that
Frankl, on the other Parler
hand (ART BULLETIN, 1945, p.
("maestro Enrico") favored the56), equilateral
suggesting that Responsio 3 be paraphrased
triangle. This "up to the
Pythagorean
does not necessarily militate against thetriangle or up to the equilateral
suggestion that triangle
the and not
above," Iproceeds:
square section was also his proposal. offer "If that
this is right,
after the it
words 'et non ultra'
had
been finally determined to employ meanthe
that one should not enlarge
triangle, Parler the insisted
height of 27.7I . . . to
28 as Stornaloco
that it be equilateral, in opposition to the did, but reduce it to
Milanese 27Y2 braccia. This ex-
proposal
which we are about to examine. plains the lowering [of the measurements of the present Cathe-
dral] by half a braccio or one foot." This explanation un-
38. In Responsio 4 the piers are lowered from Stornaloco's
fortunately does not work. If the outer piers were intended to
42 braccia to 40o braccia. In Responsio 5 the engaged columns
which rise above the main capitals to the springing of bethe
27Y2 braccia, the main piers (in order to keep within the
vaults are lowered from 14 braccia to 2z braccia, andPythagorean
the triangle) would have to be 3912 braccia. Re-
main vaults lowered from 28 to 24 braccia. The total diminu-sponsio 4, however, fixes them at precisely 40. Hence, the re-
tion in height is thus 8 braccia. duction of 12 braccio must have been decided upon after this
conference of 1392.
39. I believe that the phrase, "and not farther" used in both
Responsiones 3 and 4 emphasizes merely the wish for a low

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94 THE ART BULLETIN

motivation (cf. Figs. I and 3). The em

is in violent contrast with the north
section. The German is influenced b
can see to what extent a section ad q
architecture (Fig. 8).40 The evolutio
of the aesthetic effect alone, for, af
accepted by the council. A more com
although this is not immediately ev
the council wishes to keep the nave
aid of additional buttressing, and pe
Pavia. For this reason, the inner ais
relation to the nave. The extreme ca
large scale would explain the grad
probably regard the flying buttress
fools for leaning over backward to
Two of the four proposals we have
There is a decided difference. The M
tive relations among plan, section, a
thing entirely unrelated to the lowe
is employed, but so confusedly that
systems which interrelate the found
arbitrary and capricious, but is lim
only plausible geometrical figures a
building. Even the geometrical ratio
Viollet-le-Duc, for two vastly diffe
must be thought of as structurally i
Several of the remaining problems
light of the decision reached on the
the western portion of the Cathedra
struct three roofs (over the nave, i
combined), depends on the relative h
have had Cologne Cathedral in m
aisles to be considerably lower than
struction of the section ad quadratu
roof which is quite plausible in this
vaults of the middle aisles are fixed
roofs became necessary, "to afford g
(I) the middle aisle must be relativel
(hence, the "strength"), and (2) this
without also blocking the windows

The answer given to Dubiurm 8 also

The "room or corridor" proposed by
onto the nave above the main arcad

Abendlandes,
40. My hypothesis that Stuttgart,
Cologne Cathedral is c
quadratum is based ongesetz der
Dehio's antiken
section Bauku
reproduc
He claims
where the height of the that the is
nave keystone height
equal o
imposing
of the building measured small
from the equilatera
inner surfac
Paradoxically, Dehiothis kind, lists
himself the answer must
Cologne as
construction ad triangulum (Die kirchliche

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 95

and, of course, at Cologne. If the section were desig

desirable as a means of lightening the wall between
arcade, however, has just been planned to reach to
there is simply no room for such a "corridor." The
Gothic churches, and the master's reply indicates th
The numerous references to "chapels" in the text,
shown in Dubium 7, is puzzling in view of the fact
However, the references made in Dubia 8 and i m
of the outer aisles, and if they are not identifiable a
Responsio 7, "that they should be made without
is used, once it is determined to build an uninterrup
report. Simone da Orsenigo, one of those responsible
to the "manner in which they [the chapels] are joine
the original plan and foundations provided for an ou
ard plan of Lombard Gothic churches (Fig. 2). This
tion that the first project for the Cathedral was in
breadth does not reflect the influence of northern five
to effect the tardy decision to change the chapel-row
cause. Responsio 7 indicates that the dividing wa
"strength" is required. This can only mean that suc
They are now felt to be unnecessary because the vau
at which their thrust can be absorbed by the two ou
are convinced of the stability of the new project, an
of buttressing of any kind, as is again indicated by
of the earliest plan are retained. Heinrich, on the o
system is dangerous. He is probably constrained
Dubiurn 7, as the only means of adequate buttressin
although he would normally favor an open aisle."
In summary, the various questions posed in the co
tirely discrete considerations, prove on analysis to
conference represent a single-minded aim to establi
minimizing the buttressing. This aim has grown w
and less buttressed than originally planned. At all po
and practical concepts of the northern master, to
folly. Heinrich sees in the foundations a bad begin
Cologne Cathedral, but his ideas are so basically
small compromises are impossible. A logical structu
spurned in favor of one which, while it has vague

41. The decision concerning another,

the chapel with divisions was per-
several perforations thro
the of
haps the most controversial one Host from
the either side of the church. Such
conference. As a construction
time went
on, several of the local masters joined
would succeed the
in giving thenorthern
greatest strength experts
to the other
in the conviction that these three
divisions were
naves, and through thesenecessary
flying buttresses, asto the
it were, its
stability of the Cathedral. Nine years
base would later
be stronger, and thethe
body ofcontroversy
the church would look
still was a major issue, and the
more Duke
beautiful, ordered Bertolino
and more in proportion, and would da follow
Novara, and his court architect Bernardo
the grandeur of the transeptda Venezia
(? cruxe)." The advice (who
of the
had subscribed to the originaltwo decision to ignored,
experts was of course abandon the all
as was virtually divi-
outside
sions), to give their opinion on the matter. Their report,
opinion.
dated May 8, 1400 (Appendix It isv), includes
worth noting the
that the chapel system suggestion:
had lost its liturgi-
"First because the buttresses of the tobody
cal function of
such an extent thatthe church
the dividing walls were do not
considered considering
have all the mass that thev need, a hindrance to the congregation
the whichbreadth
must be and
height of said church, the first nave
alleviated should
by "several perforations."be reduced to the
form of chapels with the divisions between one chapel and

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 96 THE ART BULLETIN

is purely experimental on this scale

of the inventive and technical skill
innocents who will try anything ra
edge of the wayward progress of t
likely.

The immediate effect of the conference of May 1392 was the dismissal of Heinrich Parler
under a shower of invective which he can hardly have deserved.42 For two years the Milanese
proceeded without the hindrance of northern aid, facing the walls and continuing the piers.
Their indecision was again made evident in 1393, when it was questioned whether the design
of the one pier capital which had been completed should be employed for the remainder."3 When
Ulrich von Ensingen was finally persuaded to come from Ulm to Milan in October 1394, he
refused to execute the projected capitals or the apse windows, and left six months later without
having reached any understanding with the council."
During the following years, the Milanese were not disturbed by the necessity for imperative
decisions, for they simply postponed the final solution of the vaulting problem until the com-
pletion of the piers forced it upon them. The appointment of three French engineers in April
1399, indicates that the accumulated weight of construction problems obliged the council to seek
again for assistance from the north."' By December the leader of the deputation and one assistant
had left the field to their persistent and belligerent associate, Jean Mignot, who lost no time in
assuring the Duke that the Cathedral was destined to fall if certain alterations were not im-
mediately undertaken.46 At a hearing of January I I, 1400, the Frenchman presented his ex-
tensive criticisms to the local architects for discussion.
Mignot, like the experts who preceded him, applies standards of construction and theory which
are firmly based in northern tradition, and any deviation from his norm he interprets as an error.
The fifty-four criticisms which he levels against the council make no concessions to Lombard
originality. Although they are partly justified, the aggressive and repetitious manner in which
they are presented enrages the other conferees, who refuse to reply to more than half of the
items." Most of the criticisms concern details such as the form of mouldings and the laying of
stone, and must be passed over here. The two exchanges of opinion which we shall examine are
perhaps the only ones in which questions of theory play a major role.48 The conference opens
with the most weighty problem, which brings us back again to Heinrich Parler's criticism of the
system of piers and buttresses. Mignot says:"

42. Annali, I, 71 (7 July, 1392). The Cathedral deputies ed intervenire in seduta per le necessarie deliberazioni."
say that Heinrich ". . . male servierit ipsi fabricae, ymo dedit 47. Twenty-five criticisms are answered by the masters. The
magnum damnum et detrimentum ipsi fabricae pro suis male- postscript to the report explains their silence in the second half
gestis. ... . of the conference: "No response is given to all these state-
43. Ibid., p. o05 (14 December, 1393): "Quod si videatur ments by above-mentioned Jean Mignot, since they contain
alios capitelos posse meliorari referant, et fieri faciant de formis neither substance nor weight, and especially since, if they [the
hujusmodi capitelorum fiendorum in futurum de ligno aut masters] should reply to aforesaid statements, and others which
gesso, ut determinari possit circa alios capitelos fiendos pro he might give in writing in the future, the negotiations would
utiliori fabricae." never end, but the work on aforesaid church would be held
44. For Ulrich's arrival see ibid., p. 120 (15 November, back to the great shame and scandal of men, not only in the
1394), and departure, p. 134 (z8 March, 1394). From the city, but in the whole realm of the illustrious lord, our Lord,
latter: "dixit non velle facere ipsam fenestram secundum men- and consequently would never be finished" (Ibid., p. 208).
suras ordinatas, quia volebat mutare altitudinem et modum 48. A third criticism of which the content may be signifi-
cant from a theoretical standpoint I have been unable to in-
ipsius fenestrae; et ulterius si volebat facere de capitelis pilo-
norum, similiter dixit quod non volebat facere de capitelis terpret for lack of evidence on the precise state of the Cathedral
pilonorum in illa mensura qua finitus est primus capitelus...."in 1400. Because of its geometrical allusions it has beeen in-
45. Ibid., 1, 194 (13 April, 1399). cluded in Appendix IIa. The square and circle referred to may
46. Ibid., I, i99 (14 December, 1399): "Avendo l'inge-
describe either the section of the pier or the arrangement of
the piers in the plan.
gnere Giovanni Mignoto riferito al Duca che la fabbrica corre
pericolo di ruina, gli ordinarono di farne relazione scritta,49- Annali, 1, 202 (Ix January, 1400), Item i. Appendix II.

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FIG. I. Pavia, Santa Maria del Carmine FIG. 2. Pavia, Santa Maria del Carmine. Plan

FIG. 3. Milan, Cathedral FIG. 4. Milan, Cathedral. Plan

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 Sezton N C

6 .. . . . -
lAf ...~ Jt
?1.1

? "
e: b -- . - i ...
?

Pifa~t~;L:V
0.1i?k,~li:' \
__ -j...
ow/ ?

Iij V> L

IN!

FIG. 5. Milan, Cathedral. Plan and nave section in FIG. 6. FIG. 7. Cath
Milan, Milan,
1390, from sketch by Antonio di Vicenzo (after sacristy, and d of
verso (afterFL
tracings by Luca Beltrami)
-~?ii-:1 ix~::~ ::~~~ :I::~::,,
_
-;11?-?:I- ~,ii~ix~~g~
n
??;n-?-~-:Li-----*:r.--::-ii- -.:_i;s.ii:.-?a i -:i*~x
x*~-~-:

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It Y

r- ?~
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:~45 i '3i:

r U
i i

'I ~s ~
II. I
i~?
?:

:?
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FIc. 8. Cologne, Cathedral. Nave section (after Dehio) Fic. 9. Milan, Cathedral. From drawing of ca. 1

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 97

First, the piers [or buttresses] which have to suppor

church between the large windows are so weak that it is
piers next to them, nor will this part of the church b
are made.

The criticism is leveled particularly at the apse of the Cathedral. Here the large windows,
the small wall-buttresses and the absence of chapels minimize the capacity of the outer wall to
sustain the vaults and projected tower.
The masters' retort to this criticism conscientiously traces the construction of the piers from
foundation to capital. They begin by asserting that both the counsel of experts and their own
formal oath attests to the security of the foundations, which are sunk 14 braccia into the ground.5s
They explain that the lower levels of the foundation are composed of large blocks of stone jointed
or doweled together, and that 3/2 to 4 braccia are allowed in the upper portions for leveling off,
while the marble dado commences in the upper half-braccio of the foundation. The piers them-
selves are provided with a core of finished building-stone, "and for greater strength they are dow-
eled everywhere with spikes of leaded iron." In answer to the specific criticism of Mignot, they
explain that they intend to reinforce the piers by joining one to another with large iron binding-
rods to be placed above the capitals." Finally, the council comes to the point which is designed to
clinch the argument:
And above said capitals, they determined, as had been [previously] determined, to have pointed
arches made according to the type suggested by many other good and expert engineers, who say
concerning this that pointed arches do not exert a thrust on the buttresses, and for aforesaid rea-
sons they conclude that all the buttresses are strong and adequate to carry an even greater [weight],
wherefore it is not required to make [additional] buttresses in any part of the church.

Suddenly, amid a sober and painstaking analysis of technique, there is injected an explosive
mechanical principle, "pointed arches do not exert a thrust on the buttresses." In a single sentence
the Milanese have cast off what we consider to be the major structural problem in Gothic archi-
tecture. It would indeed be a shock to the modern historian if this view were found to be in general
currency among Gothic builders, and it is with some relief that we discover in a later discussion that
it is as surprising to Mignot as it is to us. The council, which to this point has appeared to be merely
retarded and stubborn, begins, in its antagonism to Mignot, to fabricate strange theories to suit its
ends. It becomes apparent that the fervor of its defense is a sign, not of superior confidence, but
exceptional ignorance.52

50. The same passage quoted in Nava, Memorie, p. 86, givesreads: "First it was asked on this question by the above-men-
the depth of the foundations as 9 braccia, which seems moretioned lords if it seeemed to them that this church were suffi-
likely than 14. By way of comparison, the records of Florence ciently founded to sustain and carry the weight belonging to
Cathedral of June 1357, provide: "che il fondamento dellesaid church.
cholonne dallo spazio in giil si faccia br. vij per ognie verso" "We the aforesaid engineers and masons say that we have
(Cesare Guasti, Santa Maria del Fiori; la costruzione dellaseen and reviewed all of said church, and especially we have
chiesa e del campanile secondo i documenti, Florence, 1887,seen the foundations of two piers exposed, which two piers
p. 94). The Florentine braccio is only about one centimetershould sustain and abut the apse of said church, and are in-
less than the Milanese (see Enciclopedia italiana, viI, 649). adequately and poorly founded. And one of these is more
51. The use of binding-rods between the capitals to rein- than a foot at fault inside the work, and of poor material. All
force the arches was common practice in Italy, and probablythe piers of said church both inside and outside are to be re-
less frowned upon than in the north. See again the records viewed down to the lowest base and all those which were badly
of Florence Cathedral for August 3, 1366: ". . . chonsigliano founded as are the aforementioned, are to be refounded of large
che al presente si facciano due stanghe di ferro grandi di buono blocks of well-laid stone, and their bedding should be well
ferro e bene salde, e mettansi negli archi de le volte grandi,leveled and planed and joined and buttressed by dovetailing
cioe una in ciascuno archo .. ." (Guasti, op. cit., p. 173). into the other foundations well inside, and built in with a
52. Mignot evidently feels that it is hopeless to attemptmortar bath. These foundations should be made two braccia
to make his point against such opposition. In a second hearingor more beyond the plumb line of the bases of the piers, com-
which he is granted a few days later, and which we shalling to one braccio at the surface by a setback.
shortly consider, he asks that experts from any northern country "Furthermore, it was asked and the question was put if the
be called in to testify whether or not his criticisms are jus-aforementioned two piers outside the apse of said church are
tified. Consequently, a month later, on February 21, I4oo, astrong enough to sustain and buttress against all its weight.
deputation of three "inzignerii francischi" en route to Rome "We state that if one founded two piers for carrying two
is asked to pass judgment on the apse supports. The reportflying buttresses, that the church would be made stronger, but

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98 THE ART BULLETIN

A second passage concerns a problem i

amined previously, for it is purely aes
dral is the design of the huge capitals
tain colossal statues of saints in niche
and were probably conceived before the
tion is what one would expect of a Par
Moreover, that the pier capitals place
to their proper proportion, since the f
and the capitals are x braccia regardless
height as the feet of these piers.
They say and reply that, according to
braccia, the capitals ought to be one
called a foot [after?] the foot of a ma
pier, so by "capital" is meant the head
man's head, and by this natural law t
made x braccia, it is on account of the o

The Frenchman's reaction is typically

is the same height as its base, and no d
have the best of their adversary, for t
Mignot's sense, they should be half the
serve propriety. Their attitude is epito
gnot, "la nostra chiesa non richiede cos
demic, but amazingly non-Gothic. The
are decidedly cose nuove to mediaeval
might be. While a certain classical atti
width of the pier is of no consequence
"head" is established, the "body" is not
one-fifth of the total height of only
of the human form.56 The argument,
cocted after the fact. It is our opinion
high is a geometrical reasoning which
sidered. If the pier is 40 braccia and th
the width of the nave itself. Interpretin
is determined ad quadratum, a method
ment." Finally, it is typical of the Mil
they do not consider it binding. They

to avoid impediment, bewequite

state as deficient
that it shouldin prac
be r
53. Annali,
one weight of large blocks of good I, 2o3f.,
stone, Item
and m
goger) and joined (? gont),
advisedthat is, well
to refer squared
to the orig
a bath of mortar of eludes
four braccia
adequate abutting
translation.alon
54. the
length up to the level of In a sense,
earth. thesaid
And Milanes
ston
argument
buttressed by dovetailing below the than
otherMignot,
foundatio fo
ground level up, by lengthening or widening
about i:i in early Gothic arcsai
by two braccia all thetends
way up. to shrink
And the and the
new bas
ston
doweled with the old to fixed
ones, ratios.
and in this fashion we
can carry their weight.55. Annali, I, 224 (15 May
"Furthermore, it was 56. In Vitruvius,
asked for exam
and the question was
the other piers of saidbody
church is 1 :8. Seeto
seemed DeusArchite
to be g
"We state that if they were
57. to be made
Beltrami (Per la now the
facciat
same conclusion from the p
made
Thus better . . ." (Annali,
the judgment of
thatthea I, 2 iofAppendix
deputation
base bears
2 braccia, Iv).
ou
and
opinion, suggesting tween
not only them a shaft
that the of 28 br
wall-piers be
but that they carry of the
flying nave measuring
buttresses. from o
The criticism
dations suggests thatthanthe
the center. foreigners believe the

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 99

they may justifiably be altered, and thus the capitals ar

room for the statues. The compromising of these measurem
ciple of triangulation, reveals an indifference to a theor
ments prove to be largely beyond the comprehension of

Mignot's first conference bore no fruit, and a fortnight a

criticisms were considered, a second meeting was called
The report on the proceedings, which we present in full, b
Master Jean Mignot has stated to the council here prese
said council a note computing to date all the reasons and
aforesaid work lacks strength, and he does not wish to g
Final statements given by aforesaid Master Jean on the
Master Jean Mignot points out to you excellent lords of
church with respect and pure truth, that as he has demo
other matters, the defects of said church, he reiterates a
this church are neither strong nor able to sustain the we
ought in every case to be three times the thickness of on
The Masters reply:
Concerning the first statement, they say that all the b
capable of sustaining their weight and many times more,
our marble and saritium,59 whatever its width, is as stron
French church which he gives to the aforesaid masters as
aforesaid buttresses are one-and-a-half times [the size]
of the church, that they are strong and correctly toncei
darken said church because of their projection, as at the
Master Jean's type, and since they can be an obstruction

This chauvinistic retort provides a highly entertaining

soning, but the argument reveals more than mere pre
states that there should be a 1:3 ratio of thickness betw
that this ratio represents his final estimate of the pecu
it is more likely that he is applying a simple rule-of-thum
ern architects. None of Mignot's statements, either her
indication that he has even a crude means of arriving at
buttressing required. In a sense, the terms of the ratio cre
of one member and another in the same way that the s
It is noteworthy that, while the Milanese propose a drastic
ular emphasis on a similarly simple relationship of I :I
It is particularly interesting that the masters' defense
size of a buttress should be determined in inverse proporti
terials. The strength of masonry is of course a factor i
suspicious of the Italians' claim of great superiority in t
proposing buttresses smaller than those of the "church in
lies less in the greater strength of their materials than
Had they been aware of thrust, the weight and mass of
cerned them more than the strength, but we know fro
that they were not conscious of the problem.
Of the two solutions offered, one is based on traditional

58. Annali, I, 20o9f. (25 January, 1400). Appendix III.

59. A local building-stone, employed in the foundations and under the m

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 100 THE ART BULLETIN

of Lombard tradition and sheer ignoran

Itmight be objected that this judgme
on reasonable premises; but the evid
solution triumphs, and the present-day
man! The empirical solutions of both
unscientific. They are not, however, irr
though irrelevant to us, is meaningful
The remainder of the discussion follows:

Moreover, he says that four towers were begun to support the crossing-tower of said church,
and there are no piers nor any foundation capable of sustaining said towers, and if the church
were to be made with said towers in this position it would infallibly fall. Concerning the claims,
however, which were made by certain ignorant people, surely through passion, that pointed vaults
are stronger and exert less thrust than round, and moreover concerning other matters, proposals
were made in a fashion more willful than sound; and what is worse, it was objected that the science
of geometry should not have a place in these mattters, since science is one thing and art another.
Said master Jean says that art without science is nothing (ars sine scientia nihil est), and that
whether the vaults are pointed or round, they are worthless unless they have a good foundation,
and nevertheless, no matter how pointed they are, they have a very great thrust and weight.
Whereupon they [the Masters] say that the towers which they wanted to make are for many
reasons and causes [desirable]. Namely, in the first place, to integrate aforesaid church and tran-
sept so that they correspond to a rectangle according to the demands of geometry,"6 but beyond this,
for the strength and beauty of the crossing-tower. To be sure, as if as a model for this, the Lord
God is seated in Paradise in the center of the throne, and around the throne are the four Evangelists
according to the Apocalypse, and these are the reasons why they were begun. And although two
piers of each sacristy are not founded, but begin at ground level, the church is truly strong never-
theless for these reasons, that there are projections upon which the said piers stand, and the said
projections are of large stones and joined with iron dowels as was said above with other statements,
and that the weight on these three (sic) towers falls evenly on their square, and they will be built
properly and strong, and what is vertical cannot fall; therefore they say that they are strong in
themselves, and for that reason will give strength to the crossing-tower, which is enclosed in the
center of those towers. Therefore said church is truly strong.

Mignot makes one specific criticism: that the four towers to be placed at the corners of the cross-
ing-tower cannot be supported. In defense of its design, the council makes four points, of which
the first two purport to justify the theory underlying the towers, and the remaining two, the tech-
nique of construction. The first establishes a certain relation between the towers and the crossing,
"according to the demands of geometry." Again, we have the suggestion of an interrelation of part
to part, in this case an element in the plan to an exterior elevation. How the four subsidiary towers
effect this integration is unclear. It may be that they are intended as a symbolic emphasis to the
geometrical character of the plan, but it is more likely that they were conceived for non-theoretical
reasons, and that the geometrical apology is concocted on the spur of the moment in the face of
Mignot's accusations. Geometry does not explain the towers, it excuses them. The second statement,
which compares the design to an Apocalyptic vision, is a delightful addition to the study of the
iconography of architecture. It is undoubtedly more congenial to the Milanese than the struggle
with geometry, but if calculated to convince Mignot, it must fail completely, for it evidences an
attitude very different from the abstract mathematical theory of the northerners. Like many of the
preceding theoretical demonstrations, it rationalizes a design conceived without benefit of theory.
In defense of the construction, the first point is purely technical, claiming that the absence of
foundations beneath the sacristy piers is compensated for by secure doweling. This judgment is

6o. Aside from the reappearance of the elusive term rectificando praedictam ecclesiam et croxeriam quod respondent
"croxeria," it is difficult to determine with any precision what ad quatrangulum etc."
the masters have in mind in this sentence, which reads, "pro

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 101

questioned later, as we have seen in the expertise of

argument is as irrational as that which concerns poin
project is assured, first because the weight of the tow
base, and second because "what is vertical cannot fall."
of the towers, nor the number and mass of their supp
are significant, if their construction is rectilinear. Fo
never carried out.
The meeting closes with the following exchange:
Moreover he [Mignot] recognizes that their premises a
disagree wish to give in to the right and the bettermen
win their case either for their own profit or from fea
like to continue in spite of defects. For this reason said
twelve of the better engineers who are expert in these
from Germany, England, or France, otherwise said
great loss in every way. Further, to make the truth cle
be allowed an audience with the illustrious lord the Lor
things and other matters. Moreover, he indicates that i
work elsewhere in said church than over defective plac
decisions might be clearly made concerning these defec
Whereupon they [the masters] say and reply in the sa
science of geometry should not have a place in these
[Mignot] invokes, as it were, the rules of geometry, Ar
space which we call locomotion is either straight or cir
same [writer] says elsewhere that every body is perfect
this very church rises ad triangulum as has been determ
all [the measurements] are in a straight line, or an arch
been done, has been done according to geometry and
that science without art is nothing; concerning art,
other statements.

Considering the conference as a whole, it becomes abundantly clear that the attack with which
Mignot opens the meeting is justified. We see that he ascribes the council's position on the pointed
arch to "ignorance" and "passion." His main objection, however, is to the council's contention
that "the science of geometry should not have a place in these matters since science is one thing
and art another." This exposes the crucial difference between the two schools of thought which we
have repeatedly emphasized. For "science" we may read "theory"-the higher learning in archi-
tecture. Mignot goes on to imply that it is through ignorance of this "science" that the council is
unaware of the "very great thrust and weight" of a pointed arch, or vault. Without this science,
he says, art is nothing. He is not, of course, talking of "Art" in the modern sense, but in the sense
of craft; in this case the craft of the mason. His statement may be paraphrased to read, "technical
proficiency in building is worthless if the higher geometrical principles are not employed." There
is no question that the implied criticism is warranted. The axiom "what is vertical cannot fall,"
which we have just considered, is an excellent example of thinking in terms of "art without science,"'
for it suggests that the soundness of the scheme depends solely on good technique. In retrospect,
a large part of the entire Milanese defense champions "art," as we are reminded by the closing
statement of the meeting. In defending the apse supports, they tirelessly describe the foundations;
in defending the buttresses they affirm the superiority of their masonry, and so forth. The pride
which they display in their technique is understandable, since the Lombards are famed for their
masonry from the early Middle Ages through the Renaissance.

61. "per rectam lineam aut per sextum." Cf. the Italian sests acuto.

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102 THE ART BULLETIN

The partiality which the Milanese m

familiarity with the former (which
ignorance of the latter. We cannot ig
geometry. In such cases, one has the im
in which they have so little proficien
the triangular section, for example, pro
for the section projected before the adv
Similarly, in the closing argument of
into a scientific discourse which it is
their deficiencies, the masters have t
tending the mere reference to lend aut
is borrowed from a passage in the Phy
that it refers to straight and circular l
and arches of the Cathedral. It may r
it implicitly claims that the Cathedra
but also because it applies a law of lo
geometrical. The second proof is mor
council is actually demonstrating an
the support of Aristotle, however, is
three ways" is adapted from certain p
mension (the "three ways" are heigh
(which has three sides but only two
The entire passage shows that the q
masters are in such a hurry to appear s
authority, for a post facto rationaliz
apply the same treatment to Mignot,
they conclude with the misquotation,

As might be expected, the meeting e

discussion bears fruit in one respect, ho
Foreign experts are shortly invited t
in good graces, as indicated by a lette
of the Cathedral."' Further evidence o

since
6z. The statement, ". it is the only
. . hominis autemone whi
motu
locum quem vocamusdirections,
lationem, aut that is, which
rectus, aut
intention
ex eis mixtus" obviously derives in this a
from passage
passag
vIII, 26Ib, 27, which"Magnitude divisible
is translated: "We in on
are n
that there actually is tions a surface,
in nature, in three
a motion dir
ever-en
form and uninterrupted;tude not
and included
that in is
its nature thes
th
ways' or
All local motion is circular is the same as
rectilinear 'in
or a
a co
On of
the two, so that if either the Heavens,
these cannottr.
be by G
conti
can any combination Reference
of them betoso"
this principl
(Loeb Clas
The Physics, tr. by v, io66b,
Wicksteed 32,Cornford,
and and vi, iox6
Lon
York, 1929). A sages
passage inthe
Decouncil has27ob,
Caelo (I, not on
derstood it.
similar principle, without considering the combi
two. The manner in which64. The letter is worth
these quoting as an impartial judgment are a
passages
of the controversies
design of the Cathedral indicates raging over thethatCathedral: "Adtheyipsius wer
excellentissimi Domini
understood or purposefully nostri notitiam pervenisse displicenter
misused.
quandam controversiarn
The word "rectus," which appears et discordiamin jam diu versam inter
this passage
suas cives Mediolani,
transcribed as "reclusus" in the occasione tam solemnis fabricae ecclesiae
Annali. Nava, M
Mediolani, iterato renovari, videlicet per nonnullos allegari
provides the correct version.
prefatam ecclesiamto
63. The second reference suam non habere rationem et mensuram
Aristotle isnecstated
fortitudinem
dixit alibi omne corpus respectu sequendorumest
perfectum in dicta ecclesia . . . per
in tribus."
is evidently to aliquos e contrarioI,
De Caelo, allegatur ipsam ecclesiam20,
268a, debitam rationem
which i
"In this sense, habere et mensuram
therefore, body ac proportionem
is the et fortitudinem
only praedic-
comple

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 103

under his leadership, on May 15, 140."65 Here the word-for-wor

permits us to see that a majority of the masters take his part,
policy is probably due more to a change of personnel than to a
This conference, not attended by Mignot, deals principally w
of the Cathedral. The debate is peculiarly bitter for, as one of th
teen stones have already been laid, and sixty to seventy cut, f
pleted according to the original design."6 Here the procedure is
for a major change is considered for a portion already under c
examine here the full text of this lengthy conference, nor is it
heated argument serve to prove but one point: that neither th
Mignot have the means of determining whether the proposed va
than those under construction. There is simply no common gro
may be discussed. The masters disagree on whether the new pr
more "beautiful and praiseworthy"; whether it will cost more, a
the stones used must be larger or smaller than in the earlier pr
"science of geometry" might be expected to solve without questi
is stated, "vii Question: If, following the form of the second pr
only with respect to the former dispositions concerning the maxim
or would its essential form be somehow changed?"67 To our am
that Mignot's project might involve a change in the proportion
at the last moment, the scheme of triangulation formulated nin
sion. This question would seem to be formulated in a way that le
the answers show the widest possible divergence of opinion conc
the form of the church, as is evidenced by the following excerp
Paderno: I reply that since the design presented by master Giov
tion as to the height of all the arches, as had been done by other e
the height of the vault, only because he makes no sign of it on his
Serina: Replies that the main, center nave would become 8 bracc
first arranged, after the design and the measurements given by m
must be in the making, since this same master Giovanni has said at
was not solid, and now, being even higher, it must needs be even
Calco: Replies that, following the form of the new project, one
already given relative to the maximum height and width, or relat
only with respect to the maximum mass (grossezza) of the body o
Della Croce: Following the form of the second project, one w
ready in place and respect the proper system of the triangle, wh
error, as master Enrico and a certain german master Annex, befo
with a high and faithful voice into the ears of deaf fools.

The remaining masters, with one exception, agree that certain

in the project, but fail to specify what they may be. It is strang
has presented for discussion gives no indication concerning the m
any definite figures, let us tentatively assume that Serina's esti

corrigendo altercationem
torum omnium respectuum. . . . Considerantes quam melius fieri potest .. ." (A
et differentiam majorem solito oriri 65. Ibid.,
magis pp. 224-229
et procedere ex (15 May, 1401).
ignorantia inzigneriorum non expertorum 66. nec
Ibid.,
se p. 226. In answer to the question:
intelligentium
di pietre
circa necessaria fabricae, quam obstinatione postecivium
suorum in opera
. . .giusta il progetto gia
dovrebbe
deposuit, vult et mandat antelatus noster rimuovere
Dominus quodfaciendo
vos il secondo?," one
replies: "Sono
domini procuretis habere magistrum teutonicum circafabri-
de dicta 2z le pietre che bisogna
catione jam informatum, ac altios altre
peritos
giaetlavorate
expertos inz-circa 6o 70 ... "
sono
ignerios, qui cum Johanne Mignoto, perito 67. Ibid., pp. 226,ac
et experto, 227.
aliisAppendix vi. The te
the
inzigneriis ipsius fabricae se intelligant et Annali is largelyquod
taliter ordinent in modern Italian, prob
from the
dicta ecclesia debito et suo jure et ordine Latin, defectus
procedat, although no indication of th

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 104 THE ART BULLETIN

the nave is correct. This is highly pr

would thus become 84 braccia, which i
In other words, Mignot has made an
This interpretation fortunately helps
in which he pointedly favors the aban
praises the new project because it "ris
to the triangle and yet support it? Ob
the retto ordine is the equilateral form
If Mignot's proposal actually restore
raising the vaults themselves, and thu
tion, for these vaults must spring from
The result would be, so to speak, a Py
porters excuse this inconsistency by p
church as it should be. This fifth and las
As has been indicated, the present Ca
we hear of Mignot only in connection
in his behalf by his Milanese support
of controversy which continues well int

In retrospect, the history of foreign

porary close, seems distinguished mor
Time and again northern masters expo
to it faults of the greatest magnitude,
Milanese plod stubbornly along, borro
and there a geometrical phrase, but on
major problems in construction. Whi
de Bonaventure, they are not altered t
dations and buttresses remain unchan
gineers, and the elevation of the Cath
The fact that the contentions of the
voiced by numerous critics over a ten-
doubts that remain are dispelled by a
argument, and an incontrovertible on
entirely according to their designs, a
buttresses, undivided chapels, the fals
thrust on the buttresses," have successfu
flying buttresses, which would appear to
an addition of the late eighteenth and
print reproduced in Figure 9, we see t
wedge of masonry. This is the crownin
all the learning of the northerners an
68. To increase the confusion, the
dated February 1402, by Nava, 8-braccia
Memorie, p. I30). altera
change the vaults from 70. As I 24
have indicated
to above,
32 I believe that it was the in heigh
braccia
also be said that the vaults,
intention taken
of the designers of the Pythagorean alone,
section to dispense are
quadraturm. with flying buttresses, in accordance with Lombard tradition.
69. The week beginning October 15, 1401, is given over The expertise translated in note 52 may be interpreted to sug-
to vilifying Mignot. No other business appears in the records gest that they had not been projected before 140o. However,
(Annali, I, 236-238). That there is some question as to the in 1410, they were definitely under consideration, as evidenced
justice of his dismissal is apparent in a notice of November by the specifications given in a report of September 16 (An-
27 (ibid., p. 240), and a letter which warmly defends him is nali, I, 304).
sent to the Duke on December 20 (ibid., pp. xvif. of Preface,

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 105

Cathedral itself is evidence to the fact that the forme

justified. Their achievements rather than their word
nothing."
It is our great good fortune that we have in hand, not only evidence of the singular philosophy
of mediaeval building which explains the late, provincial style of Milan Cathedral itself, but also
a rich fund of information on the Gothic theory which undoubtedly prevailed throughout western
Europe. In examining this theory, or, rather, scientia, we are first struck by the fact that it does
not approach structural problems in a manner which we would regard as scientific. Mignot, for
example, while recognizing the thrust exerted by a rib-vault, is unable to make even a vague esti-
mate of its force, and demands buttresses of twice the necessary size. Moreover, having declared
the structure inadequate to carry the vaults projected by the council, he proceeds to design vaults
of his own which would have further increased the stresses. At no point in the various controversies
over structure is either party to the debate able to provide reasons for believing that a given mem-
ber will or will not serve its purpose. The northern experts simply draw upon their experience and
on Gothic tradition, and attempt to reproduce northern forms at Milan, without consideration or
understanding of the peculiar structural requirements of the Cathedral.
Such shortcomings suggest that to approach this scientia, it is necessary to put aside the predomi-
nantly mechanical or structural implications which the term "science" suggests to the modern mind.
The scientia is not that of the modern engineer, but, to our way of thinking, a discipline larger in
scope, if less effective in practice. In essence, it is based on the adoption of certain a priori formulae
to which the entire structural and aesthetic character of a building must conform. The geometrical
projects for the design of the section of Milan Cathedral immediately come to mind as the most
striking example of the use of such formulae. Generally considered by scholars out of their proper
context, they have been frequently misinterpreted.
The principal function of the geometrical formulae has already been suggested. They establish
ideal figures for the whole which are reflected in consistent relationships throughout the parts of
the Cathedral. Within certain limits the figures, and consequently the relationships, may be al-
tered, as is demonstrated by the choice between the triangle and the square. Certain similarities
between this approach and antique and Renaissance canons of proportion are evident, but it is of
utmost importance for the understanding of our theory that we be aware of the differences. The
classical system of proportions is what might be called organic. That is, a particular element such
as a column is proportionately taller and wider in a large building than in a small one. The Gothic
approach is what might be called abstract, and is comparatively unconcerned with proportions. Here
the height and breadth of a particular element are determined only by a simple mathematical rela-
tionship to the whole scheme, and given this, the element may be relatively tall or short, wide or
thin, according to the circumstances in which it is used. In essence, the difference is that a given ele-
ment has no autonomous existence, but gains its form only by virtue of its logical association to
the whole. Our scientia may thus be called a theory of consistent relationships. The tests to which
it is put at Milan prove that, while it does not demand a particular proportion between the given
width and the height of the Cathedral or its parts, it is highly critical of the mixture of triangular
figures which disrupts the consistency of the relationships. Furthermore, it may be assumed that
the interrelation of parts provided by geometrical formulae compensates for the Gothic engineer's
ignorance of the laws of mechanics. In a sense, this interrelation is a symbol of structural stability.
This function of geometry is emphasized by Mignot in the speech in which he emphasizes the im-
portance of scientia, for he speaks of the "scientia geometriae" only in connection with structural
problems: the support of the crossing-tower, and the thrust of a pointed arch. It is obvious that
whatever knowledge Mignot has of stresses and thrusts is attributed to geometry. He consequently
feels that a structure which does not conform to a simple geometrical figure is unsound. His late

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106 THE ART BULLETIN

design for the vaulting, which actually i

than the earlier solution for the specif
The contrast between the organic char
of this scientia may be carried farther.
the elevation with fair accuracy. In co
are unable to agree upon an elevation.
principally to the limitations of an ab
structure has an autonomous existence, t
or plan and section. It is this disconn
plausible for Milan's predetermined pla
is established, there remains the prob
problem. The section ad triangulum, f
geometrically would represent it as a
the design. The scientia employs arith
Thus the thickness of the buttress is dis
thickness of the piers, Mignot's 3:1 fo
two elements which are interrelated
related in section through the numeri
established is not discussed in the text
Figure 7. The piers are 4 braccia wide
space of 12 braccia. While it appears ir
a buttress should be established in terms
the theory we are examining, for this th
These arithmetical formulae may also
a given member, as we have seen in th
and the Milanese disagree over the or
and 2:I respectively), and that finally
versy takes place after the piers have b
established, not in accordance with th
the bases were designed), but in accord
Furthermore, the height of the shaft
the nave. Finally, when the capitals are
only to the bases. This rather confusing
as against one of organic proportions.
ratios.7
In summary, the scientia which we are
cal and arithmetical formulae, the pur
ships connecting the parts of a buildin
extremely sophisticated, but has one sh
lem which may be solved by two reaso
determining which is preferable. Thus
3":1 or I 2:I ratio of buttress to pier, m
It is here that the mediaeval builder c
answer are referred to traditional pra
maidens of mediaeval building, and eac
vant to question which of the two is p

71. The reader will recall a further example of

the outer aisle is just half that of the nave.

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 107

evidence only of the "artistic" deficiencies of the northerners,

the Milanese.
Our consideration of this theory cannot be closed without reference to its strikingly apparent
Platonic character. The actual Cathedral, being a compromise between scientia and ars, becomes in
a sense, an imperfect imitation of the ideal Cathedral envisaged by scientia. A more obvious and di-
rect influence of Platonic concepts is observable in the choice of geometrical formulae. As Dr. Frankl
has pointed out, "Plato sanctified the equilateral triangle and the square,"" and it is partially for
this reason that the northern experts at Milan prefer these two figures as the basis for solving the
problem of the section. By Platonic standards, the inconsistent triangulation of the present Cathe-
dral is not only "falso," but ugly." It is particularly interesting that, in view of the Platonic char-
acter of the theory, the Milanese should choose to employ Aristotelian quotations in their defense.
As it happens, their confusion is such that they attempt to justify geometrical figures by physical
and astronomical laws, but in more capable hands, the readjustment of Gothic scientia along Aris-
totelian lines might have had far-reaching consequences. By 1400, the Platonic theory of the north-
ern architects had become academic, and tended to stifle the investigation of new possibilities in
their art. It is only by virtue of ignoring this theory that certain successful experiments were made
by the Milanese, though their lack of erudition prevented them from formulating a new scientia
from their practice. Though it never came to fruition, it is exciting to speculate what an Aristotelian
theory of architecture might have been.
In conclusion, let us return to our consideration of the position of the Gothic Rationalists, to
determine whether, on the basis of the material we have examined, it may be said that "tout
membre de cette architecture est la cons6quence d'un besoin de la structure." First of all, we have
seen that, regardless of the intentions of the architects of Milan Cathedral, the method of con-
struction made it impossible for structural considerations to determine the forms of members. As
we have consistently shown, almost every member was designed before its structural purpose had
been determined. The entire plan was conceived for a cathedral considerably different from that
which was erected; buttresses and piers rose toward an unknown objective, and finally the primary
and basic structural problem, that of the vaults, was the last to be solved. At Milan, however,
construction was carried on, to use Mignot's phrase, "in a fashion more willful than sound." It
remains to be seen whether structural considerations would have been preeminent in determining
the form of any other Gothic cathedral. If our northern scientia is any indication, it would appear
that structure plays a secondary role in the process of creation. The over-all character of the Gothic
cathedral is determined on the basis of geometrical grids of lines and dots in which the specific
problems of form and structure play no part. Within this embracing pattern, the actual elements
of the cathedral thereafter take shape by virtue of a compromise of ideal formulae and practical
know-how. The mediaeval builder is evidently concerned with the problem of balancing theory
(or scientia) and practice (or ars). In no sense is this equivalent to the distinction between struc-
ture and form. Structure and form are intimately related and interconnected in every step of the
creative process.74
In consequence, to impute to Gothic architecture a theory of "form follows function" is to make
not only an error in interpretation but an error in method, for the dichotomy of form and structure
so cherished by recent criticisms simply does not exist for the Gothic architect. The formulae of
Gothic theory establish generalities of form and structure as one, while the methods of Gothic "art"

72. ART BULLETIN, 1945, P- 58. of form and structure within the theory. Precisely the same
73. Given sufficient evidence, it would undoubtedly prove arithmetical ratios are used in solving what might be called
that the choice of numerical formulae was similarly subject the purely formal problem of proportioning the pier capitals
to aesthetic concepts of antique origin. and bases, as are used in solving the predominantly structural
74. The discussions at Milan demonstrate the inseparabilityproblem of the mass of the buttresses.

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 108 THE ART BULLETIN

particularize them. The modern argumen

val argument of ars versus scientia, for
happy union.
APPENDIX D. Utrum debeant mediari sive intramezari capellae
ipsius ecclesiae muro, una ab altera, nec ne?
I. 1392. Mercoledi, I? Maggio R. Declaraverunt, quia non egent ipsae capellae
Coll'intervento di tutti gli ingegneri sottonominati
aliqua alia fortitudine, quod remaneant et fiant sine alio
-maestri, Giovanni da Ferrara, Zanello medio,
da Binasco,
seu sine muro mediano.
Stefano Magatto, Bernardo da Venezia, Giovannino D. Utrum debeat fieri una sala sive unus corrator
de'Grassi, Giacomo da Campione, Simone supra da Orsenigo,
secunda navi, quae est inter navim magnam et
Pietro de'Villa, Enrico da Gamondia (qui non
capellas con-
ecclesiae?
sensit), Lorenzo degli Spazii, Guarnerio da R. Sirtori,
Dixerunt quod ipsa sala nullatenus est fienda quia
Ambrogio da Melzo, Pietro da Cremona, Paoloaerem
occupat degli et adducit expensas.
Osnago. D. Utrum sit procedendum ad laborandum pillonos
Omnes congregati in camera fabricae ecclesiae me- sive contrafortes exteriores prout est incoeptum, an ali-
diolanensis pro tollendis pluribus dubiis quae moventur quid innovari?
super fabrica ipsius ecclesiae, quae dubia inferius dis- R. Dixerunt quod id opus sibi placet, et quod non
tincte specificantur, et juxta dubia factae sunt respon- est aliquid mutandum, ymo est procedendum ad labo-
siones et declarationes per omnes ipsos inzignerios, ex- randum.
cepto ipso magistro Henricho, qui quamvis responsiones D. Utrum debeat procedi super pillonis guerziis an
ipsae siti datae ad intelligendum, ipsis declarationibus aliquid de eis dimoveri vel commutari?
nullatenus consensit. R. Deliberaverunt quod ipsi pilloni, quia suas debitas
Dubium.-Utrum partes ecclesiae tam posteriores proportiones et membra habent, non sunt movendi,
quam collaterales et interiores, scilicet pilloni tam tibu-ymo perfitienti et affinandi.
rii quam alii minores habeant fortitudinem suffitientem? D. Quot brachia debent ascendere pilloni minores
Responsio.--Deliberaverunt, responderunt et decla-sive pilloni capellarum et medii pilloni, qui cum muro
raverunt super eorum animabus et conscientiis quod in super eis fieri debent usque ad archus respondentes ver-
praedictis omnibus et singulis est fortitudo suffitiens sus navem magnam?
etiam ad majora sustinenda. R. Responderunt et declaraverunt quod illi minores
D. Utrum ipsa ecclesia debeat pluere in duobus tectis pilloni debent esse alti brachia 28, et medii piloni super
an in pluribus, proportionabiliter fiendis ab utraque parteeis construendi usque ad archus sint et esse debeant
usque ad croxeriam? brachiorum 12, computatis in ipsis mensuris bases et
R. Deliberaverunt quod ipsa ecclesia debet et habetcapitellos.
pluere pro majori fortitudine et claritate in tribus tectis (Annali, I, 68, 69)
et non in duobus.
D. Utrum ecclesia ipsa non computando in mensuraIa. 1392. Giovedi, 2 maggio
tiburium fiendum debeat ascendere ad quadratum an
Tutti gli ingegneri intervenuti nella seduta di jeri
ad triangulum?
confermano in ogni sua parte quello che e scritto pidi
R. Declaraverunt quod ipsa posset ascendere usque
sopra, eccettuato Simone da Orsenigo ii quale vi con-
ad triangulum sive usque ad figuram triangularem et
sente in massima, fourche dice doversi le cappelle della
non ultra.
chiesa tramezzare con muro nello stesso modo con cui
D. Quot brachia debent fieri pilloni servientes navi
sono state collegate sotto terra.
majori sive navi de medio?
R. Declaraverunt quod ipsi pilloni computando bases (Annali, I, 69)
et capitellos debent ascendere brachia quadraginta et
non ultra. II. 1400. Domenica, II gennaio
D. Quot brachia debent ascendere medii pilloni qui Deliberarono pagarsi i notaj, che scrivono i difetti
in muro fient super ipsis pillonis magnis usque ad vol- e rimedii necessarii per la fabbrica dietro la requisizione
turas sive arcus super inde fiendos, et quot brachiorumdell'ingegnere Giovanni Mignoto di Parigi. Le dette
debent esse volturae super ipsis fiendae? note sono come segue:
R. Deliberaverunt et declaraverunt quod medii pil- I. Dubbii elevati dal Mignoto, e risposte degli in-
loni sint brachiorum duodecim, et voltura ipsius majoris gegneri della fabbrica:
navis ascendat ad triangulum, videlicet brachia viginti- Item piloni qui habent manutenere et sustinere dic-
quatuor. tam ecclesiam a parte posteriori inter magnas fenestras
D. Quid sibi videatur de designamento unius portaesunt debiles per modum quod expedit duos alias pilones
gemellae croxeriae versus Compedum cum tota facieremediabiles apud illos facere, nec adhuc ipsis duobus
ipsius croxeriae? factis et ea pars ipsa ipsius ecclesiae erit fortis sicut
R. Ea visa et perspecta declaraverunt quod ipsa estdeberet esse.
valde pulchra et bona ac honorabilis, et quod super ea Respondunt ipsi magistri quod habita informatione
procedatur. et deliberatione cum pluribus et discretis personis, qui

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 109

pars capitis
interfuerunt fundamentis dictae hominis et per istam
ecclesiae, rationem
et qui pernaturalem
deberent essedominorum
sacramentum eis delatum in manibus brachia VIII et si essent facti de br. X
vicarii
essent propter
provisionum et multorum aliorum ad ornamentum
sapientium pironorum pro ponendo
fabricae
praedictae, et qui laboraverunt
fi guras. ad faciendum funda-
menta ecclesiae a parte posteriori
(Annali,et in204)
I, 203, aliis partibus, et
qui per suum sacramentum dixerunt praedictum opus
est bene fundatum cum sit profundatum per br. XIV
III. 400oo. Domenica, 25 gennaio
(sic) usque ad anixium, et quod in primo cursu positi
Magister Johannes Mignotius de Parisiis dixit in
sunt lapides magni sarrizii et sunt retracti in dicto fun-
consilio praesenti dedisse in scriptis usque nunc com-
damento, et in multis aliis partibus sunt inclavati mag-
putata caedula per eum data in consilio praedicto omnes
nis lapidibus sarrizii, et quod super dicto fundamento
rationes et omnia motiva per quae vult dicere praedicta
ex dictis brachiis XIV vel id circa sunt brachia tria cum
opera non habere fortitudinem et alias rationes non velle
dimidio et quatuor pro adequato sarrizii computatadicere.
bancha et retracta banchae usque ad marmorem est
Capitula ultimata data per suprascriptum magistrum
brachium medium vel id circa. Item retracta cornixia-
Johannem de die 25 januarii.
rum marmoris est quartarum trium cum dimidia usque
I. Vobis egregiis dominis de consilio fabricae ec-
ad murum rectum et murus contrafortum et pilonorum
clesiae Mediolani cum reverentia et pura veritate sig-
simul se tenentium cum aliis est de lapidibus marmoreis
nificat magister Johannes Mignotius quod, sicut alias
intus ecclesiam et extra, et in medio piloni sunt lapides
et inter alios defectus dictae ecclesiae exhibuit in scrip-
sarizii bene splanati et bene clavati, et ad majorem
tis, iterato dicit et proponit quod omnes contrafortes
fortitudinem sunt clavati cum clavelis ferri pomblatis circum circha dictam ecclesiam non sunt fortes nec
ubique. Et praedicta omnia patent. Et ulterius praedicti
habiles ad sustinendum onus quod eis incumbet quia
magistri volunt super capitellis ponere ferros seu stric-
debent esse tribus vicibus pro quolibet grossis quantum
tores ferri magnos qui inclavent unum pilonem cum est grossus unus pilonus de intus ecclesiam.
altero et ita fiat ubique per totam ecclesiam. Et super
Magistri respondent:
dictis capitellis deliberaverunt prout deliberatum est
Supra primo capitulo dicunt quod omnes contrafortes
fieri facere archus spigutos secundum ordinem datum dictae ecclesiae sunt fortes et habiles ad sustinendum
per multos alios inzignerios bonos et expertos, inde di-
suum onus et plus multis rationibus quia unus brachius
cunt quod archi spiguti non dant impulzam contraforti-
nostri marmoris et sarizii in quolibet latere est tam
bus, et rationibus praedictis concludunt omnes contra-
fortis sicut brachia duo lapidum Franziae vel ecclesiae
fortes esse fortes et sufficientes ad majus onus, qua-
Franziae quam dat in exemplum suprascriptis magis-
propter non indigent facere contrafortes ecclesiae in
tris. Qui inde dicunt quod si sunt et sunt totidem et
nulla parte.
medium quotidem sunt piloni intus ecclesiam praedictos
(Annali, I, 202, 203) contrafortes esse fortes et esse ad suam rationem, et
si fuissent majores obscurassent ecclesiam praedictam
IIa.
obstante, videlicet ecclesia Parisiis, et quae habet con-
8. Item quod ex illis pilonis viginti duobus qui sunttrafortes ad modum magistri Johannis et aliae rationes
infra crucem et navem dictae ecclesiae adsunt piloni quia nocuisse possunt.
decem et octo, qui non respondent prout correspondere2. Item dicit quod quatuor turres sunt incoeptae pro
debent ad suam rationem debitam, alii vero quatuor sustinendo tiburium dictae ecclesiae et non adsunt pi-
piloni qui sunt posteriores bene se respondent. loni nec aliud fundamentum habiles pro sustinendo dic-
Dicunt et respondent quod piloni quos ipse magister tas turres, imo si ecclesia esset facta in toto illico cum
Johannes asserit esse XXII et non sunt nisi XXI dictis qui turribus infalibiliter rueret, super iis vero quod
appareant, inter quos adsunt quindecim qui respondent certe per passiones factae sunt per aliquos ygnorantes
ad suum quadrum bene ordinatum, alii vero sex cor- allegantes quod voltae acutae sunt plus fortes et cum
respondent ad retondum secundum suum ordinem. minori onere quam voltae retondae, et plus super aliis
(Annali, I, 203) propositum est ad voluntatem quam per viam virtutis;
et quod est deterius oppositum est quod scientia geo-
IIb. metriae non debet in iis locum habere eo quia scientia
9. Item quod capitelli pilonorum positi in opera supra est unum et ars est aliud. Dictus magister Johannes
ipsis pilonis non sunt positi ad rationem suam, quia pedes
dicit quod ars sine scientia nihil est, et quod sive voltae
sint acutae sive retondae non habendo fundamentum
ipsorum pilonorum sunt brachiorum duorum pro quo-
libet in longitudine, et capitelli sunt br. X pro quolibet bonum nihil sunt, et nihilominus quamvis sint acutae
ipsorum in longitudine, debent esse ipsi capitelli tantae habent maximum onus et pondus.
longitudinis quantae sunt pedes ipsorum pilonorum. Item dicunt quod turres quos dixerunt sibi velle
Dicunt et respondent quod pedes sive bassae pirono- facere dicunt pluribus rationibus et causis, videlicet,
rum si sunt brachiorum II capitelli debent esse brachium primo pro retificando praedictam ecclesiam et croxeriam
unum, ipsis rationibus dicunt bassam pironorum et pes quod respondent ad quatrangulum secundum ordinem
dicitur pes hominis et capitellum dicitur caput piloni, itageometriae; alia vero pro fortitudine et pulchritudine
caput hominis dicitur a capitello. Ita quod pes est quarta tiborii, videlicet quasi per istum exemplum in paradixo

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 110 THE ART BULLETIN

Dominus Deus sedet in medio

clesia esset suffitienter troni,
fundata pro sustinendo et por- ci
sunt quatuor evangelistae secundum Ap
tando onus pertinens dictae ecclesiae.
istae sunt rationes quare
Nos supradicti sunt
inzignerii et incoepta
operarii massonariae dis-
non sint fundati duo cimus quod piloni
nos visa et revisitata
protota dicta ecclesia,
qualibet et s
piendo super terram, spetialiter vidimus
ecclesia discopertum fundamenta
est duorum tamen pi- fo
lonorum, qui duo pilonisuper
rationibus, quia reprexae debent sustinere et butare con-
quibus dic
tra culatam ipsius
et praedictae reprexae sunt ecclesiae, qui
de sunt parviter
magnis et male lap
clavatis cum clavibusfundati, et ferri
ad falsum unus talis est interius operis
sicut dictum plus e
de uno pede,pondus
aliis capitulis, et quod et de mala materia, etdictis
quod omnes pilonitribus
derat ubique super dictae ecclesiae intus et
suum extra sint revisitati usque et
quadrum, ad eru
recte et fortiter, sed
minimum fundumrectum
et omnes qui erunt male nonfundati ut potes
suprascripti sunt sint
dicunt quod sunt fortes refundati de
per se magnis
et quarteribus
ergo da
dinem tiborio, lapidum bene
quia jacentium et lectusest
clausus sit bene drizatus
in etmedio
rium unde dicta ecclesia bene fortis est. planatus et bene jungeneos et butatis per apalattas in-
3. Item cognoscit quod voluntarie agitur in prae- tus aliis fundamentis bene intus et massonatis ad ba-
missis nec contradicentes volunt condescendere juri et gnum de morterio, et dicti fundamenti fiant de duobus
meliori dictae ecclesiae et fabricae, sed volunt aut per brachiis vel plus ultra plumbatis bassarum pilonorum
eorum lucro aut timore, quia voluerunt consequi fabri- veniendo per reotractam in superficie ad unum brachi-
cam super defectibus, aut obstinatione vincere causam, um.
et pro tanto petit dictus magister Johannes committi Item interrogaverunt et fecerunt quaestione
debere IV vel VI vel XII ex melioribus inzigneriis ex-suprascripti duo piloni extra culatam dictae ecc
pertis in talibus, sive de Alamania, sive de Anglia, sive sunt satis fortes pro sustinendo et butando contra
suum onus.
de Franzia, cum aliter dicta fabrica ruet pro certo,
quod erit magnum damnum universimodo. Ulterius Nos dicisimus quod qui funderet duos pilo
portando duos archos butantes quod ecclesia r
pro veritate evidenti et sui honoris conservatione ac-
fortiorem sed pro minori impedimento discim
cedere vult ad presentiam illustrissimi domini Domini
refundaret de novo ad unum pondum de mag
et eidem praedicta et alia latius explicare-Item sig-
teriis lapidum bene, et goger, et gont, idest be
nificat quod pro bono ecclesiae foret bonum alibi labo-
et junctas et assisas ad bagnum de morterio d
rare in dicta ecclesia quam super locis defectuosis sal-brachiis butatis totum ac longum usque ad sup
tem usquequo fuerit clare provisum et decisum superterrae, et dictae lapides sint butatae de su
istis defectibus.
fundamentum per apalattam, et de sumitate t
Item dicunt et respondent in eodem capitulo quodsursum allungando seu alargando dicti duo
ubi dicit quod scientia geometrica non debet in iis locum brachiis duobus usque ad ipsorum altitudine
habere, dicunt suprascripti quod si hoc testante videlicet inclavatae novae lapides cum veteribus, et
per regulam geometriae Aristotulus dixit hominis au- nos putamus quod possint portare suum onus.
tem motus secundum locum quem vocamus lationem, Item interrogaverunt et fecerunt quaesti
aut reclusus aut circularis aut ex eis mixtus. Item idem omnes alii piloni dictae ecclesiae nobis vide
boni.
dixit alibi omne corpus perfectum est in tribus et motus
ipsius et dictae ecclesiae ascendit ad triangulum ut jam Nos discimus quod si essent adhuc fiendi possent fieri
meliores.
declaratum fuit per alios inzignerios, unde dicunt quod
Item interrogaverunt si omnes supradicti piloni pos-
omnia sunt per rectam lineam, aut per sextum, ergo
sunt portare et passare suum onus sicut sunt.
concluditur quod quae facta sunt, sunt facta per geo-
Respondimus quod nobis videtur quod sic unum ha-
metriam et per praticam, quia ipse dixit quod scientia
beant unum bonum magistrum operarium massone-
sine arte nihil est; de arte autem jam responsum est
riae qui fiat cambiare moluras et carichas de super
in aliis capitulis. capitella, et faciendo ipsa molura bona et levia pro
(Annali, I, 209, 21o) causa, quod aliqui dictorum pilonorum non sunt bene
aligniati et hoc est pro ponendo ipsas ad suam rationem
IV. 1400. Addi 21 febbraio taliter quod non perpendatur de eorum mala facione
In nomine Domini 1400 die 21 februarii. et pro minus charichando.
Fuerunt in domo reverendissimi in Christo patris Item discimus quod naufrati sunt et forati de fora-
domini Archiepiscopi Mediolani in ipsius praesentia et minis retondis piloni cornerii sacrastiarum dictae ec-
plures ex deputatis et consilium fabricae ecclesiae ma- clesiae pro portando foris aquas pluvianas descendentes
joris Mediolani fuerunt interrogati Simonetus Nigrus, de copertura sacrastiarum et cappellarum, et est contra
Johannes Sanomerius, et Mermetus de Sabaudia, om-rationem, et oportet quod claudentur et massonentur
nes tres inzignerii francischi, in et super infrascriptis et fiant alias novas gargolas quae portabunt suas pancas
quaestionibus et artichulis infra nominatis, quod de-et noves, et brodes, pro recipiendo dictas aquas et facient
beant dicere et determinare pro suo sacramento et pro subbassamentum pro corotoro factum ad claritatem.
viagio quod faciunt eundo Romam. Symonetus Nigrus, Johannes Sanomerius, et Mermetus
Imprimis interrogaverunt super istam quaestionem de Sabaudia.
suprascriptos dominos si ipsis videbatur quod dicta ec- (Annali, I, 2II)

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 GOTHIC THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 111

V. 1400. Addi 8 maggio cedenti disposizioni circa la maggiore altezza o l

za della chiesa,
Al nome de Deo e dela Vergine od in qualche
Madona Santasua forma sosta
Carona: La risposta
Maria de l'anno del mille quatrocento adi 8 ediche si varierebbe l'ord
Mazo.
bilito dagli
Io Bertholino da Novara el qualle sono altri ingegneri,
stato secondo il gia princi
mandato
Paderno:
per lo illustro et excelso principo Rispondo messere
segniore che siccomelo il disegno pres
da maestro Giovanni non contiene alcuna dimostrazi-
duca per certe openione e differentie mosi per alchuni
one circadela
maestri in la fabrica e maiesterio all'altezza di tutti de
giesia gli archi, come era stato
Madona
fatto dagli altri ingegneri, cosi non posso rispondere
Santa Maria, le qualle differentie et openione li depu-
intorno all'altezza
tati dela dicta fabrica a mi hanno datodella per crociera, se non che
scripto, le esso
quale ho veduto, e examinato,non
e ne fece cenno
oltra nel suo disegno.
questo sono stato
Serina: Risponde che la navate principale di mezzo
cum li magistri e inzignieri, li quali sono al presente in
la dicta fabrica, a vedere a andrebbe
ochioadde essere di 8 braccia
sotto, e piui
dealta di quello che
sopra
era stato disposto prima,
le deferentie de la dicta giesia. Et oltra quello vedere giusta il disegno e la misura
datine da maestro Giovanni,
ho facto cavare in certi lochi li fondamenti de la dicta per cui deve far mera-
viglia se altreper
giesia per vedere li dicti fondamenti volte essere
lo stesso maestro
piuiGiovanni
giarodisse
deli dicti dubii mosi ala dicta che non era solido
fabrica; tutto
in l'edificio,respon-
breve che ora essendo an-
dendo digo che la giesia potrave aver habiudosolido.
cora piui alto dovrebbe essere meno in tre
li fondamenti, e in alchuni altriCalco: Risponde
lochi che seguendo
supra terrala forma
piui del nuovo
progetto non si varierebbe
debita proportione. Ma per questo non se po biassimare, la disposizione gisa data rela-
tivamente a qualche forma
anche se de lodare per uno belentissimo edifitio e grande, sostanziale, ma solamente
quanto de
ma secundo el mio parere serave alla maggior
bisognio grosezza del corpo
per eternadell'edificio.
Donato: In
fortificatione fare questa adgionta confrontoadditione
overo di quella prima ordinata
zoe: si fa
qualche variazione
In prima perchi li contraforti del corpo all'altezzadela
compiendo il progetto
giesia
Mignoto,
non hanno tuta quella grandeza che ma questa variazione
sareve e lodevole perche
de bisognio,
consciderando la largheza esegue la ragione dela
l'alteza geometrica del triangolo.
dicta giesia,
Alcherio: Se non
vorave se reduze la prima nave in forma de capelle erro, col progetto Mignoto
cum si fa
le mezature tra l'una capella equalche
l'altra variazione
cum nell'altezza,
alchuni ma qualunque
stra- varia-
fori, per li quali se porave zione
vedere succeda per
ellocorpo
stesso, sara de
un miglioramento
Cristo della
soliditY, della e
da l'uno con l'altro de la giesia, congruita,
fazendo della bellezza,
cosie dellave-
celerith
gniarevese a dare grandissima di forteza
costruzione della
alefabbrica,
altre e ci6 tre
riesciranave
un gravissimo
documento contro i ciechi
per quilli archi butanti avereve piui fermo el suo prin- che fingono di essere geo-
metri.
cipio e el corpo dela giesia parerave piui bello, e piui con
Della Croce: Seguendo
sova rexone per che el seguireve la forma del secondo
la grandeza de laproget-
cruxe. to si muta il falso ordine gia disposto, e si rispetta il retto
ordine del
Item serave de besognio fare una capella in triangolo,
la culaza che non pub essere abbandonato
de la giesia verso el campo santo, senza errore, capella
la quale come altresevolte maestro Enrico, e certo
acostaze a quelli dui contraforti da el lado de drectoprima di lui, predicarono con
maestro Annex tedesco,
alta e fedele voce nelle orecchie dei falso sordi.
fazando la menore che se possesse. e non guastando al-
Scrosato:
chuna cossa de quello chi e facto, e per Rispondo
questa che se si varia qualche disposi-
capella
seguirave piui forteza, e in questazione precedente,
capella poravela si varia
se in meglio, in piui bello e
piiuvole
redure quella archa, che se dixe che lodevole modo,
fare secondo
fare lo la geometria triangolare.
Galleto: Dico
el signiore messere lo duca, e siando reducta che seguendo
l'archa in il nuovo progetto si mu-
terebbe la disposizione
lo dicto locho poravese ponere piui in drecto, cel cor precedente, ma questo non si al-
vegniarave a essere piui grande. lontana dalla forma triangolare, dalla quale nessun
geometra
Item digo che per queste additione o sia perito
zonte nonnonpub ne deve recedere, cosicche
anche
starava de fare lavorare e livrare le con qualche
parte variazione non si abbandona la sud-
principale,
e seguire la maynera principiada e detta forma triangolare,
comenzada. Magis-cib che vidi fatto anche da
tro Bernardo da Vanezia, magistro altri maestri peritida
Bertholino in simili
No-cose.
vara. Cavagnera: Dicho che otegniando lo modo di magis-
tro Johanne, zok per li archi e croxere tanto che la
(Annali, I, 2 13 ) nostra gexia non andava ni piiu bassa ni pii alta, ni si
difformava a nessuna provvisione data in fata.
VI. 1401. Domenica, 15 maggio
(Annali,
VII. Domanda: Se seguendo la forma I, 227)
del secondo pro-
getto si muterebbero soltanto per questa
[NEW opera le pre-
YORK UNIVERSITY]

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