Table of Contents

101 Linux commands Open-source eBook .................................. 16

Hacktoberfest .............................................................................. 17
About me ..................................................................................... 18
Ebook PDF Generation Tool ......................................................... 20
Book Cover .................................................................................. 21
License ........................................................................................ 22

The ls command .............................................................................. 23

The cd command ............................................................................. 26

The cat command ........................................................................... 29

The tac command ........................................................................... 32

The head command ........................................................................ 34

The tail command ........................................................................... 36

The pwd command ......................................................................... 39

The touch Command ...................................................................... 41

The cal Command ........................................................................... 44

The bc command ............................................................................. 47

The df command ............................................................................. 51

The help command ......................................................................... 55

Syntax ......................................................................................... 56
Options ........................................................................................ 57
Examples of uses: ....................................................................... 58

The factor command ...................................................................... 59

Syntax ......................................................................................... 60
Options ........................................................................................ 61
Examples ..................................................................................... 62

The uname command ..................................................................... 63

Syntax: ........................................................................................ 64
Examples ..................................................................................... 65
Options ........................................................................................ 66

The mkdir command ...................................................................... 67

Syntax ......................................................................................... 68
Examples ..................................................................................... 69
Options ........................................................................................ 70

The gzip command ......................................................................... 71

Usage ................................................................................................ 72
Compress a file ............................................................................ 73
Decompress a file ........................................................................ 74
Compress multiple files: .............................................................. 75
Decompress multiple files: .......................................................... 76
 Compress a directory: ................................................................. 77
Decompress a directory: ............................................................. 78
Verbose (detailed) output while compressing: ............................ 79

The whatis command ..................................................................... 80

The who command ......................................................................... 81

The free command .......................................................................... 83

Usage ................................................................................................ 84
Show memory usage ................................................................... 85
Show memory usage in human-readable form ............................ 86

The top/htop command .................................................................. 87

Comparison between top and htop: ............................................ 88
Examples: .................................................................................... 89
Syntax: ........................................................................................ 91
Additional Flags and their Functionalities: ................................... 92

The sl command .............................................................................. 93

Installation ................................................................................... 94
Syntax ......................................................................................... 95

The echo command ........................................................................ 96

The finger command ...................................................................... 98

The groups command .................................................................. 101

The man command ....................................................................... 103

The passwd command ................................................................. 105

Example .................................................................................... 106
The syntax of the passwd command is : ................................... 107
options ...................................................................................... 108

The w command ............................................................................ 109

The whoami command ................................................................. 112

The history command .................................................................. 114

The login Command ..................................................................... 115

Syntax ....................................................................................... 116
Flags and their functionalities ................................................... 117
Examples ................................................................................... 118

lscpu command ............................................................................. 119

Options ...................................................................................... 120

The cp command .......................................................................... 121

The mv command ......................................................................... 125

The ps command .......................................................................... 127

The kill command ......................................................................... 129

The killall command ..................................................................... 133

The env command ........................................................................ 138

Syntax ....................................................................................... 139
Usage ........................................................................................ 140
Full List of Options ..................................................................... 141

The printenv command ................................................................ 142

The hostname command ............................................................. 144

The nano command ...................................................................... 146

The rm command .......................................................................... 148

The ifconfig command ................................................................. 150

The ip command ........................................................................... 154

The clear command ...................................................................... 156

Example .................................................................................... 157
Before: ....................................................................................... 158
After executing clear command: ............................................... 159

The su command .......................................................................... 160

Example : .................................................................................. 161
The syntax of the su command is : ............................................ 162
Options : .................................................................................... 163
The wget command ...................................................................... 164
Syntax ....................................................................................... 165
More options .............................................................................. 167

The curl command ........................................................................ 168

Example : .................................................................................. 169
The syntax of the curl command is : ......................................... 170
Options : .................................................................................... 171
Installation: ................................................................................ 172

The yes command ........................................................................ 173

Options ...................................................................................... 174

The last command ........................................................................ 175

The locate command .................................................................... 176

The iostat command .................................................................... 180

The sudo command ...................................................................... 182

Examples ................................................................................... 184

The apt command ......................................................................... 185

The yum command ....................................................................... 189

The zip command ......................................................................... 192

The unzip command ..................................................................... 194

The shutdown command ............................................................. 196

The dir command .......................................................................... 198

The reboot Command .................................................................. 200

Syntax ....................................................................................... 201

The sort command ....................................................................... 204

The paste command ..................................................................... 207

The exit command ........................................................................ 209

The diff/sdiff command ................................................................ 210

The tar command ......................................................................... 212

The gunzip command ................................................................... 215

The hostnamectl command ......................................................... 218

Syntax ....................................................................................... 219
Example .................................................................................... 220

The iptables Command ................................................................ 221

The netstat command .................................................................. 222

The lsof command ........................................................................ 224

The bzip2 command ..................................................................... 226

The service command .................................................................. 229

The vmstat command .................................................................. 231

The mpstat command .................................................................. 233

The ncdu Command ...................................................................... 235

Example .................................................................................... 236
Syntax ....................................................................................... 237
Additional Flags and their Functionalities: ................................. 238

The uniq command ....................................................................... 239

The RPM command ....................................................................... 242

Synopsis ......................................................................................... 244

Querying and Verifying Packages: ............................................. 245
Installing, Upgrading, and Removing Packages: ........................ 246
Miscellaneous: ........................................................................... 247

The scp command ......................................................................... 249

The sleep command ..................................................................... 252

Options ...................................................................................... 253

The split command ....................................................................... 254

The stat command ........................................................................ 257

The useradd command ................................................................ 259

The userdel command ................................................................. 261

The usermod command ............................................................... 263

The ionice command .................................................................... 266

Usage ........................................................................................ 267
A process can be of three scheduling classes: .......................... 268
Options ...................................................................................... 270
Examples ................................................................................... 271
Conclusion ................................................................................. 272

The du command .......................................................................... 273

The ping command ....................................................................... 275

Understanding Latency ............................................................. 276

The rsync command ..................................................................... 278

Transfer Files from local server to remote ................................. 279
Transfer Files remote server to local ......................................... 281
Transfer only missing files ......................................................... 282
Conclusion ................................................................................. 283

The dig command ......................................................................... 284

The whois command .................................................................... 289

The ssh command ......................................................................... 292

The awk command ....................................................................... 301

The crontab command ................................................................. 305

The xargs command ..................................................................... 307

The nohup command ................................................................... 310

The pstree command ................................................................... 311

The tree command ....................................................................... 314

The whereis command ................................................................. 316

The printf command ..................................................................... 318

The cut command ......................................................................... 325

The sed command ........................................................................ 327

The vim command ........................................................................ 330

The chown command ................................................................... 334

The find command ........................................................................ 336

The rmdir command ..................................................................... 339

The lsblk command ...................................................................... 341
Summary ................................................................................... 342
Examples ................................................................................... 343
Syntax ....................................................................................... 345
Reading information given by lsblk ........................................... 346
Reading information of a specific device ................................... 347
Useful flags for lsblk .................................................................. 348
Exit Codes ................................................................................. 350

The cmatrix command ................................................................. 351

The chmod command ................................................................... 352

The grep command ...................................................................... 355

The screen command ................................................................... 358

Restore a Linux Screen .............................................................. 359
Listing all open screen sessions ................................................ 360

The nc command .......................................................................... 361

The make command ..................................................................... 364

The basename command ............................................................ 366

The banner command .................................................................. 369

The alias command ...................................................................... 371

The which command .................................................................... 373

The date command ....................................................................... 375

The mount command ................................................................... 379

The nice/renice command ........................................................... 381

The wc command .......................................................................... 383

The tr command ........................................................................... 385

The fdisk command ...................................................................... 388

The Wait commands ..................................................................... 390

Example .................................................................................... 391

The zcat command ....................................................................... 392

The fold command ........................................................................ 393

The quota command .................................................................... 395

The aplay command ..................................................................... 396

Syntax: ...................................................................................... 397
Options: ..................................................................................... 398
Examples : ................................................................................. 399

The spd-say command ................................................................. 400

 Syntax: ...................................................................................... 401
Options: ..................................................................................... 402
Examples : ................................................................................. 404

The xeyes command .................................................................... 405

The parted command ................................................................... 406

The nl command ........................................................................... 410

Syntax ....................................................................................... 411
Examples: .................................................................................. 412

The pidof command ..................................................................... 413

Syntax ....................................................................................... 414
Examples: .................................................................................. 415
Conclusion ................................................................................. 417

The shuf command ....................................................................... 418

Syntax ....................................................................................... 419
Examples: .................................................................................. 420
Conclusion ................................................................................. 424

The less command ........................................................................ 425

Syntax ....................................................................................... 426
Options ...................................................................................... 427
Few Examples: .......................................................................... 428

The nslookup command .............................................................. 429

Syntax ....................................................................................... 430
Options ...................................................................................... 431
 Few Examples: .......................................................................... 432

The cmp command ....................................................................... 433

Few Examples : ......................................................................... 434

The expr command ....................................................................... 437

Syntax ....................................................................................... 438
Few Examples: .......................................................................... 439
101 Linux commands Open-
source eBook

This is an open-source eBook with 101 Linux commands that everyone

should know. No matter if you are a DevOps/SysOps engineer,
developer, or just a Linux enthusiast, you will most likely have to use
the terminal at some point in your career.

16
Hacktoberfest

This eBook is made possible thanks to Hacktoberfest and the open

source community!

17
About me

My name is Bobby Iliev, and I have been working as a Linux DevOps

Engineer since 2014. I am an avid Linux lover and supporter of the
open-source movement philosophy. I am always doing that which I
cannot do in order that I may learn how to do it, and I believe in sharing
knowledge.

I think it's essential always to keep professional and surround yourself

with good people, work hard, and be nice to everyone. You have to
perform at a consistently higher level than others. That's the mark of a
true professional.

For more information, please visit my blog at https://bobbyiliev.com,

follow me on Twitter @bobbyiliev_ and YouTube.

DigitalOcean

DigitalOcean is a cloud services platform delivering the simplicity

developers love and businesses trust to run production applications at
scale.

It provides highly available, secure, and scalable compute, storage, and

networking solutions that help developers build great software faster.

Founded in 2012 with offices in New York and Cambridge, MA,

DigitalOcean offers transparent and affordable pricing, an elegant user
interface, and one of the largest libraries of open source resources
available.

For more information, please visit https://www.digitalocean.com or

follow @digitalocean on Twitter.

If you are new to DigitalOcean, you can get a free $100 credit and spin

18
up your own servers via this referral link here:

Free $100 Credit For DigitalOcean

DevDojo

The DevDojo is a resource to learn all things web development and web
design. Learn on your lunch break or wake up and enjoy a cup of coffee
with us to learn something new.

Join this developer community, and we can all learn together, build
together, and grow together.

Join DevDojo

For more information, please visit https://www.devdojo.com or follow

@thedevdojo on Twitter.

19
Ebook PDF Generation Tool

This ebook was generated by Ibis developed by Mohamed Said.

Ibis is a PHP tool that helps you write eBooks in markdown.

20
Book Cover

The cover for this ebook was created by Suhail Kakar.

21
License

MIT License

Copyright (c) 2020 Bobby Iliev

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a

copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit
persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the
following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY

KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS
OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR
OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR
OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

22
The ls command

The ls command lets you see the files and directories inside a specific
directory (current working directory by default). It normally lists the files
and directories in ascending alphabetical order.

Examples:

1. To show the files inside your current working directory:

ls

2. To show the files and directory inside a specific Directory:

ls {Directory_Path}

Syntax:

ls [-OPTION] [DIRECTORY_PATH]

Interactive training

In this interactive tutorial, you will learn the different ways to use the ls
command:

The ls command by Tony

23
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-l - Show results in long format
-S - Sort results by file size
-t - Sort results by modification time
Show files and directories in reverse order
-r --reverse
(descending alphabetical order)
Show all files, including hidden files (file
-a --all
names which begin with a period .)
Show long format files and directories
-la -
including hidden files
list long format files and directories with
-lh -
readable size
Shows all like -a but without showing
-A --almost-all .(current working directory) and .. (parent
directory)
Instead of listing the files and directories
inside the directory, it shows any
-d --directory information about the directory itself, it
can be used with -l to show long
formatted information
Appends an indicator character to the end
of each listed name, as an example: /
-F --classify
character is appended after each directory
name listed
like -l but displays file size in human-
-h --human-readable
readable unit not in bytes

Setting Persistent Options:

Customizing command behavior in Linux is easy using the alias

command. To make these changes permanent, follow these steps:

1. Create the Alias: Define your alias with the desired options. For

24
 example, to enhance the ls command:

alias ls="ls --color=auto -lh"

2. Persistence: This alias is effective only for the current session. To

make it permanent, add the alias to your shell's configuration file:

Bash: Append the alias to ~/.bashrc:

echo 'alias ls="ls --color=auto -lh"' >> ~/.bashrc

source ~/.bashrc

3. Verification: Open a new terminal session, and the ls command

will display files as configured.

25
The cd command

The cd command is used to change the current working directory (i.e.,

in which the current user is working). The "cd" stands for "change
directory" and it is one of the most frequently used commands in the
Linux terminal.

The cd command is often combined with the ls command (see chapter

1) when navigating through a system, however, you can also press the
TAB key two times to list the contents of the new directory you just
changed to.

Examples of uses:

1. Change the current working directory:

cd <specified_directory_path>

2. Change the current working directory to the home directory:

cd ~

OR

cd

3. Change to the previous directory:

26
 cd -

This will also echo the absolute path of the previous directory.

4. Change the current working directory to the system's root

directory:

cd /

Quick Tips

Adding a .. as a directory will allow you to move "up" from a folder:

cd ..

This can also be done multiple times! For example, to move up three
folders:

cd ../../../

Syntax:

cd [OPTIONS] directory

Additional Flags and Their Functionalities

Long
Short flag Description
flag

27
 Long
Short flag Description
flag
Follow symbolic links. By default,cd behaves as if
-L -
the -L option is specified.
-P - Don’t follow symbolic links.

28
The cat command

The cat command allows us to create single or multiple files, to view

the content of a file or to concatenate files and redirect the output to
the terminal or files.

The "cat" stands for 'concatenate.' and it's one of the most frequently
used commands in the Linux terminal.

Examples of uses:

1. To display the content of a file in terminal:

cat <specified_file_name>

2. To display the content of multiple files in terminal:

cat file1 file2 ...

3. To create a file with the cat command:

cat > file_name

4. To display all files in current directory with the same filetype:

29
 cat *.<filetype>

5. To display the content of all the files in current directory:

cat *

6. To put the output of a given file into another file:

cat old_file_name > new_file_name

7. Use cat command with more and less options:

cat filename | more

cat filename | less

8. Append the contents of file1 to file2:

cat file1 >> file2

9. To concatenate two files together in a new file:

cat file1_name file2_name merge_file_name

10. Some implementations of cat, with option -n, it's possible to show
line numbers:

cat -n file1_name file2_name > new_numbered_file_name

30
Syntax:

cat [OPTION] [FILE]...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-A --show-all equivalent to -vET
number nonempty output lines,
-b --number-nonblank
overrides -n
-e - equivalent to -vE
Display tab separated lines in file
-T -
opened with cat command.
-E - To show $ at the end of each file.
-E - Display file with line numbers.
-n --number number all output lines
-s --squeeze-blank suppress repeated empty output lines
-u - (ignored)
use ^ and M- notation, except for LFD
-v --show-nonprinting
and TAB
- --help display this help and exit
- --version output version information and exit

31
The tac command

tac is a Linux command that allows you to view files line-by-line,

beginning from the last line. (tac doesn't reverse the contents of each
individual line, only the order in which the lines are presented.) It is
named by analogy with cat.

Examples of uses:

1. To display the content of a file in terminal:

tac <specified_file_name>

2. This option attaches the separator before instead of after.

tac -b concat_file_name tac_example_file_name

3. This option will interpret the separator as a regular expression.

tac -r concat_file_name tac_example_file_name

4. This option uses STRING as the separator instead of newline.

tac -s concat_file_name tac_example_file_name

5. This option will display the help text and exit.

32
 tac --help

6. This option will give the version information and exit.

tac --version

Syntax:

tac [OPTION]... [FILE]...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
attach the separator before instead of
-b --before
after
interpret the separator as a regular
-r --regex
expression
use STRING as the separator instead of
-s --separator=STRING
newline
- --help display this help and exit
- --version output version information and exit

33
The head command

The head command prints the first ten lines of a file.

Example:

head filename.txt

Syntax:

head [OPTION] [FILENAME]

Get a specific number of lines:

Use the -n option with a number (should be an integer) of lines to

display.

Example:

head -n 10 foo.txt

This command will display the first ten lines of the file foo.txt.

Syntax:

head -n <number> foo.txt

34
Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Print the first NUM bytes of each file;
with the leading '-',
-c --bytes=[-]NUM
print all but the last NUM bytes of each
file
Print the first NUM lines instead of the
first 10;
-n --lines=[-]NUM with the leading '-',
print all but the last NUM lines of each
file
-q --quiet, --silent Never print headers giving file names
-v --verbose Always print headers giving file names
-z --zero-terminated Line delimiter is NUL, not newline
--help Display this help and exit
--version Output version information and exit

35
The tail command

The tail command prints the last ten lines of a file.

Example:

tail filename.txt

Syntax:

tail [OPTION] [FILENAME]

Get a specific number of lines with tail:

Use the -n option with a number(should be an integer) of lines to

display.

Example:

tail -n 10 foo.txt

This command will display the last ten lines of the file foo.txt.

Refresh the output on any new entry in a file

It is possible to let tail output any new line added to the file you are
looking into. So, if a new line is written to the file, it will immediately be
shown in your output. This can be done using the --follow or -f

36
option. This is especially useful for monitoring log files.

Example:

tail -f foo.txt

Syntax:

tail -n <number> foo.txt

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Output the last NUM bytes;
or use -c +NUM to
-c --bytes=[+]NUM
output starting with byte
NUM of each file
Output appended data as the
file grows;
-f --follow[={name|descriptor}]
an absent option argument
means 'descriptor'
Same as --follow=name --
-F
retry
Output the last NUM lines,
instead of the last 10;
-n --lines=[+]NUM
or use -n +NUM to output
starting with line NUM

37
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
with --follow=name, reopen a
FILE which has not
changed size after N (default
5) iterations
to see if it has been unlinked
--max-unchanged-stats=N
or rename
(this is the usual case of
rotated log files);
with inotify, this option is
rarely useful
with -f, terminate after
--pid=PID
process ID, PID dies
Never output headers giving
-q --quiet, --silent
file names
keep trying to open a file if it
`` --retry
is inaccessible
With -f, sleep for
approximately N seconds
(default 1.0) between
-s --sleep-interval=N iterations;
with inotify and --pid=P,
check process P at
least once every N seconds
Always output headers giving
-v --verbose
file names
Line delimiter is NUL, not
-z --zero-terminated
newline
--help Display this help and exit
Output version information
--version
and exit

38
The pwd command

The pwd stands for Print Working Directory. It prints the path of the
current working directory, starting from the root.

Example:

pwd

The output would be your current directory:

/home/your_user/some_directory

Syntax:

pwd [OPTION]

Tip: You can also check this by printing out the $PWD variable:

echo $PWD

The output would be the same as of the pwd command.

Options:

39
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
If the environment variable $PWD contains an
absolute name of the current directory with no "."
-L --logical or ".." components, then output those contents,
even if they contain symbolic links. Otherwise, fall
back to default (-P) behavior.
Print a fully resolved name for the current
-P --physical directory, where all components of the name are
actual directory names, and not symbolic links.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.

By default, pwd' behaves as if -L' were specified.

40
The touch Command

The touch command modifies a file's timestamps. If the file specified

doesn't exist, an empty file with that name is created.

Syntax

touch [OPTION]... FILE...

Options

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-a - Change only the access time.
-c --no-create Do not create any files.
-d Parse STRING and use it instead of the
--date=STRING
STRING current time.
(Ignored) This option does nothing but is
-f - accepted to provide compatibility with
BSD versions of the touch command.
Affect each symbolic link instead of any
referenced file (useful only on systems
-h --no-dereference that can change the timestamps of a
symlink). This option implies -c, nothing
is created if the file does not exist.
-m - Change only the modification time.
Use this file's times instead of the current
-r=FILE --reference=FILE
time.
Use the numeric time STAMP instead of
-t
STAMP
- the current time. The format of STAMP is
[[CC]YY]MMDDhhmm[.ss].

41
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
An alternate way to specify which type of
time is set (e.g. access, modification, or
- --time=WORD
change). This is equivalent to specifying
-a or -m.

WORD is access, atime, or use: equivalent to -a.

WORD is modify or mtime: equivalent to -m.

An alternate way to specify what type of time to set (as with -a and -
m).| |

-
|--help|Display a help message, and exit.| |
-
|--version|Display version information, and exit.|

Examples

1. If file.txt exists, set all of its timestamps to the current system

time. If file.txt doesn't exist, create an empty file with that name.

touch file.txt

2. If file.txt exists, set its times to the current system time. If it does
not exist, do nothing.

touch -c file.txt

3. Change the access time of file.txt. The modification time is not

changed. The change time is set to the current system time. If
file.txt does not exist, it is created.

42
touch -a file.txt

4. Change the times of file symboliclink. If it's a symbolic link,

change the times of the symlink, NOT the times of the referenced
file.

touch -h symboliclink

5. Change the access and modification times of file-b.txt to match

the times of file-a.txt. The change time will be set to the current
system time. If file-b.txt does not exist, it is not created. Note,
file-a.txt must already exist in this context.

touch -cr file-a.txt file-b.txt

6. Set the access time and modification time of file.txt to February

1st of the current year. The change time is set to the current
system time.

touch -d "1 Feb" file.txt

43
The cal Command

The cal command displays a formatted calendar in the terminal. If no

options are specified, cal displays the current month, with the current
day highlighted.

Syntax:

cal [general options] [-jy] [[month] year]

Options:

Option Description
-h Don't highlight today's date.
Specify a month to display. The month specifier is a full
month name (e.g., February), a month abbreviation of at
least three letters (e.g., Feb), or a number (e.g., 2). If you
-m month
specify a number, followed by the letter "f" or "p", the
month of the following or previous year, respectively,
display. For instance, -m 2f displays February of next year.
Specify a year to display. For example, -y 1970 displays
-y year
the entire calendar of the year 1970.
-3 Display last month, this month, and next month.
-1 Display only this month. This is the default.
Display num months occurring after any months already
specified. For example, -3 -A 3 displays last month, this
-A num month, and four months after this one; and -y 1970 -A 2
displays every month in 1970, and the first two months of
1971.

44
Option Description
Display num months occurring before any months already
-B num specified. For example, -3 -B 2 displays the previous
three months, this month, and next month.
-d YYYY- Operate as if the current month is number MM of year
MM YYYY.

Examples:

1. Display the calendar for this month, with today highlighted.

cal

2. Same as the previous command, but do not highlight today.

cal -h

3. Display last month, this month, and next month.

cal -3

4. Display this entire year's calendar.

cal -y

5. Display the entire year 2000 calendar.

cal -y 2000

6. Same as the previous command.

45
 cal 2000

7. Display the calendar for December of this year.

cal -m [December, Dec, or 12]

10. Display the calendar for December 2000.

cal 12 2000

46
The bc command

The bc command provides the functionality of being able to perform

mathematical calculations through the command line.

Examples:

1 . Arithmetic:

Input : $ echo "11+5" | bc

Output : 16

2 . Increment:

var –++ : Post increment operator, the result of the variable is

used first and then the variable is incremented.
– ++var : Pre increment operator, the variable is increased first
and then the result of the variable is stored.

Input: $ echo "var=3;++var" | bc

Output: 4

3 . Decrement:

var – – : Post decrement operator, the result of the variable is used

first and then the variable is decremented.
– – var : Pre decrement operator, the variable is decreased first
and then the result of the variable is stored.

47
 Input: $ echo "var=3;--var" | bc
Output: 2

4 . Assignment:

var = value : Assign the value to the variable

var += value : similar to var = var + value
var -= value : similar to var = var – value
var *= value : similar to var = var * value
var /= value : similar to var = var / value
var ^= value : similar to var = var ^ value
var %= value : similar to var = var % value

Input: $ echo "var=4;var" | bc

Output: 4

5 . Comparison or Relational:

If the comparison is true, then the result is 1. Otherwise,(false),

returns 0
expr1<expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is strictly less than expr2.
expr1<=expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is less than or equal to expr2.
expr1>expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is strictly greater than expr2.
expr1>=expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is greater than or equal to
expr2.
expr1==expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is equal to expr2.
expr1!=expr2 : Result is 1, if expr1 is not equal to expr2.

Input: $ echo "6<4" | bc

Output: 0

48
 Input: $ echo "2==2" | bc
Output: 1

6 . Logical or Boolean:

expr1 && expr2 : Result is 1, if both expressions are non-zero.

expr1 || expr2 : Result is 1, if either expression is non-zero.
! expr : Result is 1, if expr is 0.

Input: $ echo "! 1" | bc

Output: 0

Input: $ echo "10 && 5" | bc

Output: 1

Syntax:

bc [ -hlwsqv ] [long-options] [ file ... ]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Note: This does not include an exhaustive list of options.

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-i --interactive Force interactive mode
-l --mathlib Use the predefined math routines
Opens the interactive mode for bc without
-q --quiet
printing the header
-s --standard Treat non-standard bc constructs as errors
Provides a warning if non-standard bc
-w --warn
constructs are used

49
Notes:

1. The capabilities of bc can be further appreciated if used within a

script. Aside from basic arithmetic operations, bc supports
increments/decrements, complex calculations, logical
comparisons, etc.
2. Two of the flags in bc refer to non-standard constructs. If you
evaluate 100>50 | bc for example, you will get a strange warning.
According to the POSIX page for bc, relational operators are only
valid if used within an if, while, or for statement.

50
The df command

The df command in Linux/Unix is used to show the disk usage &

information. df is an abbreviation for "disk free".

df displays the amount of disk space available on the file system

containing each file name argument. If no file name is given, the space
available on all currently mounted file systems is shown.

Syntax

df [OPTION]... [FILE]...

Options

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Include pseudo, duplicate,
-a --all
inaccessible file systems.
Scale sizes by SIZE before printing
them; e.g., -BM prints sizes in units of
-B --block-size=SIZE
1,048,576 bytes; see SIZE format
below.
Print sizes in powers of 1024 (e.g.,
-h --human-readable
1023M).
Print sizes in powers of 1000 (e.g.,
-H --si
1.1G).
List inode information instead of
-i --inodes
block usage.
-k - Like --block-size=1K.

51
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-l --local Limit listing to local file systems.
Do not invoke sync before getting
- --no-sync
usage info (default).
Use the output format defined by
- --output[=FIELD_LIST] FIELD_LIST, or print all fields if
FIELD_LIST is omitted.
-P --portability Use the POSIX output format
Invoke sync before getting usage
- --sync
info.
Elide all entries insignificant to
- --total available space, and produce a grand
total.
Limit listing to file systems of type
-t --type=TYPE
TYPE.
-T --print-type Print file system type.
Limit listing to file systems not of
-x --exclude-type=TYPE
type TYPE.
Ignored; included for compatibility
-v -
reasons.
- --help Display help message and exit.
- --version Output version information and exit.

Examples:

1. Show available disk space Action: --- Output the available disk
space and where the directory is mounted

Details: --- Outputted values are not human-readable (are in bytes)

Command:

df

52
 2. Show available disk space in human-readable form Action: ---
Output the available disk space and where the directory is
mounted

Details: --- Outputted values ARE human-readable (are in GBs/MBs)

Command:

df -h

3. Show available disk space for the specific file system Action: ---
Output the available disk space and where the directory is
mounted

Details: --- Outputted values are only for the selected file system

Command:

df -hT file_system_name

4. Show available inodes Action: --- Output the available inodes for
all file systems

Details: --- Outputted values are for inodes and not available space

Command:

df -i

5. Show file system type Action: --- Output the file system types

Details: --- Outputted values are for all file systems

Command:

53
 df -T

6. Exclude file system type from the output Action: --- Output the
information while excluding the chosen file system type

Details: --- Outputted values are for all file systems EXCEPT the chosen
file system type

Command:

df -x file_system_type

54
The help command

The help command displays information about builtin commands.

Display information about builtin commands.

If a PATTERN is specified, this command gives detailed help on all

commands matching the PATTERN, otherwise the list of available help
topics is printed.

55
Syntax

$ help [-dms] [PATTERN ...]

56
Options

Option Description
-d Output short description for each topic.
-m Display usage in pseudo-manpage format.
Output only a short usage synopsis for each topic matching
-s
the provided PATTERN.

57
Examples of uses:

1. We get the complete information about the cd command

$ help cd

2. We get a short description about the pwd command

$ help -d pwd

3. We get the syntax of the cd command

$ help -s cd

58
The factor command

The factor command prints the prime factors of each specified integer
NUMBER. If none are specified on the command line, it will read them
from the standard input.

59
Syntax

$ factor [NUMBER]...

OR:

$ factor OPTION

60
Options

Option Description
--help Display this a help message and exit.
--version Output version information and exit.

61
Examples

1. Print prime factors of a prime number.

$ factor 50

2. Print prime factors of a non-prime number.

$ factor 75

62
The uname command

The uname command lets you print out system information and defaults
to outputting the kernel name.

63
Syntax:

$ uname [OPTION]

64
Examples

1. Print out all system information.

$ uname -a

2. Print out the kernel version.

$ uname -v

65
Options

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Print all information, except omit
-a --all processor and hardware platform if
unknown.
-s --kernel-name Print the kernel name.
-n --nodename Print the network node hostname.
-r --kernel-release Print the kernel release.
-v --kernel-version Print the kernel version.
-m --machine Print the machine hardware name.
Print the processor type (non-
-p --processor
portable).
Print the hardware platform (non-
-i --hardware-platform
portable).
-o --operating-system Print the operating system.

66
The mkdir command

The mkdir command in Linux/Unix is used to create a directory.

67
Syntax

$ mkdir [-m=mode] [-p] [-v] [-Z=context] directory [directory

...]

68
Examples

1. Make a directory named myfiles.

$ mkdir myfiles

2. Create a directory named myfiles at the home directory:

$ mkdir ~/myfiles

3. Create the mydir directory, and set its file mode (-m) so that all
users (a) may read (r), write (w), and execute (x) it.

$ mkdir -m a=rwx mydir

You can also create sub-directories of a directory. It will create the

parent directory first, if it doesn't exist. If it already exists, then it move
further to create the sub-directories without any error message.

For directories, this means that any user on the system may view
("read"), and create/modify/delete ("write") files in the directory. Any
user may also change to ("execute") the directory, for example with the
cd command.

4. Create the directory /home/test/src/python. If any of the parent

directories /home, /home/test, or /home/test/src do not already
exist, they are automatically created.

$ mkdir -p /home/test/src/python

69
Options

Short
Long Flags Descriptions
Flags
Set file mode (as in chmod), not a=rwx -
-m --mode=MODE
umask.
No error if existing, make parent directories
-p --parents
as needed.
-v --verbose Print a message for each created directory.
Set the SELinux security context of each
-Z --context=CTX
created directory to CTX.
- --help Display a help message and exit.
- --version Output version information and exit.

70
The gzip command

The gzip command in Linux/Unix is used to compress/decompress data.

71
Usage

72
Compress a file

Action: --- Compressing a file

Details: --- Reduce the size of the file by applying compression

Command:

gzip file_name

73
Decompress a file

Action: --- Decompressing a file

Details: --- Restore the file's original form in terms of data and size

Command:

gzip -d archive_01.gz

74
Compress multiple files:

Action: --- Compress multiple files

Details: --- Compress multiple files into multiple archives

Command:

gzip file_name_01 file_name_02 file_name_03

75
Decompress multiple files:

Action: --- Decompress multiple files

Details: --- Decompress multiple files from multiple archives

Command:

gzip -d archive_01.gz archive_02.gz archive_03.gz

76
Compress a directory:

Action: --- Compress all the files in a directory

Details: --- Compress multiple files under a directory in one single

archive

Command:

gzip -r directory_name

77
Decompress a directory:

Action: --- Decompress all the files in a directory

Details: --- Decompress multiple files under a directory from one single
archive

Command:

gzip -dr directory_name

78
Verbose (detailed) output while compressing:

Action: --- Compress a file in a more verbose manner

Details: --- Output more information about the action of the command

Command:

gzip -v file_name

79
The whatis command

The whatis command is used to display one-line manual page

descriptions for commands. It can be used to get a basic understanding
of what a (unknown) command is used for.

Examples of uses:

1. To display what ls is used for:

whatis ls

2. To display the use of all commands which start with make, execute
the following:

whatis -w make*

Syntax:

whatis [-OPTION] [KEYWORD]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Flag Long Flag Description

-d --debug Show debugging messages
-r --regex Interpret each keyword as a regex
-w --wildcard The keyword(s) contain wildcards

80
The who command

The who command lets you print out a list of logged-in users, the
current run level of the system and the time of last system boot.

Examples

1. Print out all details of currently logged-in users

who -a

2. Print out the list of all dead processes

who -d -H

Syntax:

who [options] [filename]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short Flag Description

-r prints all the current runlevel
-d print all the dead processes
print all the login names and total number of logged on
-q
users
-h print the heading of the columns displayed

81
Short Flag Description
-b print the time of last system boot

018-the-free-command.md

82
The free command

The free command in Linux/Unix is used to show memory (RAM/SWAP)

information.

83
Usage

84
Show memory usage

Action: --- Output the memory usage - available and used, as well as
swap

Details: --- Outputted values are not human-readable (are in bytes)

Command:

free

85
Show memory usage in human-readable form

Action: --- Output the memory usage - available and used, as well as
swap

Details: --- Outputted values ARE human-readable (are in GB / MB)

Command:

free -h

86
The top/htop command

top is the default command-line utility that comes pre-installed on

Linux distributions and Unix-like operating systems. It is used for
displaying information about the system and its top CPU-consuming
processes as well as RAM usage.

htop is interactive process-viewer and process-manager for Linux and

Unix-like operating system based on ncurses. If you take top and put it
on steroids, you get htop.

87
Comparison between top and htop:

Feature top htop

Interactive system- Interactive system-monitor,
Type monitor, process-viewer process-viewer and
and process-manager process-manager
Operating
Linux distributions, macOS Linux distributions, macOS
System
Doesn't come preinstalled
Built-in and is always
on most Linux distros.
Installation there. Also has more
Manual installation is
adoption due to this fact.
needed
Colorful and nicer text-
User Interface Basic text only
graphics interface
Scrolling Yes, supports horizontal
No
Support and vertical scrolling
Mouse Support No Yes
Process Displays processes but Yes, including user and
utilization not in tree format kernel threads
Scrolling Yes, supports horizontal
No
Support and vertical scrolling
Mouse Support No Yes
Process Displays processes but Yes, including user and
utilization not in tree format kernel threads
Network
No No
Utilization
Disk Utilization No No
Has a learning curve for
some advanced options Easier to use and supports
like searching, sending vi like searching with /.
messages to processes, Sending messages to
Comments etc. It is good to have processes (kill, renice) is
some knowledge of top easier and doesn't require
because it is the default typing in the process
process viewer on many number like top.
systems.

88
Examples:

top

1. To display dynamic real-time information about running processes:

top

2. Sorting processes by internal memory size (default order - process

ID):

top -o mem

3. Sorting processes first by CPU, then by running time:

top -o cpu -O time

4. Display only processes owned by given user:

top -user {user_name}

htop

1. Display dynamic real-time information about running processes. An

enhanced version of top.

htop

2. displaying processes owned by a specific user:

89
htop --user {user_name}

3. Sort processes by a specified sort_item (use htop --sort help

for available options):

htop --sort {sort_item}

90
Syntax:

top [OPTIONS]

htop [OPTIONS]

91
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
-a - Sort by memory usage.
Batch mode operation. Starts top in 'Batch mode',
which could be useful for sending output from top to
-b - other programs or to a file. In this mode, top will not
accept input and runs until the iterations limit you've
set with the '-n' command-line option or until killed.
top --user {user_name} Only display processes
-h -
owned by user.
-U -user Help.
-u - This is an alias equivalent to: -o cpu -O time.

92
The sl command

The sl command in Linux is a humorous program that runs a steam

locomotive(sl) across your terminal.

93
Installation

Install the package before running.

sudo apt install sl

94
Syntax

sl

95
The echo command

The echo command lets you display the line of text/string that is passed
as an argument

Examples:

1. To Show the line of text or string passed as an argument:

echo Hello There

2. To show all files/folders similar to the ls command:

echo *

3. To save text to a file named foo.bar:

echo "Hello There" > foo.bar

4. To append text to a file named foo.bar:

echo "Hello There" >> foo.bar

Syntax:

96
 echo [option] [string]

It is usually used in shell scripts and batch files to output status

text to the screen or a file.The -e used with it enables the
interpretation of backslash escapes

Additional Options and their Functionalities:

Option Description
\b removes all the spaces in between the text
suppress trailing new line with backspace interpretor ‘-e‘ to
\c
continue without emitting new line.
\n creates new line from where it is used
\t creates horizontal tab spaces
carriage returns with backspace interpretor ‘-e‘ to have
\r
specified carriage return in output
\v creates vertical tab spaces
alert returns with a backspace interpretor ‘-e‘ to have sound
\a
alert
-n omits echoing trailing newline .

97
The finger command

The finger displays information about the system users.

Examples:

1. View detail about a particular user.

finger abc

Output

Login: abc Name: (null)

Directory: /home/abc Shell: /bin/bash
On since Mon Nov 1 18:45 (IST) on 0
: (messages off)
On since Mon Nov 1 18:46 (IST) on pts/0 from :0.0
New mail received Fri May 7 10:33 2013 (IST)
Unread since Sat Jun 7 12:59 2003 (IST)
No Plan.

2. View login details and Idle status about an user

finger -s root

Output

98
 Login Name Tty Idle Login Time
Office Office Phone
root root *1 19d Wed 17:45
root root *2 3d Fri 16:53
root root *3 Mon 20:20
root root *ta 2 Tue 15:43
root root *tb 2 Tue 15:44

Syntax:

finger [-l] [-m] [-p] [-s] [username]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
-l Force long output format.
-m Match arguments only on user name (not first or last name).
-p Suppress printing of the .plan file in a long format printout.
-s Force short output format.

Additional Information

Default Format

The default format includes the following items:

Login name
Full username
Terminal name
Write status (an * (asterisk) before the terminal name indicates that
write permission is denied)
For each user on the host, the default information list also includes, if
known, the following items:

99
Idle time (Idle time is minutes if it is a single integer, hours and minutes
if a : (colon) is present, or days and hours if a “d” is present.)
Login time
Site-specific information

Longer Format

A longer format is used by the finger command whenever a list of user’s

names is given. (Account names as well as first and last names of users
are accepted.) This format is multiline, and includes all the information
described above along with the following:

User’s $HOME directory

User’s login shell
Contents of the .plan file in the user’s $HOME directory
Contents of the .project file in the user’s $HOME directory

100
The groups command

In Linux, there can be multiple users (those who use/operate the

system), and groups (a collection of users). Groups make it easy to
manage users with the same security and access privileges. A user can
be part of different groups.

Important Points:

The groups command prints the names of the primary and any
supplementary groups for each given username, or the current process
if no names are given. If more than one name is given, the name of
each user is printed before the list of that user’s groups and the
username is separated from the group list by a colon.

Syntax:

groups [username]

Example 1

Provided with a username

groups demon

In this example, username demon is passed with groups command and

the output shows the groups in which the user demon is present,
separated by a colon.

101
Example 2

When no username is passed then this will display the group

membership for the current user:

groups

Here the current user is demon . So when we run the groups command
without arguments we get the groups in which demon is a user.

Example 3

Passing root with groups command:

$demon# groups

Note: Primary and supplementary groups for a process are normally

inherited from its parent and are usually unchanged since login. This
means that if you change the group database after logging in, groups
will not reflect your changes within your existing login session. The only
options are –help and –version.

102
The man command

The man command is used to display the manual of any command that
we can run on the terminal. It provides information like: DESCRIPTION,
OPTIONS, AUTHORS and more.

Examples:

1. Man page for printf:

man printf

2. Man page section 2 for intro:

man 2 intro

3. Viewing the Manual for a Local File (using the -l flag):

man -l [LOCAL-FILE]

Syntax:

man [SECTION-NUM] [COMMAND NAME]

103
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
-f - Return the sections of an command
-a - Display all the manual pages of an command
Searches the given command with RegEx in all
-k -
man pages
Returns the location of a given command man
-w -
page
-I - Searches the command manual case sensitive

104
The passwd command

In Linux, passwd command changes the password of user accounts. A

normal user may only change the password for their own account, but a
superuser may change the password for any account. passwd also
changes the account or associated password validity period.

105
Example

$ passwd

106
The syntax of the passwd command is :

$ passwd [options] [LOGIN]

107
options

-a, --all
This option can be used only with -S and causes show
status for all users.

-d, --delete
Delete a user's password.

-e, --expire
Immediately expire an account's password.

-h, --help
Display help message and exit.

-i, --inactive
This option is used to disable an account after the
password has been expired for a number of days.

-k, --keep-tokens
Indicate password change should be performed only for
expired authentication tokens (passwords).

-l, --lock
Lock the password of the named account.

-q, --quiet
Quiet mode.

-r, --repository
change password in repository.

-S, --status
Display account status information.

108
The w command

The w command displays information about the users that are currently
active on the machine and their processes.

Examples:

1. Running the w command without arguments shows a list of logged

on users and their processes.

2. Show information for the user named hope.

w hope

Syntax:

finger [-l] [-m] [-p] [-s] [username]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-h --no-header Don't print the header.

109
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Ignores the username while figuring out the
current process and cpu times. (To see an
-u --no-current
example of this, switch to the root user with
su and then run both w and w -u.)
Display abbreviated output (don't print the
-s --short
login time, JCPU or PCPU times).
Toggle printing the from (remote hostname)
field. The default as released is for the from
field to not be printed, although your system
-f --from
administrator or distribution maintainer may
have compiled a version where the from field
is shown by default.
--help - Display a help message, and exit.
-V --version Display version information, and exit.
Old style output (prints blank space for idle
-o --old-style
times less than one minute).
Show information about the specified the user
user -
only.

Additional Information

The header of the output shows (in this order): the current time, how
long the system has been running, how many users are currently
logged on, and the system load averages for the past 1, 5, and 15
minutes.

The following entries are displayed for each user:

login name the tty

name the remote
host they are
logged in from the amount of time they are logged in their
idle time JCPU
PCPU

110
 command line of their current process

The JCPU time is the time used by all processes attached to the tty. It
does not include past background jobs, but does include currently
running background jobs.

The PCPU time is the time used by the current process, named in the
"what" field.

111
The whoami command

The whoami command displays the username of the current effective

user. In other words it just prints the username of the currently logged-
in user when executed.

To display your effective user id just type whoami in your terminal:

manish@godsmack:~$ whoami
# Output:
manish

Syntax:

whoami [-OPTION]

There are only two options which can be passed to it :

--help: Used to display the help and exit

Example:

whoami --help

Output:

112
 Usage: whoami [OPTION]...
Print the user name associated with the current effective user
ID.
Same as id -un.

--help display this help and exit

--version output version information and exit

--version: Output version information and exit

Example:

whoami --version

Output:

whoami (GNU coreutils) 8.32

Copyright (C) 2020 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later
<https://gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html>.
This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute
it.
There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.

Written by Richard Mlynarik.

113
The history command

If you type history you will get a list of the last 500 commands used.
This gives you the possibility to copy and paste commands that you
executed in the past.

This is powerful in combination with grep. So you can search for a

command in your command history.

Examples:

1. If you want to search in your history for artisan commands you ran
in the past.

history | grep artisan

2. If you only want to show the last 10 commands you can.

history 10

114
The login Command

The login command initiates a user session.

115
Syntax

$ login [-p] [-h host] [-H] [-f username|username]

116
Flags and their functionalities

Short
Description
Flag
Used to skip a login authentication. This option is usually
-f
used by the getty(8) autologin feature.
Used by other servers (such as telnetd(8) to pass the name
-h of the remote host to login so that it can be placed in utmp
and wtmp. Only the superuser is allowed use this option.
-p Used by getty(8) to tell login to preserve the environment.
Used by other servers (for example, telnetd(8)) to tell login
-H that printing the hostname should be suppressed in the
login: prompt.
--help Display help text and exit.
-v Display version information and exit.

117
Examples

To log in to the system as user abhishek, enter the following at the login
prompt:

$ login: abhishek

If a password is defined, the password prompt appears. Enter your

password at this prompt.

118
lscpu command

lscpu in Linux/Unix is used to display CPU Architecture info. lscpu

gathers CPU architecture information from sysfs and /proc/cpuinfo
files.

For example :

manish@godsmack:~$ lscpu
Architecture: x86_64
CPU op-mode(s): 32-bit, 64-bit
Byte Order: Little Endian
CPU(s): 4
On-line CPU(s) list: 0-3
Thread(s) per core: 2
Core(s) per socket: 2
Socket(s): 1
NUMA node(s): 1
Vendor ID: GenuineIntel
CPU family: 6
Model: 142
Model name: Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-7200U CPU @
2.50GHz
Stepping: 9
CPU MHz: 700.024
CPU max MHz: 3100.0000
CPU min MHz: 400.0000
BogoMIPS: 5399.81
Virtualization: VT-x
L1d cache: 32K
L1i cache: 32K
L2 cache: 256K
L3 cache: 3072K
NUMA node0 CPU(s): 0-3

119
Options

-a, --all Include lines for online and offline CPUs in the output
(default for -e). This option may only specified together with option -e or
-p. For example: lsof -a

-b, --online Limit the output to online CPUs (default for -p). This
option may only be specified together with option -e or -p. For example:
lscpu -b

-c, --offline Limit the output to offline CPUs. This option may only be
specified together with option -e or -p.

-e, --extended [=list] Display the CPU information in human

readable format. For example: lsof -e

For more info: use man lscpu or lscpu --help

120
The cp command

The cp is a command-line utility for copying files and directory. cp

stands for copy. This command is used to copy files or group of files or
directory. It creates an exact image of a file on a disk with different file
name. The cp command requires at least two filenames in its
arguments.

Examples:

1. To copy the contents of the source file to the destination file.

cp sourceFile destFile

If the destination file doesn't exist then the file is created and the
content is copied to it. If it exists then the file is overwritten.

2. To copy a file to another directory specify the absolute or the

relative path to the destination directory.

cp sourceFile /folderName/destFile

3. To copy a directory, including all its files and subdirectories

cp -R folderName1 folderName2

The command above creates the destination directory and recursively

copies all files and subdirectories from the source to the destination

121
directory.

If the destination directory already exists, the source directory itself and
its content are copied inside the destination directory.

4. To copy only the files and subdirectories but not the source
directory

cp -RT folderName1 folderName2

Syntax:

The general syntax for the cp command is as follows:

cp [OPTION] SOURCE DESTINATION

cp [OPTION] SOURCE DIRECTORY
cp [OPTION] SOURCE-1 SOURCE-2 SOURCE-3 SOURCE-n DIRECTORY

The first and second syntax is used to copy Source file to Destination
file or Directory. The third syntax is used to copy multiple Sources(files)
to Directory.

Some useful options

1. -i (interactive) i stands for Interactive copying. With this option

system first warns the user before overwriting the destination file.
cp prompts for a response, if you press y then it overwrites the file
and with any other option leave it uncopied.

$ cp -i file1.txt fileName2.txt
cp: overwrite 'file2.txt'? y

2. -b(backup) -b(backup): With this option cp command creates the

122
 backup of the destination file in the same folder with the different
name and in different format.

$ ls
a.txt b.txt

$ cp -b a.txt b.txt

$ ls
a.txt b.txt b.txt~

3. -f(force) If the system is unable to open destination file for writing

operation because the user doesn't have writing permission for this
file then by using -f option with cp command, destination file is
deleted first and then copying of content is done from source to
destination file.

$ ls -l b.txt
-r-xr-xr-x+ 1 User User 3 Nov 24 08:45 b.txt

User, group and others doesn't have writing permission.

Without -f option, command not executed

$ cp a.txt b.txt
cp: cannot create regular file 'b.txt': Permission denied

With -f option, command executed successfully

$ cp -f a.txt b.txt

123
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-i --interactive prompt before overwrite
If an existing destination file cannot be opened,
-f --force
remove it and try again
Creates the backup of the destination file in the
-b - same folder with the different name and in
different format.
cp command shows its recursive behavior by
-r or
--recursive copying the entire directory structure
-R
recursively.
do not overwrite an existing file (overrides a
-n --no-clobber
previous -i option)
preserve the specified attributes (default:
-p - mode,ownership,timestamps), if possible
additional attributes: context, links, xattr, all

124
The mv command

The mv command lets you move one or more files or directories

from one place to another in a file system like UNIX. It can be used for
two distinct functions:

To rename a file or folder.

To move a group of files to a different directory.

Note: No additional space is consumed on a disk during renaming, and

the mv command doesn't provide a prompt for confirmation

Syntax:

mv [options] source (file or directory) destination

Examples:

1. To rename a file called old_name.txt:

mv old_name.txt new_name.txt

2. To move a file called essay.txt from the current directory to a

directory called assignments and rename it essay1.txt:

mv essay.txt assignments/essay1.txt

3. To move a file called essay.txt from the current directory to a

125
 directory called assignments without renaming it

mv essay.txt assignments

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Force move by overwriting destination file
-f --force
without prompt
-i --interactive Interactive prompt before overwrite
Move only when the source file is newer than
-u --update the destination file or when the destination
file is missing
-n --no-clobber Do not overwrite an existing file
-v --verbose Print source and destination files
-b --backup Create a Backup of Existing Destination File

126
The ps command

The ps command is used to identify programs and processes that are

running on the system and the resources they are using. Its frequently
pipelined with other commands like grep to search for a
program/process or less so that the user can analyze the output one
page at a time.

Let's say you have a program like openshot which is notorious for
hogging system resources when exporting a video, and you want to
close it, but the GUI has become unresponsive.

Example

1. You want to find the PID of openshot and kill it.

ps aux | grep openshot

kill - <openshot PID>

2. To Show all the running processes:

ps -A

Syntax

ps [options]

When run without any options, it's useless and will print: CMD - the
executable processes/(program) running, their PID - process ID, TTY -

127
terminal type and Time - How long the process has utilized the CPU or
thread.

Common Option

If you are going to remember only one thing from this page let it be
these three letter aux: a - which displays all processes running,
including those being run by other users. u - which shows the effective
user of a process, i.e. the person whose file access permissions are
used by the process. x - which shows processes that do not have a TTY
associated with them.

Additional Options:

Option Description
a Shows list all processes with a terminal (tty)
-A Lists all processes. Identical to -e
Shows all processes except both session leaders and
-a
processes not associated with a terminal
-d Select all processes except session leaders
Shows all processes except those that fulfill the
--deselect
specified conditions. Identical to -N
-e Lists all processes. Identical to -A
Shows all processes except those that fulfill the
-N
specified conditions. Identical to -deselect
Select all processes associated with this terminal.
T
Identical to the -t option without any argument
r Restrict the selection to only running processes
--help simple Shows all the basic options
--help all Shows every available options

Another useful command which give a realtime snapshot of the

processes and the resources they are using about every ten seconds is
top.

128
The kill command

kill command in Linux (located in /bin/kill), is a built-in command

which is used to terminate processes manually. The kill command
sends a signal to a process which terminates the process. If the user
doesn’t specify any signal which is to be sent along with kill command
then default TERM signal is sent that terminates the process.

Signals can be specified in three ways:

By number (e.g. -5)

With SIG prefix (e.g. -SIGkill)
Without SIG prefix (e.g. -kill)

Syntax

kill [OPTIONS] [PID]...

Examples:

1. To display all the available signals you can use below command
option:

kill -l

2. To show how to use a PID with the kill command.

129
 $kill pid

3. To show how to send signal to processes.

kill {-signal | -s signal} pid

4. Specify Signal:

using numbers as signals

kill -9 pid

using SIG prefix in signals

kill -SIGHUP pid

without SIG prefix in signals

kill -HUP pid

Arguments:

The list of processes to be signaled can be a mixture of names and

PIDs.

130
 pid Each pid can be expressed in one of the following
ways:

n where n is larger than 0. The process with

PID n is signaled.

0 All processes in the current process group

are signaled.

-1 All processes with a PID larger than 1 are

signaled.

-n where n is larger than 1. All processes in

process group nare signaled.
When an argument of the form '-n' is
given, and it is meant to denote a
process group, either a signal must be
specified first, or the argument must
be preceded by a '--' option, otherwise it
will be taken as the signal to
send.

name All processes invoked using this name will be

signaled.

Options:

131
 -s, --signal signal
The signal to send. It may be given as a name or a
number.

-l, --list [number]

Print a list of signal names, or convert the given
signal number to a name. The
signals can be found in /usr/include/linux/signal.h.

-L, --table
Similar to -l, but it will print signal names and
their corresponding numbers.

-a, --all
Do not restrict the command-name-to-PID conversion
to processes with the same UID
as the present process.

-p, --pid
Only print the process ID (PID) of the named
processes, do not send any signals.

--verbose
Print PID(s) that will be signaled with kill along
with the signal.

132
The killall command

killall sends a signal to all processes running any of the specified

commands. If no signal name is specified, SIGTERM is sent. In general,
killall command kills all processes by knowing the name of the
process.

Signals can be specified either by name (e.g. -HUP or -SIGHUP) or by

number (e.g. -1) or by option -s.

If the command name is not a regular expression (option -r) and

contains a slash (/), processes executing that particular file will be
selected for killing, independent of their name.

killall returns a zero return code if at least one process has been
killed for each listed command, or no commands were listed and at
least one process matched the -u and -Z search criteria. killall
returns non-zero otherwise.

A killall process never kills itself (but may kill other killall
processes).

Examples:

1. Kill all processes matching the name conky with SIGTERM:

killall conky
# OR
killall -SIGTERM conky
# OR
kilall -15 conky

I was able to kill Wine ( which are Windows exe files running on Linux )

133
applications this way too.

killall TQ.exe

2. List all the supported signals:

$ killall -l
HUP INT QUIT ILL TRAP ABRT BUS FPE KILL USR1 SEGV USR2 PIPE
ALRM TERM STKFLT
CHLD CONT STOP TSTP TTIN TTOU URG XCPU XFSZ VTALRM PROF WINCH
POLL PWR SYS

As for the numbers.

134
 $ for s in $(killall -l); do echo -n "$s " && kill -l $s; done
HUP 1
INT 2
QUIT 3
ILL 4
TRAP 5
ABRT 6
BUS 7
FPE 8
KILL 9
USR1 10
SEGV 11
USR2 12
PIPE 13
ALRM 14
TERM 15
STKFLT 16
CHLD 17
CONT 18
STOP 19
TSTP 20
TTIN 21
TTOU 22
URG 23
XCPU 24
XFSZ 25
VTALRM 26
PROF 27
WINCH 28
POLL 29
PWR 30
SYS 31

3. Ask before killing, to prevent unwanted kills:

$ killall -i conky
Kill conky(1685) ? (y/N)

4. Kill all processes and wait until the processes die.

135
 killall -w conky

5. Kill based on time:

# Kill all firefox younger than 2 minutes

killall -y 2m firefox

# Kill all firefox older than 2 hours

killall -o 2h firefox

Syntax:

killall [OPTION]... [--] NAME...

killall -l, --list
killall -V, --version

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
require an exact match for very long
-e --exact
names
-I --ignore-case case insensitive process name match
-g --process-group kill process group instead of process
-y --younger-than kill processes younger than TIME
-o --older-than kill processes older than TIME
-i --interactive ask for confirmation before killing
-l --list list all known signal names
-q --quiet don't print complaints
interpret NAME as an extended regular
-r --regexp
expression
-s --signal SIGNAL send this signal instead of SIGTERM

136
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-u --user USER kill only process(es) running as USER
-v --verbose report if the signal was successfully sent
-w --wait wait for processes to die
match processes that belong to the same
-n --ns PID
namespaces as PID
REGEXP kill only process(es) having
-Z --context
context (must precede other arguments)

Related commands

kill, pidof

137
The env command

The env command in Linux/Unix is used to either print a list of the

current environment variables or to run a program in a custom
environment without changing the current one.

138
Syntax

env [OPTION]... [-] [NAME=VALUE]... [COMMAND [ARG]...]

139
Usage

1. Print out the set of current environment variables

env

2. Run a command with an empty environment

env -i command_name

3. Remove variable from the environment

env -u variable_name

4. End each output with NULL

env -0

140
Full List of Options

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-i --ignore-environment Start with an empty environment
End each output line with NUL, not
-0 --null
newline
Remove variable from the
-u --unset=NAME
environment
-C --chdir=DIR Change working directory to DIR
Process and split S into separate
-S --split-string=S arguments. It's used to pass multiple
arguments on shebang lines
Print verbose information for each
-v --debug
processing step
- --help Print a help message
- --version Print the version information

141
The printenv command

The printenv prints the values of the specified environment

VARIABLE(s). If no VARIABLE is specified, print name and value pairs for
them all.

Examples:

1. Display the values of all environment variables.

printenv

2. Display the location of the current user's home directory.

printenv HOME

3. To use the --null command line option as the terminating

character between output entries.

printenv --null SHELL HOME

NOTE: By default, the printenv command uses newline as the

terminating character between output entries.

Syntax:

142
 printenv [OPTION]... PATTERN...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Flag Long Flag Description

End each output line with 0 byte rather than
-0 --null
newline.
--help - Display a help message, and exit.

143
The hostname command

hostname is used to display the system's DNS name, and to display or

set its hostname or NIS domain name.

Syntax:

hostname [-a|--alias] [-d|--domain] [-f|--fqdn|--long] [-A|--

all-fqdns] [-i|--ip-address] [-I|--all-ip-addresses] [-s|--
short] [-y|--yp|--nis]

Examples:

1. hostname -a, hostname --alias Display the alias name of the

host (if used). This option is deprecated and should not be used
anymore.

2. hostname -s, hostname --short Display the short host name.

This is the host name cut at the first dot.

3. hostname -V, hostname --version Print version information on

standard output and exit successfully.

Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to hostname

144
command.

man hostname

145
The nano command

The nano command lets you create/edit text files.

Installation:

Nano text editor is pre-installed on macOS and most Linux distros. It's
an alternative to vi and vim. To check if it is installed on your system
type:

nano --version

If you don't have nano installed you can do it by using the package
manager:

Ubuntu or Debian:

sudo apt install nano

Examples:

1. Open an existing file, type nano followed by the path to the file:

nano /path/to/filename

2. Create a new file, type nano followed by the filename:

146
 nano filename

3. Open a file with the cursor on a specific line and character use the
following syntax:

nano +line_number,character_number filename

Overview of some Shortcuts and their Functionalities:

Shortcut Description
Ctrl + S Save current file
Ctrl + O Offer to write file ("Save as")
Ctrl + X Close buffer, exit from nano
Ctrl + K Cut current line into cutbuffer
Ctrl + U Paste contents of cutbuffer
Alt + 6 Copy current line into cutbuffer
Alt + U Undo last action
Alt + E Redo last undone action

147
The rm command

rm which stands for "remove" is a command used to remove (delete)

specific files. It can also be used to remove directories by using the
appropriate flag.

Example:

rm filename.txt

Syntax

rm [OPTION] [FILE|DIRECTORY]

Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Ignore nonexistance of files or
-f --force
directories, never prompt
-i - Prompt before every removal
Prompt once before removal of more
-I - than 3 files, or when removing
recursively
-d --dir remove empty directories
-v --verbose explain what is being done
-r or - remove directories and their contents
--recursive
R recursively

148
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
- --help Display help then exit
First, Print version Information, Then
- --version
exit
- --no-preserve-root do not treat / specially
do not remove / (default)
with 'all', reject any command line
- -preserve-root[=all]
argument on a separate device from
its parent
prompt according to WHEN, never,
- --interactive[=WHEN] once -I, or always -i, without WHEN,
prompt always
when removing a hierarchy
recursively, skip any directory that is
- --one-file-system on a file system different from that of
the corresponding command line
argument0

IMPORTANT NOTICE:

1. rm doesn't remove directories by default, so use -r, -R, --

recursive options to remove each listed directory, along with all
of its contents.
2. To remove a file whose name starts with - such as -foo, use one
of the following commands:
rm -- -foo
rm ./-foo
3. To ensure that files/directories being deleted are truly
unrecoverable, consider using the shred command.

149
The ifconfig command

ifconfig is used to configure the kernel-resident network interfaces. It

is used at boot time to set up interfaces as necessary. After that, it is
usually only needed when debugging or when system tuning is needed.

If no arguments are given, ifconfig displays the status of the currently

active interfaces. If a single interface argument is given, it displays the
status of the given interface only; if a single -a argument is given, it
displays the status of all interfaces, even those that are down.
Otherwise, it configures an interface.

Syntax:

ifconfig [-v] [-a] [-s] [interface]

ifconfig [-v] interface [aftype] options

Examples:

1. To display the currently active interfaces:

ifconfig

2. To show all interfaces which are currently active, even if down:

ifconfig -a

3. To show all the error conditions:

150
 ifconfig -v

4. To show a short list:

ifconfig -s

5. To display details of the specific network interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0

6. To activate the driver for a interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 up

7. To deactivate the driver for a interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 down

8. To assign a specific IP address to a network interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 10.10.1.23

9. To change MAC(Media Access Control) address of a network

interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 hw ether AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF

10. To define a netmask for a network interface (say eth0):

151
 ifconfig eth0 netmask 255.255.255.224

11. To enable promiscous mode on a network interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 promisc

In normal mode, when a packet is received by a network card, it verifies

that it belongs to itself. If not, it drops the packet normally. However, in
the promiscuous mode, it accepts all the packets that flow through the
network card.

12. To disable promiscous mode on a network interface (say eth0):

ifconfig eth0 -promisc

13. To set the maximum transmission unit to a network interface (say

eth0):

ifconfig eth0 mtu 1000

The MTU allows you to set the limit size of packets that are transmitted
on an interface. The MTU is able to handle a maximum number of
octets to an interface in one single transaction.

14. To add additional IP addresses to a network interface, you can

configure a network alias to the network interface:

ifconfig eth0:0 10.10.1.24

Please note that the alias network address is in the same subnet mask
of the network interface. For example, if your eth0 network ip address is

152
10.10.1.23, then the alias ip address can be 10.10.1.24. Example of
an invalid IP address is 10.10.2.24 since the interface subnet mask is
255.255.255.224

15. To remove a network alias:

ifconfig eth0:0 down

Remember that for every scope (i.e. same net with address/netmask
combination) all aiases are deleted, if you delete the first alias.

Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to ifconfig

command.

man ifconfig

153
The ip command

The ip command is present in the net-tools which is used for

performing several network administration tasks. IP stands for Internet
Protocol. This command is used to show or manipulate routing, devices,
and tunnels. It can perform tasks like configuring and modifying the
default and static routing, setting up tunnel over IP, listing IP addresses
and property information, modifying the status of the interface,
assigning, deleting and setting up IP addresses and routes.

Examples:

1. To assign an IP Address to a specific interface (eth1) :

ip addr add 192.168.50.5 dev eth1

2. To show detailed information about network interfaces like IP

Address, MAC Address information etc. :

ip addr show

Syntax:

ip [ OPTIONS ] OBJECT { COMMAND | help }

154
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
-a Display and modify IP Addresses
-l Display and modify network interfaces
-r Display and alter the routing table
-n Display and manipulate neighbor objects (ARP table)
-ru Rule in routing policy database.
Output more information. If the option appears twice or more, the
-s
amount of information increases
-f Specifies the protocol family to use
Use the system's name resolver to print DNS names instead of
-r
host addresses
-c To configure color output

155
The clear command

In linux, the clear command is used to clear terminal screen.

156
Example

$ clear

157
Before:

$ echo Hello World

Hello World

$ clear

158
After executing clear command:

Screenshot:

After running the command your terminal screen will be clear:

159
The su command

In linux, su allows you to run commands with a substitute user and

group ID.

When called without arguments, su defaults to running an interactive

shell as root.

160
Example :

$ su

In case that you wanted to switch to a user called devdojo, you could
do that by running the following command:

$ su devdojo

161
The syntax of the su command is :

$ su [options] [-] [<user>[<argument>...]]

162
Options :

-m, -p --> do not reset environment variables

-w --> do not reset specified variables
-g --> specify the primary group
-G --> specify a supplemental group
-l --> make the shell a login shell
-f --> pass -f to the shell (for csh or tcsh)
-s --> run <shell> if /etc/shell allows it
-p --> create a new pseudo terminal
-h --> display this help
-v --> display version

163
The wget command

The wget command is used for downloading files from the Internet. It
supports downloading files using HTTP, HTTPS and FTP protocols. It
allows you to download several files at once, download in the
background, resume downloads, limit the bandwidth, mirror a website,
and much more.

164
Syntax

The wget syntax requires you to define the downloading options and the
URL the to be downloaded file is coming from.

$ wget [options] [URL]

Examples

In this example we will download the Ubuntu 20.04 desktop iso file from
different sources. Go over to your terminal or open a new one and type
in the below wget. This will stat the download. The download may take
a few minutes to complete.

1. Starting a regular download

wget
https://releases.ubuntu.com/20.04/ubuntu-20.04.3-desktop-amd64
.iso

2. You can resume a download using the -c option

wget -c
https://mirrors.piconets.webwerks.in/ubuntu-mirror/ubuntu-rele
ases/20.04.3/ubuntu-20.04.3-desktop-amd64.iso

3. To download in the background, use the -b option

165
wget -b
https://mirrors.piconets.webwerks.in/ubuntu-mirror/ubuntu-rele
ases/20.04.3/ubuntu-20.04.3-desktop-amd64.iso

166
More options

On top of downloading, wget provides many more features, such as

downloading multiple files, dowloading in the background, limiting
download bandwith and resuming stopped downloads. View all wget
options in its man page.

man wget

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Description
Flag
-v prints version of the wget available on your system
-h print help message displaying all the possible options
This option is used to send a process to the background as
-b
soon as it starts.
This option is used to set number of retries to a specified
-t
number of times
-c This option is used to resume a partially downloaded file

167
The curl command

In linux, curl is a tool to transfer data from or to a server, using one of

the supported protocols(DICT, FILE ,FTP, FTPS, GOPHER, HTTP, HTTPS,
IMAP, IMAPS, LDAP, LDAPS, POP3, POP3S, RTMP, RTSP, SCP, SFTP, SMB,
SMBS, SMTP, SMTPS, TELNET and TFTP).

168
Example :

$ curl example.com

The command will print the source code of the example.com homepage
in the terminal window.

169
The syntax of the curl command is :

$ curl [options...] <url>

170
Options :

Options start with one or two dashes. Many of the options require an
additional value next to them.

The short "single-dash" form of the options, -d for example, may be

used with or without a space between it and its value, although a space
is a recommended separator. The long "double-dash" form, -d, --data
for example, requires a space between it and its value.

Short version options that don't need any additional values can be used
immediately next to each other, like for example you can specify all the
options -O, -L and -v at once as -OLv.

In general, all boolean options are enabled with --option and yet again
disabled with --no-option. That is, you use the exact same option
name but prefix it with no-. However, in this list we mostly only list and
show the --option version of them. (This concept with --no options
was added in 7.19.0. Previously most options were toggled on/off
through repeated use of the same command line option.)

171
Installation:

The curl command comes with most of the Linux distributions. But, if
the system does not carry the curl by default. You need to install it
manually. To install the curl, execute the following commands:

Update the system by executing the following commands:

$ sudo apt update

$ sudo apt upgrade

Now, install the curl utility by executing the below command:

$ sudo apt install curl

Verify the installation by executing the below command:

$ curl -version

The above command will display the installed version of the curl
command.

172
The yes command

The yes command in linux is used to print a continuous output stream

of given STRING. If STRING is not mentioned then it prints ‘y’. It outputs
a string repeatedly unit killed (using something like ctrl + c).

Examples :

1. Prints hello world infinitely in the terminal until killed :

yes hello world

2. A more generalized command:

yes [STRING]

173
Options

It accepts the following options:

1. --help
display this help and exit

2. --version
output version information and exit

174
The last command

This command shows you a list of all the users that have logged in and
out since the creation of the var/log/wtmp file. There are also some
parameters you can add which will show you for example when a
certain user has logged in and how long he was logged in for.

If you want to see the last 5 logs, just add -5 to the command like this:

last -5

And if you want to see the last 10, add -10.

Another cool thing you can do is if you add -F you can see the login and
logout time including the dates.

last -F

There are quite a lot of stuff you can view with this command. If you
need to find out more about this command you can run:

last --help

175
The locate command

The locate command searches the file system for files and directories
whose name matches a given pattern through a database file that is
generated by the updatedb command.

Examples:

1. Running the locate command to search for a file named .bashrc.

locate .bashrc

Output

/etc/bash.bashrc
/etc/skel/.bashrc
/home/linuxize/.bashrc
/usr/share/base-files/dot.bashrc
/usr/share/doc/adduser/examples/adduser.local.conf.examples/ba
sh.bashrc
/usr/share/doc/adduser/examples/adduser.local.conf.examples/sk
el/dot.bashrc

The /root/.bashrc file will not be shown because we ran the command
as a normal user that doesn’t have access permissions to the /root
directory.

If the result list is long, for better readability, you can pipe the output to
the less command:

176
 locate .bashrc | less

2. To search for all .md files on the system

locate *.md

3. To search all .py files and display only 10 results

locate -n 10 *.py

4. To performs case-insensitive search.

locate -i readme.md

Output

/home/linuxize/p1/readme.md
/home/linuxize/p2/README.md
/home/linuxize/p3/ReadMe.md

5. To return the number of all files containing .bashrc in their name.

locate -c .bashrc

Output

6. The following would return only the existing .json files on the file

177
 system.

locate -e *.json

7. To run a more complex search the -r (--regexp) option is used. To

search for all .mp4 and .avi files on your system and ignore case.

locate --regex -i "(\.mp4|\.avi)"

Syntax:

1. locate [OPTION]... PATTERN...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
It is used to display only entries that
-A --all match all PATTERNs instead of requiring
only one of them to match.
It is used to match only the base name
-b --basename
against the specified patterns.
It is used for writing the number
-c --count matching entries instead of writing file
names on standard output.
It is used to replace the default
-d --database DBPATH
database with DBPATH.
It is used to display only entries that
-e --existing refer to existing files during the
command is executed.

178
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
If the --existing option is specified, It
is used for checking whether files exist
and follow trailing symbolic links. It will
-L --follow omit the broken symbolic links to the
output. This is the default behavior. The
opposite behavior can be specified
using the --nofollow option.
It is used to display the help
-h --help documentation that contains a
summary of the available options.
It is used to ignore case sensitivity of
-i --ignore-case
the specified patterns.
It is used to ignore punctuation and
-p --ignore-spaces
spaces when matching patterns.
It is used to ignore accents using iconv
-t --transliterate
transliteration when matching patterns.
If this option is specified, the command
-l --limit, -n LIMIT exit successfully after finding LIMIT
entries.
It is used to ignore the compatibility
-m --mmap
with BSD, and GNU locate.
It is used to separate the entries on
output using the ASCII NUL character
-0 --null
instead of writing each entry on a
separate line.
It is used to write statistics about each
-S --statistics read database to standard output
instead of searching for files.
It is used for searching a basic regexp
-r --regexp REGEXP
REGEXP.
It is used to describe all PATTERNs as
--regex -
extended regular expressions.
It is used to display the version and
-V --version
license information.
It is used for matching only the whole
-w --wholename
path name in specified patterns.

179
The iostat command

The iostat command in Linux is used for monitoring system

input/output statistics for devices and partitions. It monitors system
input/output by observing the time the devices are active in relation to
their average transfer rates. The iostat produce reports may be used to
change the system configuration to raised balance the input/output
between the physical disks. iostat is being included in sysstat package.
If you don’t have it, you need to install first.

Syntax:

iostat [ -c ] [ -d ] [ -h ] [ -N ] [ -k | -m ] [ -t ] [ -V ] [
-x ]
[ -z ] [ [ [ -T ] -g group_name ] { device [...] | ALL
} ]
[ -p [ device [,...] | ALL ] ] [ interval [ count ] ]

Examples:

1. Display a single history-since-boot report for all CPU and Devices:

iostat -d 2

2. Display a continuous device report at two-second intervals:

iostat -d 2 6

180
3.Display, for all devices, six reports at two-second intervals:

iostat -x sda sdb 2 6

4.Display, for devices sda and sdb, six extended reports at two-second
intervals:

iostat -p sda 2 6

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Flag Description

-x Show more details statistics information.
-c Show only the cpu statistic.
-d Display only the device report
`-xd Show extended I/O statistic for device only.
-k Capture the statistics in kilobytes or megabytes.
-k23 Display cpu and device statistics with delay.
-j ID mmcbkl0 sda6
-x -m 2 2
Display persistent device name statistics.
-p Display statistics for block devices.
-N Display lvm2 statistic information.

181
The sudo command

The sudo ("substitute user do" or "super user do") command allows a
user with proper permissions to execute a command as another user,
such as the superuser.

This is the equivalent of "run as administrator" option in Windows. The

sudo command allows you to elevate your current user account to have
root privileges. Also, the root privilege in sudo is only valid for a
temporary amount of time. Once that time expires, you have to enter
your password again to regain root privilege.

WARNING: Be very careful when using the sudo command. You can
cause irreversible and catastrophic changes while acting as root!

Syntax:

sudo [-OPTION] command

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
The -V (version) option causes sudo to print the version number
and exit. If the invoking user is already root, the -V option prints
-V
out a list of the defaults sudo was compiled with and the
machine's local network addresses
The -l (list) option prints out the commands allowed (and
-l
forbidden) the user on the current host.

182
Flag Description
The -L (list defaults) option lists out the parameters set in a
-L Defaults line with a short description for each. This option is
useful in conjunction with grep.
The -h (help) option causes sudo to print a usage message and
-h
exit.
If given the -v (validate) option, sudo updates the user's
timestamp, prompting for the user's password if necessary. This
-v
extends the sudo timeout for another 5 minutes (or whatever the
timeout is set to in sudoers) but does not run a command.
The -K (sure kill) option to sudo removes the user's timestamp
-K
entirely. Likewise, this option does not require a password.
The -u (user) option causes sudo to run the specified command
-u as a user other than root. To specify a uid instead of a username,
use #uid.
The -s (shell) option runs the shell specified by the SHELL
-s environment variable if it's set or the shell as specified in the file
passwd.
The -- flag indicates that sudo should stop processing command
--
line arguments. It is most useful in conjunction with the -s flag.

183
Examples

This command switches your command prompt to the BASH shell as a

root user:

sudo bash

Your command line should change to:

root@hostname:/home/[username]

Adding a string of text to a file is often used to add the name of a

software repository to the sources file, without opening the file for
editing. Use the following syntax with echo, sudo and tee command:

echo ‘string-of-text’ | sudo tee -a [path_to_file]

Example:

echo "deb http://nginx.org/packages/debian `lsb_release -cs`

nginx" \ | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nginx.list

184
The apt command

apt (Advantage package system) command is used for interacting with

dpkg (packaging system used by debian). There is already the dpkg
command to manage .deb packages. But apt is a more user-friendly
and efficient way.

In simple terms apt is a command used for installing, deleting and

performing other operations on debian based Linux.

You will be using the apt command mostly with sudo privileges.

Installing packages:

install followed by package_name is used with apt to install a new

package.

Syntax:

sudo apt install package_name

Example:

sudo apt install g++

This command will install g++ on your system.

185
Removing packages:

remove followed by package_name is used with apt to remove a specific

package.

Syntax:

sudo apt remove package_name

Example:

sudo apt remove g++

This command will remove g++ from your system.

Searching for a package:

search followed by the package_name used with apt to search a

package across all repositories.

Syntax:

apt search package_name

note: sudo not required

Example:

apt search g++

186
Removing unused packages:

Whenever a new package that depends on other packages is installed

on the system, the package dependencies will be installed too. When
the package is removed, the dependencies will stay on the system. This
leftover packages are no longer used by anything else and can be
removed.

Syntax:

sudo apt autoremove

This command will remove all unused from your system.

Updating package index:

apt package index is nothing but a database that stores records of

available packages that are enabled on your system.

Syntax:

sudo apt update

This command will update the package index on your system.

Upgrading packages:

If you want to install the latest updates for your installed packages you
may want to run this command.

187
Syntax:

sudo apt upgrade

The command doesn't upgrade any packages that require removal of

installed packages.

If you want to upgrade a single package, pass the package name:

Syntax:

sudo apt upgrade package_name

This command will upgrade your packages to the latest version.

188
The yum command

The yumcommand is the primary package management tool for

installing, updating, removing, and managing software packages in Red
Hat Enterprise Linux. It is an acronym for Yellow Dog Updater,
Modified.

yum performs dependency resolution when installing, updating, and

removing software packages. It can manage packages from installed
repositories in the system or from .rpm packages.

Syntax:

yum -option command

Examples:

1. To see an overview of what happened in past transactions:

yum history

2. To undo a previous transaction:

yum history undo <id>

3. To install firefox package with 'yes' as a response to all

confirmations

189
 yum -y install firefox

4. To update the mysql package it to the latest stable version

yum update mysql

Commonly used commands along with yum:

Command Description
install Installs the specified packages
remove Removes the specified packages
search Searches package metadata for keywords
info Lists the description
update Updates each package to the latest version
repolist Lists repositories
history Displays what has happened in past transactions
groupinstall To install a particular package group
clean To clean all cached files from enabled repository

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Runs entirely from system cache, doesn’t
-C --cacheonly update the cache and use it even in case it is
expired.
Includes packages that provide a fix for a
- --security security issue. Applicable for the upgrade
command.
-y --assumeyes Automatically answer yes for all questions.

190
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Resolves depsolve problems by removing
packages that are causing problems from the
- --skip-broken
transaction. It is an alias for the strict
configuration option with value False.
-v --verbose Verbose operation, show debug messages.

191
The zip command

The zip command is used to compress files and reduce their size. It
outputs an archive containing one or more compressed files or
directories.

Examples:

In order to compress a single file with the zip command the syntax
would be the following:

zip myZipFile.zip filename.txt

This also works with multiple files as well:

zip multipleFiles.zip file1.txt file2.txt

If you are compressing a whole directory, don't forget to add the -r

flag:

zip -r zipFolder.zip myFolder/

Syntax:

zip [OPTION] zipFileName filesList

192
Possible options:

Flag Description
Removes the file from the zip archive. After creating a zip file,
-d
you can remove a file from the archive using the -d option
Updates the file in the zip archive. This option can be used to
update the specified list of files or add new files to the existing
-u zip file. Update an existing entry in the zip archive only if it has
been modified more recently than the version already in the zip
archive.
-m Deletes the original files after zipping.
To zip a directory recursively, it will recursively zip the files in a
-r directory. This option helps to zip all the files present in the
specified directory.
-x Exclude the files in creating the zip
Verbose mode or print diagnostic version info. Normally, when
applied to real operations, this option enables the display of a
-v
progress indicator during compression and requests verbose
diagnostic info about zip file structure oddities

193
The unzip command

The unzip command extracts all files from the specified ZIP archive to
the current directory.

Examples:

In order to extract the files the syntax would be the following:

unzip myZipFile.zip

To unzip a ZIP file to a different directory than the current one, don't
forget to add the -d flag:

unzip myZipFile.zip -d /path/to/directory

To unzip a ZIP file and exclude specific file or files or directories from
being extracted, don't forget to add the -x flag:

unzip myZipFile.zip -x file1.txt file2.txt

Syntax:

unzip zipFileName [OPTION] [PARAMS]

194
Possible options:

Flag Description Params

-d Unzip an archive to a different directory. /path/to/directory
Extract the archive but do not extract the
-x filename(s)
specified files.
Unzip without creating new folders, if the
-j -
zipped archive contains a folder structure.
Lists the contents of an archive file without
-l -
extracting it.
Do not overwrite existing files; supply an
-n -
alternative filename instead.
-o Overwrite files. -
Supplies a password to unzip a protected
-P password
archive file.
Unzips without writing status messages to the
-q -
standard output.
-t Tests whether an archive file is valid. -
Displays detailed (verbose) information about
-v -
the archive without extracting it.

195
The shutdown command

The shutdown command lets you bring your system down in a secure
way. When shutdown is executed the system will notify all logged-in
users and disallow further logins. You have the option to shut down your
system immediately or after a specific time.

Only users with root (or sudo) privileges can use the shutdown
command.

Examples:

1. Shut down your system immediately:

sudo shutdown now

2. Shut down your system after 10 minutes:

sudo shutdown +10

3. Shut down your system with a message after 5 minutes:

sudo shutdown +5 "System will shutdown in 5 minutes"

Syntax:

196
 shutdown [OPTIONS] [TIME] [MESSAGE]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Flag Long Flag Description

-r - Reboot the system
-c - Cancel an scheduled shut down

197
The dir command

The dir command lists the contents of a directory(the current directory

by default). It differs from ls command in the format of listing the
content. By default, the dir command lists the files and folders in
columns, sorted vertically and special characters are represented by
backslash escape sequences.

Syntax:

dir [OPTIONS] [FILE]

Examples:

1. To list files in the current directory:

dir

2. To list even the hidden files in the current directory:

dir -a

3. To list the content with detailed information for each entry

dir -l

198
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
It displays all the hidden
-a --all files(starting with .) along with
two files denoted by . and ..
It is similar to -a option except
that it does not display files that
-A --almost-all
signals the current directory and
previous directory.
Display detailed information for
-l -
each entry
Print the allocated size of each
-s --size
file, in blocks File
Used with with -l and -s, to print
-h --human-readable sizes like in human readable
format like 1K, 2M and so on
Classifies entries into their type
-F - based on appended symbol (/,
*, @, %, =)
-v --verbose Print source and destination files
- --group-directories-first To group directories before files
To List subdirectories
-R --recursive
recursively.
sort by file size, display largest
-S -
first

199
The reboot Command

The reboot command is used to restart a linux system. However, it

requires elevated permission using the sudo command. Necessity to
use this command usually arises after significant system or network
updates have been made to the system.

200
Syntax

reboot [OPTIONS...]

Options

–help : This option prints a short help text and exit.

-halt : This command will stop the machine.
-w, –wtmp-only : This option only writes wtmp shutdown entry, it
do not actually halt, power-off, reboot.

Examples

1. Basic Usage. Mainly used to restart without any further details

$ sudo reboot

However, alternatively the shutdown command with the -r option

$ sudo shutdown -r now

Note that the usage of the reboot, halt and power off is almost similar
in syntax and effect. Run each of these commands with –help to see the
details.

2. The reboot command has limited usage, and the shutdown

command is being used instead of reboot command to fulfill much
more advance reboot and shutdown requirements. One of those
situations is a scheduled restart. Syntax is as follows

201
 $ sudo shutdown –r [TIME] [MESSAGE]

Here the TIME has various formats. The simplest one is now, already
been listed in the previous section, and tells the system to restart
immediately. Other valid formats we have are +m, where m is the
number of minutes we need to wait until restart and HH:MM which
specifies the TIME in a 24hr clock.

Example to reboot the system in 2 minutes

$ sudo shutdown –r +2

Example of a scheduled restart at 03:00 A.M

$ sudo shutdown –r 03:00

3. Cancelling a Reboot. Usually happens in case one wants to cancel

a scheduled restart

Syntax

$ sudo shutdown –c [MESSAGE]

Usage

$sudo shutdown -c "Scheduled reboot cancelled because the

chicken crossed the road"

4. Checking your reboot logs

202
$ last reboot

203
The sort command

the sort command is used to sort a file, arranging the records in a

particular order. By default, the sort command sorts a file assuming the
contents are ASCII. Using options in the sort command can also be used
to sort numerically.

Examples:

Suppose you create a data file with name file.txt:

Command :
$ cat > file.txt
abhishek
chitransh
satish
rajan
naveen
divyam
harsh

Sorting a file: Now use the sort command

Syntax :

sort filename.txt

204
 Command:
$ sort file.txt

Output :
abhishek
chitransh
divyam
harsh
naveen
rajan
satish

Note: This command does not actually change the input file, i.e. file.txt.

The sort function on a file with mixed case content

i.e. uppercase and lower case: When we have a mix file with both
uppercase and lowercase letters then first the upper case letters would
be sorted following with the lower case letters.

Example:

Create a file mix.txt

Command :
$ cat > mix.txt
abc
apple
BALL
Abc
bat

Now use the sort command

205
Command :
$ sort mix.txt
Output :
Abc
BALL
abc
apple
bat

206
The paste command

The paste command writes lines of two or more files, sequentially and
separated by TABs, to the standard output

Syntax:

paste [OPTIONS]... [FILE]...

Examples:

1. To paste two files

paste file1 file2

2. To paste two files using new line as delimiter

paste -d '\n' file1 file2

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-d --delimiter use charater of TAB
paste one file at a time instead of in
-s --serial
parallel
-z --zero-terminated set line delimiter to NUL, not newline

207
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
--help print command help
--version print version information

208
The exit command

The exit command is used to terminate (close) an active shell session

Syntax:

exit

Shortcut: Instead of typing exit, press ctrl + D, it will do the same

Functionality.

209
The diff/sdiff command

This command is used to display the differences in the files by

comparing the files line by line.

Syntax:

diff [options] File1 File2

Example

1. Lets say we have two files with names a.txt and b.txt containing 5
Indian states as follows-:

$ cat a.txt
Gujarat
Uttar Pradesh
Kolkata
Bihar
Jammu and Kashmir

$ cat b.txt
Tamil Nadu
Gujarat
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Uttar pradesh

On typing the diff command we will get below output.

210
 $ diff a.txt b.txt
0a1
> Tamil Nadu
2,3c3
< Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
5c5
Uttar pradesh

Flags and their Functionalities

Short Flag Description

-c To view differences in context mode, use the -c option.
To view differences in unified mode, use the -u option. It is
-u
similar to context mode
By default this command is case sensitive. To make this
-i
command case in-sensitive use -i option with diff.
This option is used to display the version of diff which is
-version
currently running on your system.

211
The tar command

The tar command stands for tape archive, is used to create Archive
and extract the Archive files. This command provides archiving
functionality in Linux. We can use tar command to create compressed
or uncompressed Archive files and also maintain and modify them.

Examples:

1. To create a tar file in abel directory:

tar -cvf file-14-09-12.tar /home/abel/

2. To un-tar a file in the current directory:

tar -xvf file-14-09-12.tar

Syntax:

tar [options] [archive-file] [file or directory to be archived

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Use Flag Description

-c Creates Archive
-x Extract the archive
-f Creates archive with given filename

212
Use Flag Description
-t Displays or lists files in archived file
-u Archives and adds to an existing archive file
-v Displays Verbose Information
-A Concatenates the archive files
-z zip, tells tar command that creates tar file using gzip
-j Filter archive tar file using tbzip
w Verify a archive file
update or add file or directory in already existed .tar
r
file
-? Displays a short summary of the project
Find the difference between an archive and file
-d
system
--usage shows available tar options
--version Displays the installed tar version
--show-defaults Shows default enabled options
Option Flag Description
Check device numbers during
--check-device
incremental archive
Used to allow compatibility with GNU-
-g
format incremental ackups
Used to detect holes in the sparse
--hole-detection
files
Used to allow compatibility with old
-G
GNU-format incremental backups
Don't exit the program on file read
--ignore-failed-read
errors
Set the dump level for created
--level
archives
-n Assume the archive is seekable
Do not check device numbers when
--no-check-device
creating archives
--no-seek Assume the archive is not seekable
`Process only the Nth occurrence of
--occurrence=N
each file

213
Option Flag Description
`Disable use of potentially harmful
--restrict
options
Set version of the sparce format to
--sparse-version=MAJOR,MINOR
use
-S Handle sparse files efficiently.
Overwright control Flag Description
-k Don't replace existing files
Don't replace existing files that are newer
--keep-newer-files
than the archives version
--keep-directory-symlink Don't replace existing symlinks
--no-overwrite-dir Preserve metadata of existing directories
--one-top-level=DIR Extract all files into a DIR
--overwrite Overwrite existing files
--overwrite-dir Overwrite metadata of directories
Recursivly remove all files in the directory
--recursive-unlink
before extracting
Remove files after adding them to a
--remove-files
directory
Don't replace existing files when
--skip-old-files
extracting
-u Remove each file before extracting over it
-w Verify the archive after writing it

214
The gunzip command

The gunzip command is an antonym command of gzip command. In

other words, it decompresses files deflated by the gzip command.

gunzip takes a list of files on its command line and replaces each file
whose name ends with .gz, -gz, .z, -z, or _z (ignoring case) and which
begins with the correct magic number with an uncompressed file
without the original extension. gunzip also recognizes the special
extensions .tgz and .taz as shorthands for .tar.gz and .tar.Z
respectively.

Examples:

1. Uncompress a file

gunzip filename.gz

2. Recursively uncompress content inside a directory, that match

extension (suffix) compressed formats accepted by gunzip:

gunzip -r directory_name/

3. Uncompress all files in the current/working directory whose suffix

match .tgz:

gunzip -S .tgz *

215
 4. List compressed and uncompressed sizes, compression ratio and
uncompressed name of input compressed file/s:

gunzip -l file_1 file_2

Syntax:

gunzip [ -acfhklLnNrtvV ] [-S suffix] [ name ... ]

Video tutorial about using gzip, gunzip and tar

commands:

This video shows how to compress and decompress in a Unix shell. It

uses gunzip as decompression command.

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
write on standard output, keep original files
-c --stdout
unchanged
-h --help give help information
-k --keep keep (don't delete) input files
-l --list list compressed file contents
-q --quiet suppress all warnings
-r --recursive operate recursively on directories
-S --suffix=SUF use suffix SUF on compressed files
synchronous output (safer if system crashes,
--synchronous
but slower)
-t --test test compressed file integrity
-v --verbose verbose mode

216
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-V --version display version number

217
The hostnamectl command

The hostnamectl command provides a proper API used to control Linux

system hostname and change its related settings. The command also
helps to change the hostname without actually locating and editing the
/etc/hostname file on a given system.

218
Syntax

$ hostnamectl [OPTIONS...] COMMAND ...

where COMMAND can be any of the following

status: Used to check the current hostname settings

set-hostname NAME: Used to set system hostname

set-icon-name NAME: Used to set icon name for host

219
Example

1. Basic usage to view the current hostnames

$ hostnamectl

or

$ hostnamectl status

2. To change the static host name to myhostname. It may or may not

require root access

$ hostnamectl set-hostname myhostname --static

3. To set or change a transient hostname

$ hostnamectl set-hostname myotherhostname --transient

4. To set the pretty hostname. The name that is to be set needs to be

in the double quote(” “).

$ hostname set-hostname "prettyname" --pretty

220
The iptables Command

The iptables command is used to set up and maintain tables for the
Netfilter firewall for IPv4, included in the Linux kernel. The firewall
matches packets with rules defined in these tables and then takes the
specified action on a possible match.

Syntax:

iptables --table TABLE -A/-C/-D... CHAIN rule --jump Target

Example and Explanation:

This command will append to the chain provided in parameters:

iptables [-t table] --append [chain] [parameters]

This command drops all the traffic coming on any port:

iptables -t filter --append INPUT -j DROP

Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
Check if a rule is present in the chain or not. It returns 0 if the
-C
rule exists and returns 1 if it does not.
-A Append to the chain provided in parameters.

221
The netstat command

The term netstat stands for Network Statistics. In layman’s terms,

netstat command displays the current network connections, networking
protocol statistics, and a variety of other interfaces.

Check if you have netstat on your PC:

netstat –v

If you don't have netstat installed on your PC, you can install it with
the following command:

sudo apt install net-tools

You can use netstat command for some use cases given
below:

Netstat command with -nr flag shows the routing table detail on
the terminal.

Example:

netstat -nr

Netstat command with -i flag shows statistics for the currently

configured network interfaces. This command will display the first
10 lines of file foo.txt .

222
Example:

netstat -i

Netstat command with -tunlp will gives a list of networks, their

current states, and their associated ports.

Example:

netstat -tunlp

You can get the list of all TCP port connection by using -at with
netstat.

netstat -at

You can get the list of all UDP port connection by using -au with
netstat.

netstat -au

You can get the list of all active connection by using -l with
netstat.

netstat -l

223
The lsof command

The lsof command shows file infomation of all the files opened by a
running process. It's name is also derived from the fact that, list open
files > lsof

An open file may be a regular file, a directory, a block special file, a

character special file, an executing text reference, a library , a stream
or a network file (Internet socket, NFS file or UNIX domain socket). A
specific file or all the files in a file system may be selected by path.

Syntax:

lsof [-OPTION] [USER_NAME]

Examples:

1. To show all the files opened by all active processes:

lsof

2. To show the files opened by a particular user:

lsof -u [USER_NAME]

3. To list the processes with opened files under a specified directory:

224
 lsof +d [PATH_TO_DIR]

Options and their Functionalities:

Option Additional Options Description

List all network connections running,
-i tcp/ udp/ :port Additionally, on udp/tcp or on specified
port.
-i4 - List all processes with ipv4 connections.
-i6 - List all processes with ipv6 connections.
List all the files of a particular process
-c [PROCESS_NAME]
with given name.
List all the files opened by a specified
-p [PROCESS_ID]
process id.
List all the files that are not opened by a
-p ^[PROCESS_ID]
specified process id.
List the processes with opened files
+d [PATH]
under a specified directory
List the files opened by parent process
+R -
Id.

Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to lsof command.

man lsof

225
The bzip2 command

The bzip2 command lets you compress and decompress the files i.e. it
helps in binding the files into a single file which takes less storage
space as the original file use to take.

Syntax:

bzip2 [OPTIONS] filenames ...

Note : Each file is replaced by a compressed version of itself,

with the name original name of the file followed by extension
bz2.

Options and their Functionalities:

Option Alias Description

-d --decompress to decompress compressed file
-f --force to force overwrite an existing output file
-h --help to display the help message and exit
to enable file compression, doesn't deletes the
-k --keep
original input file
-L --license to display the license terms and conditions
-q --quiet to suppress non-essential warning messages
to check integrity of the specified .bz2 file, but
-t --test
don't want to decompress them
to display details for each compression
-v --erbose
operation
-V --version to display the software version

226
Option Alias Description
to enable file compression, but deletes the
-z --compress
original input file

By default, when bzip2 compresses a file, it deletes the original

(or input) file. However, if you don't want that to happen, use
the -k command line option.

Examples:

1. To force compression:

bzip2 -z input.txt

Note: This option deletes the original file also

2. To force compression and also retain original input file:

bzip2 -k input.txt

3. To force decompression:

bzip2 -d input.txt.bz2

4. To test integrity of compressed file:

bzip2 -t input.txt.bz2

5. To show the compression ratio for each file processed:

227
bzip2 -v input.txt

228
The service command

Service runs a System V init script in as predictable environment as

possible, removing most environment variables and with current
working directory set to /.

The SCRIPT parameter specifies a System V init script, located in

/etc/init.d/SCRIPT. The supported values of COMMAND depend on the
invoked script, service passes COMMAND and OPTIONS it to the init
script unmodified. All scripts should support at least the start and stop
commands. As a special case, if COMMAND is --full-restart, the script is
run twice, first with the stop command, then with the start command.

The COMMAND can be at least start, stop, status, and restart.

service --status-all runs all init scripts, in alphabetical order, with the
status command

Examples :

1. To check the status of all the running services:

service --status-all

2. To run a script

service SCRIPT-Name start

3. A more generalized command:

229
service [SCRIPT] [COMMAND] [OPTIONS]

230
The vmstat command

The vmstat command lets you monitor the performance of your system.
It shows you information about your memory, disk, processes, CPU
scheduling, paging, and block IO. This command is also referred to as
virtual memory statistic report.

The very first report that is produced shows you the average details
since the last reboot and after that, other reports are made which
report over time.

vmstat

As you can see it is a pretty useful little command. The most important
things that we see above are the free, which shows us the free space
that is not being used, si shows us how much memory is swapped in
every second in kB, and so shows how much memory is swapped out
each second in kB as well.

vmstat -a

If we run vmstat -a, it will show us the active and inactive memory of
the system running.

vmstat -d

The vmstat -d command shows us all the disk statistics.

231
As you can see this is a pretty useful little command that shows you
different statistics about your virtual memory

232
The mpstat command

The mpstat command is used to report processor related statistics. It

accurately displays the statistics of the CPU usage of the system and
information about CPU utilization and performance.

Syntax:

mpstat [options] [<interval> [<count>]]

Note : It initializes the first processor with CPU 0, the second

one with CPU 1, and so on.

Options and their Functionalities:

Option Description
-A to display all the detailed statistics
-h to display mpstat help
-I to display detailed interrupts statistics
to report summary CPU statistics based on NUMA node
-n
placement
to indicate the NUMA nodes for which statistics are to be
-N
reported
to indicate the processors for which statistics are to be
-P
reported
to display the statistics in JSON (Javascript Object Notation)
-o
format
-T to display topology elements in the CPU report
-u to report CPU utilization
-v to display utilization statistics at the virtual processor level

233
Option Description
-V to display mpstat version
-ALL to display detailed statistics about all CPUs

Examples:

1. To display processor and CPU statistics:

mpstat

2. To display processor number of all CPUs:

mpstat -P ALL

3. To get all the information which the tool may collect:

mpstat -A

4. To display CPU utilization by a specific processor:

mpstat -P 0

5. To display CPU usage with a time interval:

mpstat 1 5

Note: This command will print 5 reports with 1 second time

interval

234
The ncdu Command

ncdu (NCurses Disk Usage) is a curses-based version of the well-known

du command. It provides a fast way to see what directories are using
your disk space.

235
Example

1. Quiet Mode

ncdu -q

2. Omit mounted directories

ncdu -q -x

236
Syntax

ncdu [-hqvx] [--exclude PATTERN] [-X FILE] dir

237
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-h - Print a small help message
Quiet mode. While calculating disk space,
ncdu will update the screen 10 times a
second by default, this will be decreased
-q -
to once every 2 seconds in quiet mode.
Use this feature to save bandwidth over
remote connections.
-v - Print version.
Only count files and directories on the
-x -
same filesystem as the specified dir.
Exclude files that match PATTERN. This
--exclude
- PATTERN
argument can be added multiple times to
add more patterns.
Exclude files that match any pattern in
-X --exclude-from
FILE FILE
FILE. Patterns should be separated by a
newline.

238
The uniq command

The uniq command in Linux is a command line utility that reports or

filters out the repeated lines in a file. In simple words, uniq is the tool
that helps you to detect the adjacent duplicate lines and also deletes
the duplicate lines. It filters out the adjacent matching lines from the
input file(that is required as an argument) and writes the filtered data
to the output file .

Examples:

In order to omit the repeated lines from a file, the syntax would be the
following:

uniq kt.txt

In order to tell the number of times a line was repeated, the syntax
would be the following:

uniq -c kt.txt

In order to print repeated lines, the syntax would be the following:

uniq -d kt.txt

In order to print unique lines, the syntax would be the following:

239
 uniq -u kt.txt

In order to allows the N fields to be skipped while comparing

uniqueness of the lines, the syntax would be the following:

uniq -f 2 kt.txt

In order to allows the N characters to be skipped while comparing

uniqueness of the lines, the syntax would be the following:

uniq -s 5 kt.txt

In order to to make the comparison case-insensitive, the syntax would

be the following:

uniq -i kt.txt

Syntax:

uniq [OPTION] [INPUT[OUTPUT]]

Possible options:

Flag Description Params

It tells how many times a line was repeated by
-c -
displaying a number as a prefix with the line.
It only prints the repeated lines and not the lines
-d -
which aren’t repeated.

240
Flag Description Params
By default, comparisons done are case sensitive
-i but with this option case insensitive comparisons -
can be made.
It allows you to skip N fields(a field is a group of
-f characters, delimited by whitespace) of a line N
before determining uniqueness of a line.
It doesn’t compares the first N characters of each
line while determining uniqueness. This is like the
-s N
-f option, but it skips individual characters rather
than fields.
-u It allows you to print only unique lines. -
It will make a line end with 0 byte(NULL), instead
-z -
of a newline.
-w It only compares N characters in a line. N
--help It displays a help message and exit. -
--version It displays version information and exit. -

241
The RPM command

rpm - RPM Package Manager

rpm is a powerful Package Manager, which can be used to build,

install, query, verify, update, and erase individual software packages. A
package consists of an archive of files and meta-data used to install
and erase the archive files. The meta-data includes helper scripts, file
attributes, and descriptive information about the package. Packages
come in two varieties: binary packages, used to encapsulate software to
be installed, and source packages, containing the source code and
recipe necessary to produce binary packages.

One of the following basic modes must be selected: Query, Verify,

Signature Check, Install/Upgrade/Freshen, Uninstall, Initialize
Database, Rebuild Database, Resign, Add Signature, Set
Owners/Groups, Show Querytags, and Show Configuration.

General Options

These options can be used in all the different modes.

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-? --help Print a longer usage message then normal.
Print a single line containing the version number of rpm being
- --version
used.
Print as little as possible - normally only error messages will be
- --quiet
displayed.
Print verbose information - normally routine progress messages
-v -
will be displayed.
-vv - Print lots of ugly debugging information.

242
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Each of the files in the colon separated FILELIST is read
sequentially by rpm for configuration information. Only the first
- --rcfile FILELIST file in the list must exist, and tildes will be expanded to the value
of $HOME. The default FILELIST is
/usr/lib/rpm/rpmrc:/usr/lib/rpm/redhat/rpmrc:/etc/rpmrc:~/.rpmrc.
- --pipe CMD Pipes the output of rpm to the command CMD.
--dbpath Use the database in DIRECTORY rather than the default path
-
DIRECTORY /var/lib/rpm
Use the file system tree rooted at DIRECTORY for all operations.
Note that this means the database within DIRECTORY will be
--root
- used for dependency checks and any scriptlet(s) (e.g. %post if
DIRECTORY
installing, or %prep if building, a package) will be run after a
chroot(2) to DIRECTORY.
--define='MACRO
-D Defines MACRO with value EXPR.
EXPR'
-E --eval='EXPR' Prints macro expansion of EXPR.

243
Synopsis

244
Querying and Verifying Packages:

rpm {-q|--query} [select-options] [query-options]

rpm {-V|--verify} [select-options] [verify-options]

rpm --import PUBKEY ...

rpm {-K|--checksig} [--nosignature] [--nodigest] PACKAGE_FILE

...

245
Installing, Upgrading, and Removing Packages:

rpm {-i|--install} [install-options] PACKAGE_FILE ...

rpm {-U|--upgrade} [install-options] PACKAGE_FILE ...

rpm {-F|--freshen} [install-options] PACKAGE_FILE ...

rpm {-e|--erase} [--allmatches] [--nodeps] [--noscripts] [--

notriggers] [--test] PACKAGE_NAME ...

246
Miscellaneous:

rpm {--initdb|--rebuilddb}

rpm {--addsign|--resign} PACKAGE_FILE...

rpm {--querytags|--showrc}

rpm {--setperms|--setugids} PACKAGE_NAME .

query-options

[--changelog] [-c,--configfiles] [-d,--docfiles] [--dump]

[--filesbypkg] [-i,--info] [--last] [-l,--list]
[--provides] [--qf,--queryformat QUERYFMT]
[-R,--requires] [--scripts] [-s,--state]
[--triggers,--triggerscripts]

verify-options

[--nodeps] [--nofiles] [--noscripts]

[--nodigest] [--nosignature]
[--nolinkto] [--nofiledigest] [--nosize] [--nouser]
[--nogroup] [--nomtime] [--nomode] [--nordev]
[--nocaps]

install-options

247
[--aid] [--allfiles] [--badreloc] [--excludepath OLDPATH]
[--excludedocs] [--force] [-h,--hash]
[--ignoresize] [--ignorearch] [--ignoreos]
[--includedocs] [--justdb] [--nodeps]
[--nodigest] [--nosignature] [--nosuggest]
[--noorder] [--noscripts] [--notriggers]
[--oldpackage] [--percent] [--prefix NEWPATH]
[--relocate OLDPATH=NEWPATH]
[--replacefiles] [--replacepkgs]
[--test]

248
The scp command

SCP (secure copy) is a command-line utility that allows you to securely

copy files and directories between two locations.

Both the files and passwords are encrypted so that anyone snooping on
the traffic doesn't get anything sensitive.

Different ways to copy a file or directory:

From local system to a remote system.

From a remote system to a local system.
Between two remote systems from the local system.

Examples:

1. To copy the files from a local system to a remote system:

scp /home/documents/local-file root@{remote-ip-address}:/home/

2. To copy the files from a remote system to the local system:

scp root@{remote-ip-address}:/home/remote-file
/home/documents/

3. To copy the files between two remote systems from the local
system.

249
 scp root@{remote1-ip-address}:/home/remote-file root@{remote2-
ip-address}/home/

4. To copy file though a jump host server.

scp /home/documents/local-file -oProxyJump=<jump-host-ip>

root@{remote-ip-address}/home/

On newer version of scp on some machines you can use the above
command with a -J flag.

scp /home/documents/local-file -J <jump-host-ip> root@{remote-

ip-address}/home/

Syntax:

scp [OPTION] [user@]SRC_HOST:]file1 [user@]DEST_HOST:]file2

OPTION - scp options such as cipher, ssh configuration, ssh port,

limit, recursive copy …etc.
[user@]SRC_HOST:]file1 - Source file
[user@]DEST_HOST:]file2 - Destination file

Local files should be specified using an absolute or relative path, while

remote file names should include a user and host specification.

scp provides several that control every aspect of its behaviour. The
most widely used options are:

Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
-P - Specifies the remote host ssh port.

250
Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
-p - Preserves files modification and access times.
Use this option if you want to suppress the progress
-q -
meter and non-error messages.
This option forces scp to compresses the data as it
-C -
is sent to the destination machine.
-r - This option tells scp to copy directories recursively.

Before you begin

The scp command relies on ssh for data transfer, so it requires an ssh
key or password to authenticate on the remote systems.

The colon (:) is how scp distinguish between local and remote
locations.

To be able to copy files, you must have at least read permissions on the
source file and write permission on the target system.

Be careful when copying files that share the same name and location on
both systems, scp will overwrite files without warning.

When transferring large files, it is recommended to run the scp

command inside a screen or tmux session.

251
The sleep command

The sleep command is used to create a dummy job. A dummy job helps
in delaying the execution. It takes time in seconds by default but a
small suffix(s, m, h, d) can be added at the end to convert it into any
other format. This command pauses the execution for an amount of
time which is defined by NUMBER.

Note: If you will define more than one NUMBER with sleep command
then this command will delay for the sum of the values.

Examples :

1. To sleep for 10s

sleep 10s

2. A more generalized command:

sleep NUMBER[SUFFIX]...

252
Options

It accepts the following options:

1. --help
display this help and exit

2. --version
output version information and exit

253
The split command

The split command in Linux is used to split a file into smaller files.

Examples

1. Split a file into a smaller file using file name

split filename.txt

2. Split a file named filename into segments of 200 lines beginning

with prefix file

split -l 200 filename file

This will create files of the name fileaa, fileab, fileac, filead, etc. of 200
lines.

3. Split a file named filename into segments of 40 bytes with prefix

file

split -b 40 filename file

This will create files of the name fileaa, fileab, fileac, filead, etc. of 40
bytes.

4. Split a file using --verbose to see the files being created.

254
 split filename.txt --verbose

Syntax:

split [options] filename [prefix]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Generate suffixes of length N
-a --suffix-length=N
(default 2)
Append an additional SUFFIX to
--additional-suffix=SUFFIX
file names
-b --bytes=SIZE Put SIZE bytes per output file
Put at most SIZE bytes of
-C --line-bytes=SIZE
records per output file
Use numeric suffixes starting at
-d
0, not alphabetic
Same as -d, but allow setting
--numeric-suffixes[=FROM]
the start value
Use hex suffixes starting at 0,
-x
not alphabetic
Same as -x, but allow setting
--hex-suffixes[=FROM]
the start value
Do not generate empty output
-e --elide-empty-files
files with '-n'
Write to shell COMMAND;
--filter=COMMAND
file name is $FILE
Put NUMBER lines/records per
-l --lines=NUMBER
output file
Generate CHUNKS output files;
-n --number=CHUNKS
see explanation below

255
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Use SEP instead of newline as
the record separator;
-t --separator=SEP
'\0' (zero) specifies the NUL
character
Immediately copy input to
-u --unbuffered
output with '-n r/...'
Print a diagnostic just before
--verbose each
output file is opened
--help Display this help and exit
Output version information and
--version
exit

The SIZE argument is an integer and optional unit (example: 10K is

10*1024). Units are K,M,G,T,P,E,Z,Y (powers of 1024) or KB,MB,...
(powers of 1000).

CHUNKS may be:

CHUNKS Description
N Split into N files based on size of input
K/N Output Kth of N to stdout
l/N Split into N files without splitting lines/records
l/K/N Output Kth of N to stdout without splitting lines/records
r/N Like 'l' but use round robin distribution
r/K/N Likewise but only output Kth of N to stdout

256
The stat command

The stat command lets you display file or file system status. It gives
you useful information about the file (or directory) on which you use it.

Examples:

1. Basic command usage

stat file.txt

2. Use the -c (or --format) argument to only display information you

want to see (here, the total size, in bytes)

stat file.txt -c %s

Syntax:

stat [OPTION] [FILE]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-L --dereference Follow links
Display file system status instead of file
-f --file-system
status

257
 Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-c --format=FORMAT Specify the format (see below)
-t --terse Print the information in terse form
Specify how to use cached attributes. Can
- --cached=MODE
be: always, never, or default
Like --format, but interpret backslash
- --printf=FORMAT
escapes (\n, \t, ...)
- --help Display the help and exit
- --version Output version information and exit

Example of Valid Format Sequences for Files:

Format Description
%a Permission bits in octal
%A Permission bits and file type in human readable form
%d Device number in decimal
%D Device number in hex
%F File type
%g Group ID of owner
%G Group name of owner
%h Number of hard links
%i Inode number
%m Mount point
%n File name
%N Quoted file name with dereference if symbolic link
%s Total size, in bytes
%u User ID of owner
%U User name of owner
%w Time of file birth, human-readable; - if unknown
%x Time of last access, human-readable
%y Time of last data modification, human-readable
%z Time of last status change, human-readable

258
The useradd command

The useradd command is used to add or update user accounts to the

system.

Examples:

To add a new user with the useradd command the syntax would be the
following:

useradd NewUser

To add a new user with the useradd command and give a home
directory path for this new user the syntax would be the following:

useradd -d /home/NewUser NewUser

To add a new user with the useradd command and give it a specific id
the syntax would be the following:

useradd -u 1234 NewUser

Syntax:

useradd [OPTIONS] NameOfUser

259
Possible options:

Flag Description Params

The new user will be created using
-d /path/to/directory as the value for the /path/to/directory
user's login directory
-u The numerical value of the user's ID ID
-g Create a user with specific group id GroupID
-M Create a user without home directory -
DATE (format: YYYY-
-e Create a user with expiry date
MM-DD)
-c Create a user with a comment COMMENT
-s Create a user with changed login shell /path/to/shell
Set an unencrypted password for the
-p PASSWORD
user

260
The userdel command

The userdel command is used to delete a user account and related

files

Examples:

To delete a user with the userdel command the syntax would be the
following:

userdel userName

To force the removal of a user account even if the user is still logged in,
using the userdel command the syntax would be the following:

userdel -f userName

To delete a user along with the files in the user’s home directory using
the userdel command the syntax would be the following:

userdel -r userName

Syntax:

userdel [OPTIONS] userName

261
Possible options:

Flag Description
Force the removal of the specified user account even if the user
-f
is logged in
Remove the files in the user’s home directory along with the
-r
home directory itself and the user’s mail spool
Remove any SELinux(Security-Enhanced Linux) user mapping for
-Z
the user’s login.

262
The usermod command

The usermod command lets you change the properties of a user in Linux
through the command line. After creating a user we sometimes have to
change their attributes, like their password or login directory etc. So in
order to do that we use the usermod command.

Syntax:

usermod [options] USER

Note : Only superuser (root) is allowed to execute usermod

command

Options and their Functionalities:

Option Description
-a to add anyone of the group to a secondary group
-c to add comment field for the useraccount
-d to modify the directory for any existing user account
-g change the primary group for a User
-G to add supplementary groups
-l to change existing user login name
-L to lock system user account
to move the contents of the home directory from existing
-m
home dir to new dir
-p to create an un-encrypted password
-s to create a specified shell for new accounts
-u to assigned UID for the user account

263
Option Description
-U to unlock any locked user

Examples:

1. To add a comment/description for a user:

sudo usermod -c "This is test user" test_user

2. To change the home directory of a user:

sudo usermod -d /home/sam test_user

3. To change the expiry date of a user:

sudo usermod -e 2021-10-05 test_user

4. To change the group of a user:

sudo usermod -g sam test_user

5. To change user login name:

sudo usermod -l test_account test_user

6. To lock a user:

sudo usermod -L test_user

7. To unlock a user:

264
 sudo usermod -U test_user

8. To set an unencrypted password for the user:

sudo usermod -p test_password test_user

9. To create a shell for the user:

sudo usermod -s /bin/sh test_user

10. To change the user id of a user:

sudo usermod -u 1234 test_user

265
The ionice command

The ionice command is used to set or get process I/O scheduling class
and priority.

If no arguments are given , ionice will query the current I/O scheduling
class and priority for that process.

266
Usage

ionice [options] -p <pid>

ionice [options] -P <pgid>

ionice [options] -u <uid>

ionice [options] <command>

267
A process can be of three scheduling classes:

Idle

A program with idle I/O priority will only get disk time when no
other program has asked for disk I/O for a defined grace
period.

The impact of idle processes on normal system actively should be

zero.

This scheduling class doesn’t take priority argument.

Presently this scheduling class is permitted for an ordinary user

(since kernel 2.6.25).

Best Effort

This is effective scheduling class for any process that has not
asked for a specific I/O priority.

This class takes priority argument from 0-7, with lower

number being higher priority.

Programs running at the same best effort priority are served in

round- robbin fashion.

Note that before kernel 2.6.26 a process that has not asked for an
I/O priority formally uses “None” as scheduling class , but the io
schedular will treat such processes as if it were in the best effort
class.

The priority within best effort class will be dynamically derived

268
form the CPU nice level of the process : io_priority = ( cpu_nice +
20 ) / 5/ for kernels after 2.6.26 with CFQ I/O schedular a process
that has not asked for sn io priority inherits CPU scheduling class.

The I/O priority is derived from the CPU nice level of

the process ( smr sd before kernel 2.6.26 ).

Real Time

The real time schedular class is given first access to disk,

regardless of what else is going on in the system.

Thus the real time class needs to be used with some care, as it
cans tarve other processes .

As with the best effort class, 8 priority levels are defined

denoting how big a time slice a given process will
receive on each scheduling window.

This scheduling class is not permitted for an ordinary

user(non-root).

269
Options

Options Description
name or number of scheduling class, 0: none, 1:
-c, --class
realtime, 2: best-effort, 3: idle
priority (0..7) in the specified scheduling class,only for
-n, --classdata
the realtime and best-effort classes
-p, --pid ... act on these already running processes
-P, --pgid ... act on already running processes in these groups
-t, --ignore ignore failures
-u, --uid ... act on already running processes owned by these users
-h, --help display this help
-V, --version display version

For more details see ionice(1).

270
Examples

Command O/P Explanation

Running alone ionice will give the
$ ionice none: prio 4
class and priority of current process
$ ionice -p Give the details(class : priority) of the
101
none : prio 4
process specified by given process id
Check the class and priority of
$ ionice -p 2 none: prio 4 process with pid 2 it is none and 4
resp.
2 ( best-effort )
$ ionice -c2 Now lets set process(pid) 2 as a best-
-n0 -p2
priority 0
effort program with highest priority
process 2
best-effort : Now if I check details of Process 2
$ ionice -p 2
prio 0 you can see the updated one
$ ionice /bin/ls get priority and class info of bin/ls
$ ionice -n4 -
set priority 4 of process with pid 2
p2
Now observe the difference between
best-effort: prio
$ ionice -p 2 the command ran above and this one
4
we have changed priority from 0 to 4
ionice: ignoring (Note that before kernel 2.6.26 a
$ ionice -c0 - given class process that has not asked for an I/O
n4 -p2 data for none priority formally uses “None” as
class scheduling class ,
but the io schedular will treat such
processes as if it were in the best
effort class. )
-t option : ignore failure
For ignoring the warning shown
$ ionice -c0 -
above we can use -t option so it will
n4 -p2 -t
ignore failure

271
Conclusion

Thus we have successfully learnt about ionice command.

272
The du command

The du command, which is short for disk usage lets you retrieve
information about disk space usage information in a specified directory.
In order to customize the output according to the information you need,
this command can be paired with the appropriate options or flags.

Examples:

1. To show the estimated size of sub-directories in the current

directory:

du

2. To show the estimated size of sub-directories inside a specified

directory:

du {PATH_TO_DIRECTORY}

Syntax:

du [OPTION]... [FILE]...
du [OPTION]... --files0-from=F

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Note: This does not include an exhaustive list of options.

273
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Includes information for both files and
-a --all
directories
Provides a grand total at the end of the
-c --total
list of files/directories
Provides information up to N levels from
-d --max-depth=N the directory where the command was
executed
Displays file size in human-readable units,
-h --human-readable
not in bytes
Display only the total filesize instead of a
-s --summarize
list of files/directories

274
The ping command

The ping (Packet Internet Groper) command is a network utility used to

check network connectivity between a host and a server or another
host. It sends ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) echo requests to
a specified IP address or URL and measures the time it takes to receive
a response. This time delay is referred to as "latency." Ping is a
fundamental tool for network troubleshooting and monitoring.

275
Understanding Latency

Latency, in the context of networking, is the time delay between

sending a packet and receiving a response.

When you use the ping command, it measures the latency by sending a
series of packets to the target host and calculating the time it takes for
each packet to complete the round trip. The latency is typically
measured in milliseconds (ms). Understanding latency is essential
because:

Network Performance: Lower latency means faster data

transmission and more responsive network connections, which is
critical for real-time applications.

Troubleshooting: High latency can indicate network congestion,

packet loss, or connectivity issues that need attention.

Quality of Service (QoS): Service providers and network

administrators use latency metrics to ensure that network services
meet quality standards.

The basic ping syntax includes ping followed by a hostname, a name of

a website, or the exact IP address.

ping [option] [hostname] or [IP address]

Examples:

1. To get ping version installed on your system.

276
sudo ping -v

2. To check whether a remote host is up, in this case, google.com,

type in your terminal:

ping google.com

3. Controlling the number of packets to send: Earlier we did not

define the number of packets to send to the server/host by using -c
option we can do so.

ping -c 5 google.com

4. Controlling the size of the packet: Earlier a default sized packets

were sent to a host but we can send light and heavy packet by
using -s option.

ping -s 40 -c 5 google.com

5. Changing the time interval between ping packets: By default ping

wait for 1 sec to send next packet we can change this time by
using -i option.

ping -i 2 google.com

277
The rsync command

The rsync command is probably one of the most used commands out
there. It is used to securely copy files from one server to another over
SSH.

Compared to the scp command, which does a similar thing, rsync

makes the transfer a lot faster, and in case of an interruption, you could
restore/resume the transfer process.

In this tutorial, I will show you how to use the rsync command and copy
files from one server to another and also share a few useful tips!

Before you get started, you would need to have 2 Linux servers. I will
be using DigitalOcean for the demo and deploy 2 Ubuntu servers.

You can use my referral link to get a free $100 credit that you could use
to deploy your virtual machines and test the guide yourself on a few
DigitalOcean servers:

DigitalOcean $100 Free Credit

278
Transfer Files from local server to remote

This is one of the most common causes. Essentially this is how you
would copy the files from the server that you are currently on (the
source server) to remote/destination server.

What you need to do is SSH to the server that is holding your files, cd to
the directory that you would like to transfer over:

cd /var/www/html

And then run:

rsync -avz [email protected]:/home/user/dir/

The above command would copy all the files and directories from the
current folder on your server to your remote server.

Rundown of the command:

-a: is used to specify that you want recursion and want to preserve
the file permissions and etc.
-v: is verbose mode, it increases the amount of information you
are given during the transfer.
-z: this option, rsync compresses the file data as it is sent to the
destination machine, which reduces the amount of data being
transmitted -- something that is useful over a slow connection.

I recommend having a look at the following website which explains the

commands and the arguments very nicely:

https://explainshell.com/explain?cmd=rsync+-avz

279
In case that the SSH service on the remote server is not running on the
standard 22 port, you could use rsync with a special SSH port:

rsync -avz -e 'ssh -p 1234' user@your-remote-

server.com:/home/user/dir/

280
Transfer Files remote server to local

In some cases you might want to transfer files from your remote server
to your local server, in this case, you would need to use the following
syntax:

rsync -avz [email protected]:/home/user/dir/

/home/user/local-dir/

Again, in case that you have a non-standard SSH port, you can use the
following command:

rsync -avz -e 'ssh -p 2510' your-user@your-remote-

server.com:/home/user/dir/ /home/user/local-dir/

281
Transfer only missing files

If you would like to transfer only the missing files you could use the --
ignore-existing flag.

This is very useful for final sync in order to ensure that there are no
missing files after a website or a server migration.

Basically the commands would be the same apart from the appended --
ignore-existing flag:

rsync -avz --ignore-existing user@your-remote-

server.com:/home/user/dir/

282
Conclusion

Using rsync is a great way to quickly transfer some files from one
machine over to another in a secure way over SSH.

For more cool Linux networking tools, I would recommend checking out
this tutorial here:

Top 15 Linux Networking tools that you should know!

Hope that this helps!

Initially posted here: How to Transfer Files from One Linux Server to
Another Using rsync

283
The dig command

dig - DNS lookup utility

The dig is a flexible tool for interrogating DNS name servers. It

performs DNS lookups and displays the answers that are returned from
the name server(s) that were queried.

Examples:

1. Dig is a network administration command-line tool for querying the

Domain Name System.

dig google.com

2. The system will list all google.com DNS records that it finds, along
with the IP addresses.

dig google.com ANY

Syntax:

dig [server] [name] [type] [q-type] [q-class] {q-opt}

{global-d-opt} host [@local-server] {local-d-opt}
[ host [@local-server] {local-d-opt} [...]]

284
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

domain is in the Domain Name System

q-class is one of (in,hs,ch,...) [default: in]
q-type is one of
(a,any,mx,ns,soa,hinfo,axfr,txt,...) [default:a]
(Use ixfr=version for type ixfr)
q-opt is one of:
-4 (use IPv4 query transport
only)
-6 (use IPv6 query transport
only)
-b address[#port] (bind to source
address/port)
-c class (specify query class)
-f filename (batch mode)
-k keyfile (specify tsig key file)
-m (enable memory usage
debugging)
-p port (specify port number)
-q name (specify query name)
-r (do not read ~/.digrc)
-t type (specify query type)
-u (display times in usec
instead of msec)
-x dot-notation (shortcut for reverse
lookups)
-y [hmac:]name:key (specify named base64
tsig key)
d-opt is of the form +keyword[=value], where
keyword is:
+[no]aaflag (Set AA flag in query
(+[no]aaflag))
+[no]aaonly (Set AA flag in query
(+[no]aaflag))
+[no]additional (Control display of
additional section)
+[no]adflag (Set AD flag in query
(default on))
+[no]all (Set or clear all display
flags)
+[no]answer (Control display of
answer section)
+[no]authority (Control display of

285
authority section)
+[no]badcookie (Retry BADCOOKIE
responses)
+[no]besteffort (Try to parse even
illegal messages)
+bufsize[=###] (Set EDNS0 Max UDP packet
size)
+[no]cdflag (Set checking disabled
flag in query)
+[no]class (Control display of class
in records)
+[no]cmd (Control display of
command line -
global option)
+[no]comments (Control display of
packet header
and section name
comments)
+[no]cookie (Add a COOKIE option to
the request)
+[no]crypto (Control display of
cryptographic
fields in records)
+[no]defname (Use search list
(+[no]search))
+[no]dnssec (Request DNSSEC records)
+domain=### (Set default domainname)
+[no]dscp[=###] (Set the DSCP value to
### [0..63])
+[no]edns[=###] (Set EDNS version) [0]
+ednsflags=### (Set EDNS flag bits)
+[no]ednsnegotiation (Set EDNS version
negotiation)
+ednsopt=###[:value] (Send specified EDNS
option)
+noednsopt (Clear list of +ednsopt
options)
+[no]expandaaaa (Expand AAAA records)
+[no]expire (Request time to expire)
+[no]fail (Don't try next server on
SERVFAIL)
+[no]header-only (Send query without a
question section)
+[no]identify (ID responders in short
answers)
+[no]idnin (Parse IDN names

286
[default=on on tty])
+[no]idnout (Convert IDN response
[default=on on tty])
+[no]ignore (Don't revert to TCP for
TC responses.)
+[no]keepalive (Request EDNS TCP
keepalive)
+[no]keepopen (Keep the TCP socket open
between queries)
+[no]mapped (Allow mapped IPv4 over
IPv6)
+[no]multiline (Print records in an
expanded format)
+ndots=### (Set search NDOTS value)
+[no]nsid (Request Name Server ID)
+[no]nssearch (Search all authoritative
nameservers)
+[no]onesoa (AXFR prints only one soa
record)
+[no]opcode=### (Set the opcode of the
request)
+padding=### (Set padding block size
[0])
+[no]qr (Print question before
sending)
+[no]question (Control display of
question section)
+[no]raflag (Set RA flag in query
(+[no]raflag))
+[no]rdflag (Recursive mode
(+[no]recurse))
+[no]recurse (Recursive mode
(+[no]rdflag))
+retry=### (Set number of UDP
retries) [2]
+[no]rrcomments (Control display of per-
record comments)
+[no]search (Set whether to use
searchlist)
+[no]short (Display nothing except
short
form of answers - global
option)
+[no]showsearch (Search with intermediate
results)
+[no]split=## (Split hex/base64 fields

287
into chunks)
+[no]stats (Control display of
statistics)
+subnet=addr (Set edns-client-subnet
option)
+[no]tcflag (Set TC flag in query
(+[no]tcflag))
+[no]tcp (TCP mode (+[no]vc))
+timeout=### (Set query timeout) [5]
+[no]trace (Trace delegation down
from root [+dnssec])
+tries=### (Set number of UDP
attempts) [3]
+[no]ttlid (Control display of ttls
in records)
+[no]ttlunits (Display TTLs in human-
readable units)
+[no]unexpected (Print replies from
unexpected sources
default=off)
+[no]unknownformat (Print RDATA in RFC 3597
"unknown" format)
+[no]vc (TCP mode (+[no]tcp))
+[no]yaml (Present the results as
YAML)
+[no]zflag (Set Z flag in query)
global d-opts and servers (before host name) affect
all queries.
local d-opts and servers (after host name) affect only
that lookup.
-h (print help and exit)
-v (print version and exit)

288
The whois command

The whois command in Linux to find out information about a domain,

such as the owner of the domain, the owner’s contact information, and
the nameservers that the domain is using.

Examples:

1. Performs a whois query for the domain name:

whois {Domain_name}

2. -H option omits the lengthy legal disclaimers that many domain

registries deliver along with the domain information.

whois -H {Domain_name}

Syntax:

whois [ -h HOST ] [ -p PORT ] [ -aCFHlLMmrRSVx ] [ -g

SOURCE:FIRST-LAST ]
[ -i ATTR ] [ -S SOURCE ] [ -T TYPE ] object

whois -t TYPE

289
 whois -v TYPE

whois -q keyword

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
-h HOST, --host HOST Connect to HOST.
Do not display the legal disclaimers some
-H
registries like to show you.
-p, --port PORT Connect to PORT.
--verbose Be verbose.
--help Display online help.
Display client version information. Other
options are flags understood by
--version
whois.ripe.net and some other RIPE-like
servers.
-a Also search all the mirrored databases.
Return brief IP address ranges with abuse
-b
contact.
Disable object filtering (show the e-mail
-B
addresses)
Return the smallest IP address range with a
-c
reference to an irt object.
Return the reverse DNS delegation object
-d
too.
Search updates from SOURCE database
between FIRST and LAST update serial
-g SOURCE:FIRST-LAST
number. It's useful to obtain Near Real Time
Mirroring stream.
-G Disable grouping of associated objects.
Search objects having associated attributes.
-i ATTR[,ATTR]... ATTR is attribute name. Attribute value is
positional OBJECT argument.

290
Flag Description
Return primary key attributes only. Exception
is members attribute of set object which is
-K always returned. Another exceptions are all
attributes of objects organisation, person,
and role that are never returned.
-l Return the one level less specific object.
-L Return all levels of less specific objects.
-m Return all one level more specific objects.
-M Return all levels of more specific objects.
Return list of keywords supported by server.
KEYWORD can be version for server version,
-q KEYWORD
sources for list of source databases, or types
for object types.
Disable recursive look-up for contact
-r
information.
Disable following referrals and force showing
-R
the object from the local copy in the server.
Request the server to search for objects
mirrored from SOURCES. Sources are
-s SOURCE[,SOURCE]... delimited by comma and the order is
significant. Use -q sources option to obtain
list of valid sources.
-t TYPE Return the template for a object of TYPE.
Restrict the search to objects of TYPE.
-T TYPE[,TYPE]...
Multiple types are separated by a comma.
Return the verbose template for a object of
-v TYPE
TYPE.
Search for only exact match on network
-x
address prefix.

291
The ssh command

The ssh command in Linux stands for "Secure Shell". It is a protocol

used to securely connect to a remote server/system. ssh is more secure
in the sense that it transfers the data in encrypted form between the
host and the client. ssh runs at TCP/IP port 22.

Examples:

1. Use a Different Port Number for SSH Connection:

ssh test.server.com -p 3322

2. -i ssh to remote server using a private key?

ssh -i private.key user_name@host

3. -l ssh specifying a different username

ssh -l alternative-username sample.ssh.com

Syntax:

ssh user_name@host(IP/Domain_Name)

292
 ssh -i private.key user_name@host

ssh sample.ssh.com ls /tmp/doc

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
Forces ssh to use protocol
-1
SSH-1 only.
Forces ssh to use protocol
-2
SSH-2 only.
-4 Allows IPv4 addresses only.
Authentication agent
-A connection forwarding is
enabled..
Authentication agent
-a connection forwarding is
disabled.
Bind to the address of
bind_interface before
attempting to connect to the
-B bind_interface
destination host. This is only
useful on systems with more
than one address.
Use bind_address on the
local machine as the source
-b bind_address address of the connection.
Only useful on systems with
more than one address.
Compresses all data
(including stdin, stdout,
stderr, and data for
-C
forwarded X11 and TCP
connections) for a faster
transfer of data.

293
Flag Description
Selects the cipher
-c cipher_spec specification for encrypting
the session.
Dynamic application-level
port forwarding. This
allocates a socket to listen to
port on the local side. When
a connection is made to this
-D [bind_address:]port port, the connection is
forwarded over the secure
channel, and the application
protocol is then used to
determine where to connect
to from the remote machine.
Append debug logs instead
-E log_file
of standard error.
Sets the escape character for
sessions with a pty (default:
‘~’). The escape character is
only recognized at the
beginning of a line. The
escape character followed by
a dot (‘.’) closes the
-e escape_char connection; followed by
control-Z suspends the
connection; and followed by
itself sends the escape
character once. Setting the
character to “none” disables
any escapes and makes the
session fully transparent.
Specifies a per-user
configuration file. The default
-F configfile
for the per-user configuration
file is ~/.ssh/config.
Requests ssh to go to
-f background just before
command execution.

294
Flag Description
Causes ssh to print its
configuration after
-G
evaluating Host and Match
blocks and exit.
Allows remote hosts to
-g connect to local forwarded
ports.
Specify the PKCS#11 shared
library ssh should use to
-I pkcs11 communicate with a
PKCS#11 token providing
keys.
A file from which the identity
-i identity_file key (private key) for public
key authentication is read.
Connect to the target host by
first making a ssh connection
to the pjump
-J [user@]host[:port] host[(/iam/jump-host) and
then establishing a TCP
forwarding to the ultimate
destination from there.
Enables GSSAPI-based
authentication and
-K forwarding (delegation) of
GSSAPI credentials to the
server.
Disables forwarding
-k (delegation) of GSSAPI
credentials to the server.

295
Flag Description
Specifies that connections to
the given TCP port or Unix
socket on the local (client)
host are to be forwarded to
the given host and port, or
Unix socket, on the remote
side. This works by allocating
-L a socket to listen to either a
[bind_address:]port:host:hostport, TCP port on the local side,
-L optionally bound to the
[bind_address:]port:remote_socket, specified bind_address, or to
-L local_socket:host:hostport, -L a Unix socket. Whenever a
local_socket:remote_socket connection is made to the
local port or socket, the
connection is forwarded over
the secure channel, and a
connection is made to either
host port hostport, or the
Unix socket remote_socket,
from the remote machine.
Specifies the user to log in as
-l login_name
on the remote machine.
Places the ssh client into
“master” mode for
connection sharing. Multiple -
M options places ssh into
“master” mode but with
-M
confirmation required using
ssh-askpass before each
operation that changes the
multiplexing state (e.g.
opening a new session).
A comma-separated list of
MAC (message
-m mac_spec authentication code)
algorithms, specified in order
of preference.
Do not execute a remote
-N command. This is useful for
just forwarding ports.

296
Flag Description
-n Prevents reading from stdin.
Control an active connection
multiplexing master process.
When the -O option is
specified, the ctl_cmd
argument is interpreted and
passed to the master
process. Valid commands
are: “check” (check that the
master process is running),
-O ctl_cmd
“forward” (request
forwardings without
command execution),
“cancel” (cancel
forwardings), “exit” (request
the master to exit), and
“stop” (request the master to
stop accepting further
multiplexing requests).
Can be used to give options
in the format used in the
configuration file. This is
-o
useful for specifying options
for which there is no
separate command-line flag.
Port to connect to on the
-p, --port PORT
remote host.

297
Flag Description
Queries ssh for the
algorithms supported for the
specified version 2. The
available features are: cipher
(supported symmetric
ciphers), cipher-auth
(supported symmetric
ciphers that support
authenticated encryption),
help (supported query terms
for use with the -Q flag), mac
(supported message integrity
codes), kex (key exchange
algorithms), kex-gss (GSSAPI
key exchange algorithms),
-Q query_option
key (keytypes), key-cert
(certificate key types), key-
plain (non-certificate key
types), key-sig (all keytypes
and signature algorithms),
protocol-version (supported
SSH protocol versions), and
sig (supported signature
algorithms). Alternatively,
any keyword from
ssh_config(5) or
sshd_config(5) thattakes an
algorithm list may be used as
an alias for the
corresponding query_option.
Qiet mode. Causes most
-q warning and diagnostic
messages to be suppressed.
-R
[bind_address:]port:host:hostport, Specifies that connections to
-R the given TCP port or Unix
[bind_address:]port:local_socket, socket on the remote
-R remote_socket:host:hostport, -R (server) host are to be
remote_socket:local_socket, -R forwarded to the local side.
[bind_address:]port

298
Flag Description
Specifies the location of a
control socket for connection
-S ctl_path sharing, or the string “none”
to disable connection
sharing.
May be used to request
invocation of a subsystem on
the remote system.
Subsystems facilitate the use
-s of SSH as a secure transport
for other applications (e.g.
sftp(1)). The subsystem is
specified as the remote
command.
Disable pseudo-terminal
-T
allocation.
Force pseudo-terminal
allocation. This can be used
to execute arbitrary screen-
based programs on a remote
machine, which can be very
-t
useful, e.g. when
implementing menu services.
Multiple -t options force tty
allocation, even if ssh has no
local tty.
-V Display the version number.
Verbose mode. It echoes
everything it is doing while
establishing a connection. It
-v
is very useful in the
debugging of connection
failures.

299
Flag Description
Requests that standard input
and output on the client be
forwarded to host on port
over the secure channel.
Implies -N, -T,
-W host:port
ExitOnForwardFailure and
ClearAllForwardings, though
these can be overridden in
the configuration file or using
-o command line options.
Requests tunnel device
forwarding with the specified
tun devices between the
client (local_tun) and the
server (remote_tun). The
devices may be specified by
numerical ID or the keyword
“any”, which uses the next
available tunnel device. If
-w local_tun[remote_tun]
remote_tun is not specified,
it defaults to “any”. If the
Tunnel directive is unset, it
will be set to the default
tunnel mode, which is “point-
to-point”. If a different
Tunnel forwarding mode it
desired, then it should be
specified before -w.
Enables X11 forwarding (GUI
-X
Forwarding).
Disables X11 forwarding (GUI
-x
Forwarding).
Enables trusted X11
-Y
Forwarding.
Send log information using
the syslog system module.
-y
By default this information is
sent to stderr.

300
The awk command

Awk is a general-purpose scripting language designed for advanced text

processing. It is mostly used as a reporting and analysis tool.

WHAT CAN WE DO WITH AWK?

1. AWK Operations: (a) Scans a file line by line (b) Splits each input
line into fields (c) Compares input line/fields to pattern (d)
Performs action(s) on matched lines

2. Useful For: (a) Transform data files (b) Produce formatted reports

3. Programming Constructs: (a) Format output lines (b) Arithmetic

and string operations (c) Conditionals and loops

Syntax

awk options 'selection _criteria {action }' input-file >

output-file

Example

Consider the following text file as the input file for below example:

301
 ```
$cat > employee.txt
```
```
ajay manager account 45000
sunil clerk account 25000
varun manager sales 50000
amit manager account 47000
tarun peon sales 15000
```

1. Default behavior of Awk: By default Awk prints every line of data

from the specified file.

$ awk '{print}' employee.txt

ajay manager account 45000

sunil clerk account 25000
varun manager sales 50000
amit manager account 47000
tarun peon sales 15000

In the above example, no pattern is given. So the actions are applicable

to all the lines. Action print without any argument prints the whole line
by default, so it prints all the lines of the file without failure.

2. Print the lines which match the given pattern.

awk '/manager/ {print}' employee.txt

ajay manager account 45000

varun manager sales 50000
amit manager account 47000

302
In the above example, the awk command prints all the line which
matches with the ‘manager’.

3. Splitting a Line Into Fields : For each record i.e line, the awk
command splits the record delimited by whitespace character by
default and stores it in the $n variables. If the line has 4 words, it
will be stored in $1, $2, $3 and $4 respectively. Also, $0 represents
the whole line.

$ awk '{print $1,$4}' employee.txt

ajay 45000
sunil 25000
varun 50000
amit 47000
tarun 15000

Built-In Variables In Awk

Awk’s built-in variables include the field variables—$1, $2, $3, and so
on ($0 is the entire line) — that break a line of text into individual words
or pieces called fields.

NR: NR command keeps a current count of the number of input records.

Remember that records are usually lines. Awk command performs the
pattern/action statements once for each record in a file. NF: NF
command keeps a count of the number of fields within the current input
record. FS: FS command contains the field separator character which is
used to divide fields on the input line. The default is “white space”,
meaning space and tab characters. FS can be reassigned to another
character (typically in BEGIN) to change the field separator. RS: RS
command stores the current record separator character. Since, by
default, an input line is the input record, the default record separator
character is a newline. OFS: OFS command stores the output field

303
separator, which separates the fields when Awk prints them. The
default is a blank space. Whenever print has several parameters
separated with commas, it will print the value of OFS in between each
parameter. ORS: ORS command stores the output record separator,
which separates the output lines when Awk prints them. The default is a
newline character. print automatically outputs the contents of ORS at
the end of whatever it is given to print.

304
The crontab command

crontab is used to maintain crontab files for individual users (Vixie

Cron)

crontab is the program used to install, uninstall or list the tables used to
drive the cron(8) daemon in Vixie Cron. Each user can have their own
crontab, and though these are files in /var/spool/cron/crontabs, they
are not intended to be edited directly.

Syntax:

crontab [ -u user ] file

crontab [ -u user ] [ -i ] { -e | -l | -r }

Examples:

1. The -l option causes the current crontab to be displayed on

standard output.

crontab -l

2. The -r option causes the current crontab to be removed.

crontab -r

3. The -e option is used to edit the current crontab using the editor
specified by the VISUAL or EDITOR environment variables. After

305
 you exit from the editor, the modified crontab will be installed
automatically. If neither of the environment variables is defined,
then the default editor /usr/bin/editor is used.

crontab -e

4. You can specify the user you want to edit the crontab for. Every
user has its own crontab. Assume you have a www-data user, which
is in fact the user Apache is default running as. If you want to edit
the crontab for this user you can run the following command

crontab -u www-data -e

Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to crontab command.

man crontab

306
The xargs command

xargs is used to build and execute command lines from standard input

Some commands like grep can accept input as parameters, but some
commands accepts arguments, this is place where xargs came into
picture.

Syntax:

xargs [options] [command [initial-arguments]]

Options:

-0, --null

Input items are terminated by a null character instead of by whitespace,

and the quotes and backslash are not special (every character is taken
literal‐ly). Disables the end of file string, which is treated like any other
argument. Useful when input items might contain white space, quote
marks, or back‐slashes.

-a file, --arg-file=file

Read items from file instead of standard input. If you use this option,
stdin remains unchanged when commands are run. Otherwise, stdin is
redirected from /dev/null.

307
 -o, --open-tty

Reopen stdin as /dev/tty in the child process before executing the

command. This is useful if you want xargs to run an interactive
application.

--delimiter=delim, -d delim

Input items are terminated by the specified character. The specified

delimiter may be a single character, a C-style character escape such as
\n, or an octal or hexadecimal escape code. Octal and hexadecimal
escape codes are understood as for the printf command. Multibyte
characters are not supported. When processing the input, quotes and
backslash are not special; every character in the input is taken literally.
The -d option disables any end-of-file string, which is treated like any
other argument. You can use this option when the input consists of
simply newline-separated items, although it is al‐ most always better to
design your program to use --null where this is possible.

-p, --interactive

Prompt the user about whether to run each command line and read a
line from the terminal. Only run the command line if the response starts
with y' or Y'. Implies -t.

Examples:

find /tmp -name core -type f -print | xargs /bin/rm -f

Find files named core in or below the directory /tmp and delete them.

308
Note that this will work incorrectly if there are any filenames containing
newlines or spaces.

find /tmp -name core -type f -print0 | xargs -0 /bin/rm -f

Find files named core in or below the directory /tmp and delete them,
processing filenames in such a way that file or directory names
containing spaces or new‐ lines are correctly handled.

find /tmp -depth -name core -type f -delete

Find files named core in or below the directory /tmp and delete them,
but more efficiently than in the previous example (because we avoid
the need to use fork(2) and exec(2) to launch rm and we don't need the
extra xargs process).

cut -d: -f1 < /etc/passwd | sort | xargs echo

Generates a compact listing of all the users on the system.

Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to xargs command.

man xargs

309
The nohup command

When a shell exits (maybe while logging out of an SSH session), the
HUP ('hang up') signal is send to all of its child processes, causing them
to terminate. If you require a long-running process to continue after
exiting shell, you'll need the nohup command. Prefixing any command
with nohup causes the command to become immune to HUP signals.
Additionally, STDIN is being ignored and all output gets redirected to
local file ./nohup.out.

Examples:

1. Applying nohup to a long-running debian upgrade:

nohup apt-get -y upgrade

Syntax:

nohup COMMAND [ARG]...

nohup OPTION

310
The pstree command

The pstree command is similar to ps, but instead of listing the running
processes, it shows them as a tree. The tree-like format is sometimes
more suitable way to display the processes hierarchy which is a much
simpler way to visualize running processes. The root of the tree is either
init or the process with the given pid.

Examples

1. To display a hierarchical tree structure of all running processes:

pstree

2. To display a tree with the given process as the root of the tree:

pstree [pid]

3. To show only those processes that have been started by a user:

pstree [USER]

4. To show the parent processes of the given process:

pstree -s [PID]

5. To view the output one page at a time, pipe it to the less

311
 command:

pstree | less

Syntax

ps [OPTIONS] [USER or PID]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-a --arguments Show command line arguments
-A --ascii use ASCII line drawing characters
-c --compact Don't compact identical subtrees
Highlight current process and its
-h --highlight-all
ancestors
highlight this process and its
-H PID --highlight-pid=PID
ancestors
-g --show-pgids show process group ids; implies -c
-G --vt100 use VT100 line drawing characters
-l --long Don't truncate long lines
-n --numeric-sort Sort output by PID
Sort by namespace type (cgroup, ipc,
-N type --ns-sort=type
mnt, net, pid, user, uts)
-p --show-pids show PIDs; implies -c
-s --show-parents Show parents of the selected process
-S --ns-changes show namespace transitions
-t --thread-names Show full thread names
-T --hide-threads Hide threads, show only processes
-u --uid-changes Show uid transitions
Use UTF-8 (Unicode) line drawing
-U --unicode
characters

312
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-V --version Display version information
-Z --security-context Show SELinux security contexts

313
The tree command

The tree command in Linux recursively lists directories as tree

structures. Each listing is indented according to its depth relative to
root of the tree.

Examples:

1. Show a tree representation of the current directory.

tree

2. -L NUMBER limits the depth of recursion to avoid display very deep

trees.

tree -L 2 /

Syntax:

tree [-acdfghilnpqrstuvxACDFQNSUX] [-L level [-R]] [-H

baseHREF] [-T title]
[-o filename] [--nolinks] [-P pattern] [-I pattern] [-
-inodes]
[--device] [--noreport] [--dirsfirst] [--version] [--
help] [--filelimit #]
[--si] [--prune] [--du] [--timefmt format] [--
matchdirs] [--from-file]
[--] [directory ...]

314
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flag Description
-a Print all files, including hidden ones.
-d Only list directories.
-l Follow symbolic links into directories.
Print the full path to each listing, not just its
-f
basename.
-x Do not move across file-systems.
-L # Limit recursion depth to #.
-P REGEX Recurse, but only list files that match the REGEX.
-I REGEX Recurse, but do not list files that match the REGEX.
--ignore-case Ignore case while pattern-matching.
--prune Prune empty directories from output.
--filelimit # Omit directories that contain more than # files.
-o FILE Redirect STDOUT output to FILE.
-i Do not output indentation.

315
The whereis command

The whereis command is used to find the location of source/binary file

of a command and manuals sections for a specified file in Linux system.
If we compare whereis command with find command they will appear
similar to each other as both can be used for the same purposes but
whereis command produces the result more accurately by consuming
less time comparatively.

Points to be kept on mind while using the whereis command:

Since the whereis command uses chdir(change directory 2V) to give

you the result in the fastest possible way, the pathnames given with the
-M, -S, or -B must be full and well-defined i.e. they must begin with a /
and should be a valid path that exist in the system’s directories, else it
exits without any valid result. whereis command has a hard-
coded(code which is not dynamic and changes with specification) path,
so you may not always find what you’re looking for.

Syntax

whereis [options] [filename]

Options

-b : This option is used when we only want to search for binaries. -m :

This option is used when we only want to search for manual sections. -s
: This option is used when we only want to search for source files. -u:
This option search for unusual entries. A source file or a binary file is

316
said to be unusual if it does not have any existence in system as per [-
bmsu] described along with “–u”. Thus `whereis -m -u *‘ asks for those
files in the current directory which have unsual entries.

-B : This option is used to change or otherwise limit the places where

whereis searches for binaries. -M : This option is used to change or
otherwise limit the places where whereis searches for manual sections.
-S : This option is used to change or otherwise limit the places where
whereis searches for source files.

-f : This option simply terminate the last directory list and signals the
start of file names. This must be used when any of the -B, -M, or -S
options are used. -V: Displays version information and exit. -h: Displays
the help and exit.

317
The printf command

This command lets you print the value of a variable by formatting it

using rules. It is pretty similar to the printf in C language.

Syntax:

$printf [-v variable_name] format [arguments]

Options:

OPTION Description
FORMAT controls the output, and defines the way that the
FORMAT
ARGUMENTs will be expressed in the output
An ARGUMENT will be inserted into the formatted output
ARGUMENT
according to the definition of FORMAT
--help Display help and exit
--version Output version information adn exit

Formats:

The anatomy of the FORMAT string can be extracted into three different
parts,

ordinary characters, which are copied exactly the same characters

as were used originally to the output.
interpreted character sequences, which are escaped with a
backslash ("\").
conversion specifications, this one will define the way the

318
 ARGUMENTs will be expressed as part of the output.

You can see those parts in this example,

printf " %s is where over %d million developers shape \"the

future of sofware.\" " Github 65

The output:

Github is where over 65 million developers shape "the future

of sofware."

There are two conversion specifications %s and %d, and there are two
escaped characters which are the opening and closing double-quotes
wrapping the words of the future of software. Other than that are the
ordinary characters.

Conversion Specifications:

Each conversion specification begins with a % and ends with a

conversion character. Between the % and the conversion character
there may be, in order:

A minus sign. This tells printf to left-adjust the conversion of

-
the argument
An integer that specifies field width; printf prints a conversion
of ARGUMENT in a field at least number characters wide. If
number
necessary it will be padded on the left (or right, if left-
adjustment is called for) to make up the field width
. A period, which separates the field width from the precision
An integer, the precision, which specifies the maximum
number of characters to be printed from a string, or the
number
number of digits after the decimal point of a floating-point
value, or the minimum number of digits for an integer

319
 These differentiate between a short and a long integer,
h or l respectively, and are generally only needed for computer
programming

The conversion characters tell printf what kind of argument to print

out, are as follows:

Conversion
Argument type
char
s A string
An integer, expressed as a character corresponds
c
ASCII code
d, i An integer as a decimal number
o An integer as an unsigned octal number
x, X An integer as an unsigned hexadecimal number
u An integer as an unsigned decimal number
f A floating-point number with a default precision of 6
e, E A floating-point number in scientific notation
p A memory address pointer
% No conversion

Here is the list of some examples of the printf output the ARGUMENT.
we can put any word but in this one we put a 'linuxcommand` word and
enclosed it with quotes so we can see easier the position related to the
whitespaces.

FORMAT string ARGUMENT string Output string

"%s" "linuxcommand" "linuxcommand"
"%5s" "linuxcommand" "linuxcommand"
"%.5s" "linuxcommand" "linux"
"%-8s" "linuxcommand" "linuxcommand"
"%-15s" "linuxcommand" "linuxcommand "
"%12.5s" "linuxcommand" " linux"
"%-12.5" "linuxcommand" "linux "
"%-12.4" "linuxcommand" "linu "

320
Notes:

printf requires the number of conversion strings to match the

number of ARGUMENTs
printf maps the conversion strings one-to-one, and expects to
find exactly one ARGUMENT for each conversion string
Conversion strings are always interpreted from left to right.

Here's the example:

The input

printf "We know %f is %s %d" 12.07 "larger than" 12

The output:

We know 12.070000 is larger than 12

The example above shows 3 arguments, 12.07, larger than, and 12.
Each of them interpreted from left to right one-to-one with the given 3
conversion strings (%f, %d, %s).

Character sequences which are interpreted as special characters by

printf:

Escaped char Description

issues an alert (plays a bell). Usually ASCII BEL
\a
characters
\b prints a backspace
\c instructs printf to produce no further output
\e prints an escape character (ASCII code 27)
\f prints a form feed
\n prints a newline
\r prints a carriage return

321
Escaped char Description
\t prints a horizontal tab
\v prints a vertical tab
\" prints a double-quote (")
\\ prints a backslash ()
\NNN prints a byte with octal value NNN (1 to 3 digits)
\xHH prints a byte with hexadecimal value HH (1 to 2 digits)
prints the unicode character with hexadecimal value
\uHHHH
HHHH (4 digits)
prints the unicode character with hexadecimal value
\UHHHHHHHH
HHHHHHHH (8 digits)
prints ARGUMENT as a string with "\" escapes
%b interpreted as listed above, with the exception that
octal escapes take the form \0 or \0NN

Examples:

The format specifiers usually used with printf are stated in the
examples below:

%s

$printf "%s\n" "Printf command documentation!"

This will print Printf command documentation! in the shell.

Other important attributes of printf command:

%b - Prints arguments by expanding backslash escape sequences.

%q - Prints arguments in a shell-quoted format which is reusable as
input.
%d , %i - Prints arguments in the format of signed decimal integers.
%u - Prints arguments in the format of unsigned decimal integers.
%o - Prints arguments in the format of unsigned octal(base 8)

322
 integers.
%x, %X - Prints arguments in the format of unsigned
hexadecimal(base 16) integers. %x prints lower-case letters and
%X prints upper-case letters.
%e, %E - Prints arguments in the format of floating-point numbers in
exponential notation. %e prints lower-case letters and %E prints
upper-case.
%a, %A - Prints arguments in the format of floating-point numbers in
hexadecimal(base 16) fractional notation. %a prints lower-case
letters and %A prints upper-case.
%g, %G - Prints arguments in the format of floating-point numbers in
normal or exponential notation, whichever is more appropriate for
the given value and precision. %g prints lower-case letters and %G
prints upper-case.
%c - Prints arguments as single characters.
%f - Prints arguments as floating-point numbers.
%s - Prints arguments as strings.
%% - Prints a "%" symbol.

More Examples:

The input:

printf 'Hello\nyoung\nman!'

The output:

hello
young
man!

The two \n break the sentence into 3 parts of words.

The input:

323
 printf "%f\n" 2.5 5.75

The output

2.500000
5.750000

The %f specifier combined with the \n interpreted the two arguments in

the form of floating point in the seperated new lines.

324
The cut command

The cut command lets you remove sections from each line of files. Print
selected parts of lines from each FILE to standard output. With no FILE,
or when FILE is -, read standard input.

Usage and Examples:

1. Selecting specific fields in a file

cut -d "delimiter" -f (field number) file.txt

2. Selecting specific characters:

cut -c [(k)-(n)/(k),(n)/(n)] filename

Here, k denotes the starting position of the character and n denotes the
ending position of the character in each line, if k and n are separated by
“-” otherwise they are only the position of character in each line from
the file taken as an input.

3. Selecting specific bytes:

325
 cut -b 1,2,3 filename //select bytes 1,2
and 3
cut -b 1-4 filename //select bytes 1
through 4
cut -b 1- filename //select bytes
1 through the end of file
cut -b -4 filename //select bytes
from the beginning till the 4th byte

Tabs and backspaces are treated like as a character of 1 byte.

Syntax:

cut OPTION... [FILE]...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-b --bytes=LIST select only these bytes
-c --characters=LIST select only these characters
use DELIM instead of TAB for field
-d --delimiter=DELIM
delimiter
select only these fields; also print any
-f --fields line that contains no delimiter character,
unless the -s option is specified
do not print lines not containing
-s --only-delimited
delimiters
-z --zero-terminated line delimiter is NUL, not newline

326
The sed command

sed command stands for stream editor. A stream editor is used to

perform basic text transformations on an input stream (a file or input
from a pipeline). For instance, it can perform lot’s of functions on files
like searching, find and replace, insertion or deletion. While in some
ways it is similar to an editor which permits scripted edits (such as ed),
sed works by making only one pass over the input(s), and is
consequently more efficient. But it is sed's ability to filter text in a
pipeline that particularly distinguishes it from other types of editors.

The most common use of sed command is for a substitution or for find
and replace. By using sed you can edit files even without opening it,
which is a much quicker way to find and replace something in the file. It
supports basic and extended regular expressions that allow you to
match complex patterns. Most Linux distributions come with GNU and
sed is pre-installed by default.

Examples:

1. To Find and Replace String with sed

sed -i 's/{search_regex}/{replace_value}/g' input-file

2. For Recursive Find and Replace (along with find)

327
Sometimes you may want to recursively search directories for files
containing a string and replace the string in all files. This can be done
using commands such as find to recursively find files in the directory
and piping the file names to sed. The following command will
recursively search for files in the current working directory and pass the
file names to sed. It will recursively search for files in the current
working directory and pass the file names to sed.

find . -type f -exec sed -i

's/{search_regex}/{replace_value}/g' {} +

Syntax:

sed [OPTION]... {script-only-if-no-other-script} [INPUT-

FILE]...

OPTION - sed options in-place, silent, follow-symlinks, line-length,

null-data ...etc.
{script-only-if-no-other-script} - Add the script to command
if available.
INPUT-FILE - Input Stream, A file or input from a pipeline.

If no option is given, then the first non-option argument is taken as the

sed script to interpret. All remaining arguments are names of input
files; if no input files are specified, then the standard input is read.

GNU sed home page: http://www.gnu.org/software/sed/

Short Flag Long Flag Description

Edit files in place (makes backup
-i[SUFFIX] --in-place[=SUFFIX]
if SUFFIX supplied).
Suppress automatic printing of
-n --quiet, --silent
pattern space.

328
Short Flag Long Flag Description
Add the script to the commands
-e script --expression=script
to be executed.
-f script- Add the contents of script-file to
file
--file=script-file
the commands to be executed.
Specify the desired line-wrap
-l N --line-length=N
length for the l command.
Use extended regular expressions
-r --regexp-extended
in the script.
Consider files as separate rather
-s --separate than as a single continuous long
stream.
Load minimal amounts of data
-u --unbuffered from the input files and flush the
output buffers more often.
Separate lines by NULL
-z --null-data
characters.

Before you begin

It may seem complicated and complex at first, but searching and

replacing text in files with sed is very simple.

To find out more: https://www.gnu.org/software/sed/manual/sed.html

329
The vim command

The vim is a text editor for Unix that comes with Linux, BSD, and
macOS. It is known to be fast and powerful, partly because it is a small
program that can run in a terminal (although it has a graphical
interface). Vim text editor is developed by Bram Moolenaar. It supports
most file types and the vim editor is also known as a programmer's
editor. It is mainly because it can be managed entirely without menus
or a mouse with a keyboard.

Note: Do not confuse vim with vi. vi, which stands for "Visual", is a
text editor that was developed by Bill Joy in 1976. vim stands for "Vi
Improved", and is an improved clone of the vi editor.

The most searched question about vim :

How to exit vim editor?

The most searched question about vim editor looks very funny but it's
true that the new user gets stuck at the very beginning when using vim
editor.

The command to save the file and exit vim editor: :wq

The command to exit vim editor without saving the file: :q!

Fun reading:

Here's a survey for the same question, look at this and do not think to
quit the vim editor.

330
Installation:

First check if vim is already installed or not, enter the following

command:

vim --version

If it is already installed it will show its version, else we can run the
below commands for the installations:

On Ubuntu/Debian:

sudo apt-get install vim

On CentOS/Fedora:

sudo yum install vim

If you want to use advanced features on CentOS/Fedora, you'll need to

install enhanced vim editor, to do this run the following command:

sudo yum install -y vim-enhanced

Syntax:

vim [FILE_PATH/FILE_NAME]

331
Examples:

1. To open the file named "demo.txt" from your current directory:

vim demo.txt

2. To open the file in a specific directory:

vim {File_Path/filename}

3. To open the file starting on a specific line in the file:

vim {File_Path/filename} +LINE_NUMBER

Modes in vim editor:

There are some arguments as to how many modes that vim has, but
the modes you're most likely to use are command mode and insert
mode. These modes will allow you to do just about anything you need,
including creating your document, saving your document, and doing
advanced editing, including taking advantage of search and replace
functions.

Workflow of vim editor:

1. Open a new or existing file with vim filename.

2. Type i to switch into insert mode so that you can start editing the
file.
3. Enter or modify the text of your file.
4. When you're done, press the Esc key to exit insert mode and back
to command mode.

332
 5. Type :w or :wq to save the file or save and exit from the file
respectively.

Interactive training

In this interactive tutorial, you will learn the different ways to use the
vim command:

The Open vim Tutorial

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Flags/Options Description
-e Start in Ex mode (see Ex-mode)
-R Start in read-only mode
-R Start in read-only mode
-g Start the GUI
-eg Start the GUI in Ex mode
-Z Like "vim", but in restricted mode
-d Start in diff mode diff-mode
-h Give usage (help) message and exit
Open a file and place the cursor on the line number
+NUMBER
specified by NUMBER

Read more about vim:

vim can not be learned in a single day, use in day-to-day tasks to get
hands-on in vim editor.

To learn more about vim follow the given article:

Article By Daniel Miessler

333
The chown command

The chown command makes it possible to change the ownership of a file

or directory. Users and groups are fundamental in Linux, with chown you
can change the owner of a file or directory. It's also possible to change
ownership on folders recursively

Examples:

1. Change the owner of a file

chown user file.txt

2. Change the group of a file

chown :group file.txt

3. Change the user and group in one line

chown user:group file.txt

4. Change to ownership on a folder recursively

chown -R user:group folder

334
Syntax:

chown [-OPTION] [DIRECTORY_PATH]

335
The find command

The find command lets you search for files in a directory

hierarchy

Search a file with specific name.

Search a file with pattern
Search for empty files and directories.

Examples:

1. Search a file with specific name:

find ./directory1 -name sample.txt

2. Search a file with pattern:

find ./directory1 -name '*.txt'

3. To find all directories whose name is test in / directory.

find / -type d -name test

4. Searching empty files in current directory

find . -size 0k

336
Syntax:

find [options] [paths] [expression]

In Simple words

find [where to start searching from]

[expression determines what to find] [-options] [what to
find]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Commonly-used primaries include:

name pattern - tests whether the file name matches the shell-glob
pattern given.
type type - tests whether the file is a given type. Unix file types
accepted include:

options Description
b block device (buffered)
d directory
f regular file
l Symbolic link
always returns true; prints the name of the current file
-print
plus a newline to the stdout.
-mtime n find's all the files which are modified n days back.
-atime n find's all the files which are accessed 50 days back.
-cmin n find's all the files which are modified in the last 1 hour.
-newer file find's file was modified more recently than file.
-size n File uses n units of space, rounding up.

337
Help Command

Run below command to view the complete guide to find command or

click here.

man find

338
The rmdir command

The rmdir command is used to remove empty directories from the

filesystem in Linux. The rmdir command removes each and every
directory specified in the command line only if these directories are
empty.

Usage and Examples:

1. remove directory and its ancestors

rmdir -p a/b/c // is similar to 'rmdir

a/b/c a/b a'

2. remove multiple directories

rmdir a b c // removes empty

directories a,b and c

Syntax:

rmdir [OPTION]... DIRECTORY...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

339
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
ignore each failure that is
- --ignore-fail-on-non-empty solely because a directory is
non-empty
remove DIRECTORY and its
-p --parents
ancestors
use DELIM instead of TAB for
-d --delimiter=DELIM
field delimiter
output a diagnostic for every
-v --verbose
directory processed

340
The lsblk command

341
Summary

The lsblk command displays the block and loop devices on the system.
It is especially useful when you want to format disks, write filesystems,
check the filesystem and know the mount point of a device.

342
Examples

1. Basic usage is fairly simple - just execute 'lsblk' sans any option.

lsblk

2. Make lsblk display empty devices as well

lsblk -a

3. Make lsblk print size info in bytes

lsblk -b

4. Make lsblk print zone model for each device

lsblk -z

5. Make lsblk skip entries for slaves

lsblk -d

6. Make lsblk use ascii characters for tree formatting

lsblk -i

7. Make lsblk display info about device owner, group, and mode

343
lsblk -m

8. Make lsblk output select columns

lsblk -o NAME,SIZE

344
Syntax

lsblk [options] [<device> ...]

345
Reading information given by lsblk

On running lsblk with no flags or command-line arguments, it writes

general disk information to the STDOUT. Here is a table that interpretes
that information:

Column Name Meaning Interpretation

NAME Name of the device. Shows name of the device.
Shows 1 if the device is
RM Removable.
removable, 0 if not.
SIZE Size of the device. Shows size of the device.
RO Read-Only. Shows 1 if read-only, 0 if not.
The type of block or Shows disk for entire disk and
TYPE
loop device. part for partitions.
Where the device is Shows where the device is
MOUNTPOINTS
mounted. mounted. Empty if not mounted.

346
Reading information of a specific device

lsblk can display information of a specific device when the device's

absolute path is passed to it. For example, lsblk command for
displaying the information of the sda disk is:

lsblk /dev/sda

347
Useful flags for lsblk

Here is a table that show some of the useful flags that can be used with
lsblk

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
lsblk does not list empty devices by default. This option disables this
-a --all
restriction.
-b --bytes Print the SIZE column in bytes rather than in human-readable format.
-d --nodeps Don't print device holders or slaves.
Print information about the discard (TRIM, UNMAP) capabilities for each
-D --discard
device.
Use column as a de-duplication key to de-duplicate output tree. If the key
-E --dedup column is not available for the device, or the device is a partition and parental
whole-disk device provides the same key than the device is always printed.
xclude the devices specified by a comma-separated list of major device
-e --exclude list numbers. Note that RAM disks (major=1) are excluded by default. The filter
is applied to the top-level devices only.
-f --fs Displays information about filesystem.
-h --help Print a help text and exit.
-l --include list Displays all the information in List Format.
-J --json Displays all the information in JSON Format.
-l --list Displays all the information in List Format.
-m --perms Displays info about device owner, group and mode.
Group parents of sub-trees to provide more readable output for RAIDs and
-M --merge
Multi-path devices. The tree-like output is required.
-n --noheadings Do not print a header line.
Specify which output columns to print. Use --help to get a list of all
-o --output list
supported columns.
-O --output-all Displays all available columns.
-p --paths Displays absolute device paths.
Use key="value" output format. All potentially unsafe characters are hex-
-P --pairs
escaped (\x)
Use the raw output format. All potentially unsafe characters are hex-
-r --raw escaped (\x) in NAME, KNAME, LABEL, PARTLABEL and MOUNTPOINT
columns.
Output info about SCSI devices only. All partitions, slaves and holder
-S --scsi
devices are ignored.
-s --inverse Print dependencies in inverse order.
Output info about block device topology. This option is equivalent to "-o
-t --topology
NAME,ALIGNMENT,MIN-IO,OPT-IO,PHY-SEC,LOG-SEC,ROTA,SCHED,RQ-SIZE".
-T --tree[=column] Displays all the information in Tree Format.
-V --version Output version information and exit.
pecifies output width as a number of characters. The default is the number
-w --width of the terminal columns, and if not executed ona terminal, then output
width is not restricted at all by default.

348
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Sort output lines by column. This option enables --list output format by
-x --sort [column] default. It is possible to use the option --tree to force tree-like output and
than the tree branches are sorted by the column.
-z --zoned Print the zone model for each device.
Gather data for a Linux instance other than the instance from which the
--sysroot
-
directory
lsblk command is issued. The specified directory is the system root of the
Linux instance to be inspected.

349
Exit Codes

Like every Unix / Linux Program, lslbk returns an exit code to the
environment. Here is a table of all the exit codes.

Exit Code Meaning

0 Exit with success.
1 Exit with failure.
32 Specified device(s) not found.
64 Some of the specified devices were found while some not.

350
The cmatrix command

This command doesn't come by default in Linux. It has to be installed,

and as seen in chapter 052 we need to run the following command:

sudo apt-get install cmatrix

And after everything is installed, you have become a 'legit hacker'. In

order to use this command, just type in cmatrix and press enter:

cmatrix

And this is what you should see:

As you can see you have access to the matrix now. Well, not really.

What this actually is just a fun little command to goof around with.
There are actually a few options you can use. For examle you can
change the text colour. You can choose from green, red, blue, white,
yellow, cyan, magenta and black.

cmatrix -C red

And the falling characters will be red. This command isn't really
something that will help you with your job or anything, but it is fun to
know that you can have some fun in Linux.

351
The chmod command

The chmod command allows you to change the permissions on a file

using either a symbolic or numeric mode or a reference file.

Examples:

1. Change the permission of a file using symbolic mode:

chmod u=rwx,g=rx,o=r myfile

The command above means :

user can read, write, execute myfile

group can read, execute myfile
other can read myfile

2. Change the permission of a file using numeric mode

chmod 754 myfile user:group file.txt

The command above means :

user can read, write, execute myfile

group can read, execute myfile
other can read myfile

3. Change the permission of a folder recursively

352
 chmod -R 754 folder

Syntax:

chmod [OPTIONS] MODE FILE(s)

[OPTIONS] : -R: recursive, mean all file inside directory

MODE: different way to set permissions:

Symbolic mode explained

u: user
g: group
o: other
=: set the permission
r: read
w: write
x: execute
example u=rwx means user can read write and execute

Numeric mode explained:

The numeric mode is based off of a binary representation of the

permissions for user, group, and others, for more information please
look at this explanation from Digital Ocean's community section:

4 stands for "read",

2 stands for "write",
1 stands for "execute", and

353
0 stands for "no permission."
example 7 mean read + write + execute

354
The grep command

The grep filter searches a file for a particular pattern of characters, and
displays all lines that contain that pattern. grep stands for globally
search for regular expression and print out. The pattern that is
searched in the file is referred to as the regular expression.

Examples:

1. To search the contents of the destination.txt file for a string("KeY")

case insensitively.

grep -i "KeY" destination.txt

2. Displaying the count of number of matches

grep -c "key" destination.txt

3. We can search multiple files and only display the files that contains
the given string/pattern.

grep -l "key" destination1.txt destination2.txt

destination3.xt destination4.txt

4. To show the line number of file with the line matched.

grep -n "key" destination.txt

355
 5. If you want to grep the monitored log files, you can add the --
line-buffered to search them in real time.

tail -f destination.txt | grep --line-buffered "key"

Syntax:

The general syntax for the grep command is as follows:

grep [options] pattern [files]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
print a count of matching lines for
-c --count
each input file
Display the matched lines, but do not
-h --no-filename
display the filenames
-i --ignore-case Ignores, case for matching
-l --files-with-matches Displays list of a filenames only.
Display the matched lines and their
-n --line-number
line numbers.
This prints out all the lines that do not
-v --invert-match
matches the pattern
Specifies expression with this option.
-e --regexp=
Can use multiple times
-f --file= Takes patterns from file, one per line.
Interpret patterns as fixed strings, not
-F --fixed-strings=
regular expressions.
Treats pattern as an extended regular
-E --extended-regexp
expression (ERE)
-w --word-regexp Match whole word

356
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
Print only the matched parts of a
-o --only-matching matching line, with each such part on
a separate output line.
--line-buffered Force output to be line buffered.

357
The screen command

screen - With screen you can start a screen session and then open any
number of windows (virtual terminals) inside that session. Processes
running in Screen will continue to run when their window is not visible
even if you get disconnected. This is very handy for running long during
session such as bash scripts that run very long.

To start a screen session you type screen, this will open a new screen
session with a virtual terminal open.

Below are some most common commands for managing Linux Screen
Windows:

Command Description
Ctrl+a+ c Create a new window (with shell).
Ctrl+a+ " List all windows.
Ctrl+a+ 0 Switch to window 0 (by number).
Ctrl+a+ A Rename the current window.
Ctrl+a+ S Split current region horizontally into two regions.
Ctrl+a+ ' Split current region vertically into two regions.
Ctrl+a+ tab Switch the input focus to the next region.
Ctrl+a+ Ctrl+a Toggle between the current and previous windows
Ctrl+a+ Q Close all regions but the current one.
Ctrl+a+ X Close the current region.

358
Restore a Linux Screen

To restore to a screen session you type screen -r, if you have more
than one open screen session you have to add the session id to the
command to connect to the right session.

359
Listing all open screen sessions

To find the session ID you can list the current running screen sessions
with:

screen -ls

There are screens on:

18787.pts-0.your-server (Detached)
15454.pts-0.your-server (Detached)
2 Sockets in /run/screens/S-yourserver.

If you want to restore screen 18787.pts-0, then type the following

command:

screen -r 18787

360
The nc command

The nc (or netcat) command is used to perform any operation involving

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol, connection oriented), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol, connection-less, no guarantee of data delivery) or
UNIX-domain sockets. It can be thought of as swiss-army knife for
communication protocol utilities.

Syntax:

nc [options] [ip] [port]

Examples:

1. Open a TCP connection to port 80 of host, using port 1337 as

source port with timeout of 5s:

$ nc -p 1337 -w 5 host.ip 80

2. Open a UDP connection to port 80 on host:

$ nc -u host.ip 80

3. Create and listen on UNIX-domain stream socket:

361
 $ nc -lU /var/tmp/dsocket

4. Create a basic server/client model:

This creates a connection, with no specific server/client sides with

respect to nc, once the connection is established.

$ nc -l 1234 # in one console

$ nc 127.0.0.1 1234 # in another console

5. Build a basic data transfer model:

After the file has been transferred, sequentially, the connection closes
automatically

$ nc -l 1234 > filename.out # to start listening in one

console and collect data

$ nc host.ip 1234 < filename.in

6. Talk to servers:

Basic example of retrieving the homepage of the host, along with

headers.

$ printf "GET / HTTP/1.0\r\n\r\n" | nc host.ip 80

7. Port scanning:

Checking which ports are open and running services on target

machines. -z flag commands to inform about those rather than initiate
a connection.

362
 $ nc -zv host.ip 20-2000 # range of ports to check for

Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Description
Flag
-4 Forces nc to use IPv4 addresses
-6 Forces nc to use IPv6 addresses
-b Allow broadcast
-D Enable debugging on the socket
-i Specify time interval delay between lines sent and received
-k Stay listening for another connection after current is over
Listen for incoming connection instead of initiate one to
-l
remote
-T Specify length of TCP
-p Specify source port to be used
-r Specify source and/or destination ports randomly
-s Specify IP of interface which is used to send the packets
-U Use UNIX-domain sockets
-u Use UDP instead of TCP as protocol
Declare a timeout threshold for idle or unestablished
-w
connections
-x Should use specified protocol when talking to proxy server
Specify to scan for listening daemons, without sending any
-z
data

363
The make command

The make command is used to automate the reuse of multiple

commands in certain directory structure.

An example for that would be the use of terraform init, terraform

plan, and terraform validate while having to change different
subscriptions in Azure. This is usually done in the following steps:

az account set --subscription "Subscription - Name"

terraform init

How the make command can help us is it can automate all of that in just
one go: make tf-init

Syntax:

make [ -f makefile ] [ options ] ... [ targets ] ...

Example use (guide):

1. Create Makefile in your guide directory

2. Include the following in your Makefile :

364
 hello-world:
echo "Hello, World!"

hello-bobby:
echo "Hello, Bobby!"

touch-letter:
echo "This is a text that is being inputted into our
letter!" > letter.txt

clean-letter:
rm letter.txt

3. Execute make hello-world - this echoes "Hello, World" in our

terminal.

4. Execute make hello-bobby - this echoes "Hello, Bobby!" in our

terminal.

5. Execute make touch-letter - This creates a text file named

letter.txt and populates a line in it.

6. Execute make clean-letter

References to lenghtier and more contentful tutorials:

(linoxide - linux make command

examples)[https://linoxide.com/linux-make-command-examples/]
(makefiletutorial.com - the name itself gives it
out)[https://makefiletutorial.com/]

365
The basename command

The basename is a command-line utility that strips directory from given

file names. Optionally, it can also remove any trailing suffix. It is a
simple command that accepts only a few options.

Examples

The most basic example is to print the file name with the leading
directories removed:

basename /etc/bar/foo.txt

The output will include the file name:

foo.txt

If you run basename on a path string that points to a directory, you will
get the last segment of the path. In this example, /etc/bar is a directory.

basename /etc/bar

Output

bar

The basename command removes any trailing / characters:

366
 basename /etc/bar/foo.txt/

Output

foo.txt

Options

1. By default, each output line ends in a newline character. To end

the lines with NUL, use the -z (--zero) option.

$ basename -z /etc/bar/foo.txt
foo.txt$

2. The basename command can accept multiple names as arguments.

To do so, invoke the command with the -a (--multiple) option,
followed by the list of files separated by space. For example, to get
the file names of /etc/bar/foo.txt and /etc/spam/eggs.docx
you would run:

basename -a /etc/bar/foo.txt /etc/spam/eggs.docx

foo.txt
eggs.docx

Syntax

The basename command supports two syntax formats:

367
 basename NAME [SUFFIX]
basename OPTION... NAME...

Additional functionalities

Removing a Trailing Suffix: To remove any trailing suffix from the file
name, pass the suffix as a second argument:

basename /etc/hostname name

host

Generally, this feature is used to strip file extensions

Help Command

Run the following command to view the complete guide to basename

command.

man basename

368
The banner command

The banner command writes ASCII character Strings to standard output

in large letters. Each line in the output can be up to 10 uppercase or
lowercase characters in length. On output, all characters appear in
uppercase, with the lowercase input characters appearing smaller than
the uppercase input characters.

Note: If you will define more than one NUMBER with sleep command
then this command will delay for the sum of the values.

Examples :

1. To display a banner at the workstation, enter:

banner LINUX!

2. To display more than one word on a line, enclose the text in

quotation marks, as follows:

banner "Intro to" Linux

This displays Intro to on one line and Linux on the next

3. Printing “101LinuxCommands” in large letters.

banner 101LinuxCommands

369
It will print only 101LinuxCo as banner has a default capacity of 10

370
The alias command

The alias command lets you create shortcuts for commands or define
your own commands.
This is mostly used to avoid typing long commands.

Examples:

1. To show the list of all defined aliases in the reusable form alias
NAME=VALUE :

alias -p

2. To make ls -A shortcut:

alias la='ls -A'

Syntax:

alias [-p] [name[=value]]

Setting Persistent Options:

As with most Linux custom settings for the terminal, any alias you
defined is only applied to the current opening terminal session.

For any alias to be active for all new sessions you need to add that

371
command to your rc file to be executed in the startup of every new
terminal. this file can be as follows:

Bash: ~/.bashrc
ZSH: ~/.zshrc
Fish – ~/.config/fish/config.fish

you can open that file with your favorite editor as follows:

vim ~/.bashrc

type your commands one per line, then save the file and exit. the
commands will be automatically applied in the next session.

If you want to apply it in the current session, run the following

command:

source ~/.bashrc

Opposite command:

To remove predefined alias you can use unalias command as follows:

unalias alias_name

to remove all aliases

unalias -a

372
The which command

which command identifies the executable binary that launches when

you issue a command to the shell. If you have different versions of the
same program on your computer, you can use which to find out which
one the shell will use.

It has 3 return status as follows:

0 : If all specified commands are found and executable.

1 : If one or more specified commands is nonexistent or not
executable.
2 : If an invalid option is specified.

Examples

1. To find the full path of the ls command, type the following:

which ls

2. We can provide more than one arguments to the which command:

which netcat uptime ping

The which command searches from left to right, and if more than one
matches are found in the directories listed in the PATH path variable,
which will print only the first one.

3. To display all the paths for the specified command:

373
 which [filename] -a

4. To display the path of node executable files, execute the

command:

which node

5. To display the path of Java executable files, execute:

which java

Syntax

which [filename1] [filename2] ...

You can pass multiple programs and commands to which, and it will
check them in order.

For example:

which ping cat uptime date head

Options

-a : List all instances of executables found (instead of just the first one
of each).

-s : No output, just return 0 if all the executables are found, or 1 if some

were not found

374
The date command

The date command is used to print the system current date and time.

date command is also used to set the date and time of the system, but
you need to be the super-user (root) to do it.

Examples:

1. To show the current date and time:

date

2. You can use -u option to show the date and time in UTC
(Coordinated Universal Time) time zone

date -u

1. To display any given date string in formatted date:

date --date="2/02/2010"
date --date="2 years ago"

Syntax:

375
 date [OPTION]... [+FORMAT]
date [-u|--utc|--universal] [MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss]]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
convert the provided string into
-d --date=STRING
formatted date
-f --file=DATEFILE like --date but for files
Display date and time in ISO 8601
-I[FMT] --iso-8601[=FMT]
format
Display the last modification time of
-r --reference=FILE
FILE
sets the time to the one described by
-s --set=STRING
STRING
show the date and time in UTC
-u --universal
(Coordinated Universal Time) time zone
Display date and time in ISO 8601
-R --rfc-email format Example: (Fri, 22 Oct 2021
05:18:42 +0200)
Display date and time in RFC 3339
- rfc-3339=FMT
format
Usually used with --date to annotate
- --debug the parsed date and warn about
questionable usage to stderr

Control The output:

You can use Format specifiers to control the output date and time.

Examples:

376
Command Output
$ date "+%D" 10/22/21
$ date "+%D %T" 10/22/21 05:33:51
$ date "+%A %B %d %T %y" Friday October 22 05:34:47 21

Syntax:

date "+%[format-options ...]"

List of Format specifiers to control the output:

Specifiers Description
%a abbreviated weekday name (e.g., Sun)
%A full weekday name (e.g., Sunday)
%b abbreviated month name (e.g., Jan)
%B full month name (e.g., January)
%c date and time (e.g., Thu Mar 3 23:05:25 2005)
%C century; like %Y, except omit last two digits (e.g., 20)
%d day of month (e.g., 01)
%D date; same as %m/%d/%y
%e day of month, space padded; same as %_d
%F full date; same as %Y-%m-%d
%g last two digits of year of ISO week number (see %G)
year of ISO week number (see %V); normally useful only
%G
with %V
%h same as %b
%H hour (00..23)
%I hour (01..12)
%j day of year (001..366)
%k hour, space padded ( 0..23); same as %_H
%l hour, space padded ( 1..12); same as %_I
%m month (01..12)
%M minute (00..59)

377
Specifiers Description
%n a newline
%N nanoseconds (000000000..999999999)
%p locale's equivalent of either AM or PM; blank if not known
%P like %p, but lower case
%q quarter of year (1..4)
%r locale's 12-hour clock time (e.g., 11:11:04 PM)
%R 24-hour hour and minute; same as %H:%M
%s seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC
%S second (00..60)
%t a tab
%T time; same as %H:%M:%S
%u day of week (1..7); 1 is Monday
week number of year, with Sunday as first day of week
%U
(00..53)
ISO week number, with Monday as first day of week
%V
(01..53)
%w day of week (0..6); 0 is Sunday
week number of year, with Monday as first day of week
%W
(00..53)
%x locale's date representation (e.g., 12/31/99)
%X locale's time representation (e.g., 23:13:48)
%y last two digits of year (00..99)
%Y year
%z +hhmm numeric time zone (e.g., -0400)
%:z +hh:mm numeric time zone (e.g., -04:00)
%::z +hh:mm:ss numeric time zone (e.g., -04:00:00)
numeric time zone with : to necessary precision (e.g., -04,
%:::z
+05:30)
%Z alphabetic time zone abbreviation (e.g., EDT)

378
The mount command

The mount command is used to mount 'attach' a filesystem and make it

accessible by an existing directory structure tree.

Examples:

1. Displays version information:

mount -V

2. Attaching filesystem found on device and of type type at the

directory dir:

mount -t type device dir

Syntax Forms:

mount [-lhV]

mount -a [-fFnrsvw] [-t vfstype] [-O optlist]

mount [-fnrsvw] [-t fstype] [-o options] device dir

379
Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-h --help Dispaly a help message and exists
-n --no-mtab Mount without writing in /etc/mtab
Mount all filesystems (of the given types)
-a --all
mentioned in fstab
-r --read-only Mount the filesystem read-only
-w --rw Mount the filesystem as read/write.
-M --move Move a subtree to some other place.
Remount a subtree somewhere else (so that its
-B --bind
contents are available in both places).

380
The nice/renice command

The nice/renice commands is used to modify the priority of the

program to be executed. The priority range is between -20 and 19
where 19 is the lowest priority.

Examples:

1. Running cc command in the background with a lower priority than

default (slower):

nice -n 15 cc -c *.c &

2. Increase the priority to all processes belonging to group "test":

renice --20 -g test

Syntax:

nice [ -Increment| -n Increment ] Command [ Argument ... ]

Flags :

Long
Short Flag Description
Flag
Increment is the value of priority you want to
-Increment -
assign.

381
 Long
Short Flag Description
Flag
-n Increment - Same as -Increment

382
The wc command

the wc command stands for word count. It's used to count the number
of lines, words, and bytes (characters) in a file or standard input then
prints the result to the standard output.

Examples:

1. To count the number of lines, words and characters in a file in

order:

wc file.txt

2. To count the number of directories in a directory:

ls -F | grep / | wc -l

Syntax:

wc [OPTION]... [FILE]...

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-c --bytes print the byte counts
-m --chars print the character counts

383
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-l --lines print the newline counts
read input from the files specified by
- --files0-from=F NUL-terminated names in file F. If F is -
then read names from standard input
-L --max-line-length print the maximum display width
-w --words print the word counts

Additional Notes:

Passing more than one file to wc command prints the counts for
each file and the total conuts of them.
you can combine more whan one flag to print the result as you
want.

384
The tr command

The tr command in UNIX is a command line utility for translating or

deleting characters. It supports a range of transformations including
uppercase to lowercase, squeezing repeating characters, deleting
specific characters and basic find and replace. It can be used with UNIX
pipes to support more complex translation. tr stands for translate.

Examples:

1. Convert all lowercase letters in file1 to uppercase.

$ cat file1
foo
bar
baz
tr a-z A-Z < file1
FOO
BAR
BAZ

2. Make consecutive line breaks into one.

385
 $ cat file1
foo

bar

baz
$ tr -s "\n" < file1
foo
bar
baz

3. Remove the newline code.

$ cat file1
foo
bar
baz
$ tr -d "\n" < file1
foobarbaz%

Syntax:

The general syntax for the tr command is as follows:

tr [options] string1 [string2]

Additional Flags and their Functionalities:

Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
Complement the set of characters in string1, that is
-C
-C ab includes every character except for a and b.
-c Same as -C.

386
Short Long
Description
Flag Flag
-d Delete characters in string1 from the input.
If there is a sequence of characters in string1,
-s
combine them into one.

387
The fdisk command

The fdisk command is used for controlling the disk partition table and
making changes to it and this is a list of some of options provided by it :

Organize space for new drives.

Modify old drives.
Create space for new partitions.
Move data to new partitions.

Examples:

1. To view basic details about all available partitions on the system:

fdisk -l

2. To show the size of the partition:

fdisk -s /dev/sda

3. To view the help message and all options of the command:

fdisk -h

Syntax:

388
 fdisk [options] device

Some of the command options:

On writing the following command

fdisk /dev/sdb

the following window appears :

and then you type m which will show you all options you need such as
creating new partition and deleting a partition as in the following
picture :

389
The Wait commands

It is a command that waits for completing any running process of given

id. if the process id is not given then it waits for all current child
processes to complete.

390
Example

This example shows how the wait command works :

Step-1:

Create a file named "wait_example.sh" and add the following script to

it.

#!/bin/bash
echo "Wait command" &
process_id=$!
wait $process_id
echo "Exited with status $?"

Step-2:

Run the file with bash command.

$ bash wait_example.sh

391
The zcat command

The zcat allows you to look at a compressed file.

Examples:

1. To view the content of a compressed file:

~$ zcat test.txt.gz
Hello World

2. It can also Works with multiple files:

~$ zcat test2.txt.gz test.txt.gz

hello
Hello world

Syntax:

The general syntax for the zcat command is as follows:

zcat [ -n ] [ -V ] [ File ... ]

392
The fold command

The fold command in Linux wraps each line in an input file to fit a

specified width and prints it to the standard output.

By default, it wraps lines at a maximum width of 80 columns but this is

configurable.

To fold input using the fold command pass a file or standard input to
the command.

Syntax:

fold [OPTION]... [FILE]...

Options

-w : By using this option in fold command, we can limit the width by

number of columns.

By using this command we change the column width from default width
of 80. Syntax:

fold -w[n] [FILE]

Example: wrap the lines of file1.txt to a width of 60 columns

393
 fold -w60 file1.txt

-b : This option of fold command is used to limit the width of the output
by the number of bytes rather than the number of columns.

By using this we can enforce the width of the output to the number of
bytes.

fold -b[n] [FILE]

Example: limit the output width of the file to 40 bytes and the command
breaks the output at 40 bytes.

fold -b40 file1.txt

-s : This option is used to break the lines on spaces so that words are
not broken.

If a segment of the line contains a blank character within the first width
column positions, break the line after the last such blank character
meeting the width constraints.

fold -w[n] -s [FILE]

394
The quota command

The quota display disk usage and limits.

Installation:

You can simply go ahead and install quota on ubuntu systems by

running:

sudo apt-get install quota

for Debian use the install command without sudo:

apt-get install quota

Syntax:

The general syntax for the quota command is as follows:

quota [ -u [ User ] ] [ -g [ Group ] ] [ -v | -q ]

395
The aplay command

aplay is a command-line audio player for ALSA(Advanced Linux Sound

Architecture) sound card drivers. It supports several file formats and
multiple soundcards with multiple devices. It is basically used to play
audio on command-line interface. aplay is much the same as arecord
only it plays instead of recording. For supported soundfile formats, the
sampling rate, bit depth, and so forth can be automatically determined
from the soundfile header.

396
Syntax:

$ aplay [flags] [filename [filename]] ...

397
Options:

-h, –help : Show the help information.

-d, –duration=# : Interrupt after # seconds.
-r, –rate=# : Sampling rate in Hertz. The default rate is 8000
Hertz.
–version : Print current version.
-l, –list-devices : List all soundcards and digital audio
devices.
-L, –list-pcms : List all PCMs(Pulse Code Modulation) defined.
-D, –device=NAME : Select PCM by name.

Note: This command contain various other options that we normally

don’t need. If you want to know more about you can simply run
following command on your terminal.

aplay --help

398
Examples :

1. To play audio for only 10 secs at 2500hz frequency.

$ aplay -d 10 -r 2500hz sample.mp3

Plays sample.mp3 file for only 10 secs at 2500hz frequency.

2. To play full audio clip at 2500hz frezuency.

$ aplay -r 2500hz sample.mp3

Plays sample.mp3 file at 2500hz frezuency.

3. To Display version information.

$ aplay --version

Displays version information. For me it shows aplay: vesrion 1.1.0

399
The spd-say command

spd-say sends text-to-speech output request to speech-dispatcher

process which handles it and ideally outputs the result to the audio
system.

400
Syntax:

$ spd-say [options] "some text"

401
Options:

-r, --rate
Set the rate of the speech (between -100 and +100,
default: 0)

-p, --pitch
Set the pitch of the speech (between -100 and +100,
default: 0)

-i, --volume
Set the volume (intensity) of the speech (between -100
and +100, default: 0)

-o, --output-module
Set the output module

-l, --language
Set the language (iso code)

-t, --voice-type
Set the preferred voice type (male1, male2, male3,
female1, female2, female3,
child_male, child_female)

-m, --punctuation-mode
Set the punctuation mode (none, some, all)

-s, --spelling
Spell the message

-x, --ssml
Set SSML mode on (default: off)

-e, --pipe-mode
Pipe from stdin to stdout plus Speech Dispatcher

-P, --priority
Set priority of the message (important, message,
text, notification, progress;
default: text)

-N, --application-name

402
 Set the application name used to establish the
connection to specified string value
(default: spd-say)

-n, --connection-name
Set the connection name used to establish the
connection to specified string value
(default: main)

-w, --wait
Wait till the message is spoken or discarded

-S, --stop
Stop speaking the message being spoken in Speech
Dispatcher

-C, --cancel
Cancel all messages in Speech Dispatcher

-v, --version
Print version and copyright info

-h, --help
Print this info

403
Examples :

1. To Play the given text as the sound.

$ spd-say "Hello"

Plays "Hello" in sound.

404
The xeyes command

Xeyes is a graphical user interface program that creates a set of eyes

on the desktop that follow the movement of the mouse cursor. It seems
much of a funny command, than of any useful use. Being funny is as
much useful, is another aspect.

Syntax:

xeyes

What is the purpose of xeyes?

xeyes is not for fun, at least not only. The purpose of this program is to
let you follow the mouse pointer which is sometimes hard to see. It is
very useful on multi-headed computers, where monitors are separated
by some distance, and if someone (say teacher at school) wants to
present something on the screen, the others on their monitors can
easily follow the mouse with xeyes.

405
The parted command

The parted command is used to manage hard disk partitions on Linux.

It can be used to add, delete, shrink and extend disk partitions along
with the file systems located on them. You will need root access to the
system to run parted commands.

NOTE: Parted writes the changes immediately to your disk, be careful

when you are modifying the disk partitions.

Examples:

1. Displays partition layout of all block devices:

sudo parted -l

2. Display partition table of a specific disk

sudo parted disk print

Examples of disk are /dev/sda, /dev/sdb

3. Create a new disk label of label-type for a specific disk

sudo parted mklabel disk label-type

label-type can take values "aix", "amiga", "bsd", "dvh", "gpt", "loop",
"mac", "msdos", "pc98", or "sun"

406
 4. Create a new partition in a specific disk of type part-time, file
system is fs-type and of size size Mb.

sudo parted disk mkpart part-time fs-type 1 size

part-time can take values "primary", "logical", "extended".

fs-type is optional. It can take values "btrfs", "ext2", "ext3", "ext4",
"fat16", "fat32", "hfs", "hfs+", "linux-swap", "ntfs", "reiserfs", "udf", or
"xfs"
size has to less than the total size of the specified disk. To create a
partition of size 50Mb, will take the value of 50

5. parted can also be run in an interactive format. Operations to

manage the disk partitions can be performed by entering
appropriate commands in the interactive session. help command
in the interactive session shows a list of all possible disk
management operations which can be performed.

407
 $ sudo parted
GNU Parted 3.3
Using /dev/sda
Welcome to GNU Parted! Type 'help' to view a list of
commands.
(parted) print # prints the partition table of the default
selected disk - /dev/sda
Model: ATA VBOX HARDDISK (scsi)
Disk /dev/sda: 53.7GB
Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B
Partition Table: msdos
Disk Flags:

Number Start End Size Type File system Flags

1 1049kB 53.7GB 53.7GB primary ext4 boot

(parted) select /dev/sdb # change the current disk on which

operations have to be performed
Using /dev/sdb
(parted) quit # exit the interactive session

Syntax Forms:

parted [options] [device [command [options...]...]]

Options:

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
displays a help message listing all possible
-h --help
commands [options]
-l --list lists partition layout on all block devices
-m --machine displays machine parseable output
-v --version displays the version

408
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
set alignment type for newly created partition. It
can take the following values:
none: Use the minimum alignment allowed by
the disk type
-a --align cylinder: Align partitions to cylinders
minimal: Use minimum alignment as given by
the disk topology information
optimal: Use optimum alignment as given by
the disk topology information

409
The nl command

The “nl” command enumerates lines in a file. A different way of viewing

the contents of a file, the “nl” command can be very useful for many
tasks.

410
Syntax

nl [ -b Type ] [ -f Type ] [ -h Type ] [ -l Number ] [ -d

Delimiter ] [ -i Number ] [ -n Format ] [ -v Number ] [ -w
Number ] [ -p ] [ -s Separator ] [ File ]

411
Examples:

1. To number all lines:

nl -ba chap1

2. Displays all the text lines:

[server@ssh ~]$ nl states

1 Alabama
2 Alaska
3 Arizona
4 Arkansas
5 California
6 Colorado
7 Connecticut.
8 Delaware

3. Specify a different line number format

nl -i10 -nrz -s:: -v10 -w4 chap1

You can name only one file on the command line. You can list the flags
and the file name in any order.

412
The pidof command

The pidof is a command-line utility that allows you to find the process
ID of a running program.

413
Syntax

pidof [OPTIONS] PROGRAM_NAME

To view the help message and all options of the command:

[user@home ~]$ pidof -h

-c Return PIDs with the same root directory

-d <sep> Use the provided character as output separator
-h Display this help text
-n Avoid using stat system function on network
shares
-o <pid> Omit results with a given PID
-q Quiet mode. Do not display output
-s Only return one PID
-x Return PIDs of shells running scripts with a
matching name
-z List zombie and I/O waiting processes. May cause
pidof to hang.

414
Examples:

To find the PID of the SSH server, you would run:

pidof sshd

If there are running processes with names matching sshd, their PIDs will
be displayed on the screen. If no matches are found, the output will be
empty.

# Output
4382 4368 811

pidof returns 0 when at least one running program matches with the
requested name. Otherwise, the exit code is 1. This can be useful when
writing shell scripts.

To be sure that only the PIDs of the program you are searching for are
displayed, use the full pathname to the program as an argument. For
example, if you have two running programs with the same name
located in two different directories pidof will show PIDs of both running
programs.

By default, all PIDs of the matching running programs are displayed.

Use the -s option to force pidof to display only one PID:

pidof -s program_name

The -o option allows you to exclude a process with a given PID from the
command output:

415
 pidof -o pid program_name

When pidof is invoked with the -o option, you can use a special PID
named %PPID that represents the calling shell or shell script.

To return only the PIDs of the processes that are running with the same
root directory, use the -c option. This option works only pidof is run as
root or sudo user:

pidof -c pid program_name

416
Conclusion

The pidof command is used to find out the PIDs of a specific running
program.

pidof is a simple command that doesn’t have a lot of options. Typically

you will invoke pidof only with the name of the program you are
searching for.

417
The shuf command

The shuf command in Linux writes a random permutation of the input

lines to standard output. It pseudo randomizes an input in the same
way as the cards are shuffled. It is a part of GNU Coreutils and is not a
part of POSIX. This command reads either from a file or standard input
in bash and randomizes those input lines and displays the output.

418
Syntax

# file shuf
shuf [OPTION] [FILE]

# list shuf
shuf -e [OPTION]... [ARG]

# range shuf
shuf -i LO-HI [OPTION]

Like other Linux commands, shuf command comes with -–help option:

[user@home ~]$ shuf --help

Usage: shuf [OPTION]... [FILE]
or: shuf -e [OPTION]... [ARG]...
or: shuf -i LO-HI [OPTION]...
Write a random permutation of the input lines to standard
output.

With no FILE, or when FILE is -, read standard input.

Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short

options too.
-e, --echo treat each ARG as an input line
-i, --input-range=LO-HI treat each number LO through HI as
an input line
-n, --head-count=COUNT output at most COUNT lines
-o, --output=FILE write result to FILE instead of
standard output
--random-source=FILE get random bytes from FILE
-r, --repeat output lines can be repeated
-z, --zero-terminated line delimiter is NUL, not newline

419
Examples:

shuf command without any option or argument.

shuf

When shuf command is used without any argument in the command

line, it takes input from the user until CTRL-D is entered to terminate
the set of inputs. It displays the input lines in a shuffled form. If 1, 2,
3, 4 and 5 are entered as input lines, then it generates 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 in random order in the output as seen in the illustration below:

[user@home ~]$ shuf

1
2
3
4
5

4
5
1
2
3

Consider an example where Input is taken from the pipe:

{
seq 5 | shuf
}

seq 5 returns the integers sequentially from 1 to 5 while the shuf

command takes it as input and shuffles the content i.e, the integers

420
from 1 to 5. Hence, 1 to 5 is displayed as output in random order.

[user@home ~]$ {
> seq 5 | shuf
> }
5
4
2
3
1

File shuf

When shuf command is used without -e or -i option, then it operates

as a file shuf i.e, it shuffles the contents of the file. The <file_name> is
the last parameter of the shuf command and if it is not given, then
input has to be provided from the shell or pipe.

Consider an example where input is taken from a file:

shuf file.txt

Suppose file.txt contains 6 lines, then the shuf command displays the
input lines in random order as output.

421
 [user@home ~]$ cat file.txt
line-1
line-2
line-3
line-4
line-5

[user@home ~]$ shuf file.txt

line-5
line-4
line-1
line-3
line-2

Any number of lines can be randomized by using -n option.

shuf -n 2 file.txt

This will display any two random lines from the file.

line-5
line-2

List shuf

When -e option is used with shuf command, it works as a list shuf. The
arguments of the command are taken as the input line for the shuf.

Consider an example:

shuf -e A B C D E

It will take A, B, C, D, E as input lines, and will shuffle them to

display the output.

422
 A
C
B
D
E

Any number of input lines can be displayed using the -n option along
with -e option.

shuf -e -n 2 A B C D E

This will display any two of the inputs.

E
A

Range shuf

When -i option is used along with shuf command, it acts as a range

shuf. It requires a range of input as input where L0 is the lower bound
while HI is the upper bound. It displays integers from L0-HI in shuffled
form.

[user@home ~]$ shuf -i 1-5

4
1
3
2
5

423
Conclusion

The shuf command helps you randomize input lines. And there are
features to limit the number of output lines, repeat lines and even
generate random positive integers. Once you're done practicing
whatever we've discussed here, head to the tool's man page to know
more about it.

424
The less command

The less command is a Linux terminal pager which shows a file's

content one screen at a time. Useful when dealing with a large text file
because it doesn't load the entire file but accesses it page by page,
resulting in fast loading speeds.

425
Syntax

less [options] file_path

426
Options

Some popular option flags include:

-E less automatically exits upon reaching the end of file.

-f Forces less to open non-regular files (a directory or
a device-special file).
-F Exit less if the entire file can be displayed on the
first screen.
-g Highlights the string last found using search. By
default, less highlights all strings matching the last search
command.
-G Removes all highlights from strings found using
search.

For a complete list of options, refer to the less help file by running:

less --help

427
Few Examples:

1. Open a Text File

less /etc/updatedb.conf

2. Show Line Numbers

less -N /etc/init/mysql.conf

3. Open File with Pattern Search

less -pERROR /etc/init/mysql.conf

4. Remove Multiple Blank Lines

less welcome.txt

Here I showed you how to use the less command in Linux. Although
there are other terminal pagers, such as most and more, but less could
be a better choice as it is a powerful tool present in almost every
system.

For more details:

https://phoenixnap.com/kb/less-command-in-linux#:~:text=The%20less
%20command%20is%20a,resulting%20in%20fast%20loading%20speed
s.

428
The nslookup command

The nslookup command is a network administration command-line tool

for querying the Domain Name System (DNS) to obtain domain name or
IP address mapping or any other specific DNS record.

429
Syntax

nslookup [options] [host]

430
Options

Some popular option flags include:

-domain=[domain-name] Change the default DNS name.

-debug Show debugging information.
-port=[port-number] Specify the port for queries. The
default port number is 53.
-timeout=[seconds] Specify the time allowed for the
server to respond.
-type=a View information about the DNS A address records.
-type=any View all available records.
-type=hinfo View hardware-related information about the host.
-type=mx View Mail Exchange server information.
-type=ns View Name Server records.
-type=ptr View Pointer records. Used in reverse DNS
lookups.
-type=soa View Start of Authority records.

431
Few Examples:

1. Query DNS Server

nslookup www.google.com

2. Specify a port to query

nslookup -port=53 www.google.com

3. Get the MX Record

nslookup -type=mx google.com

Here I showed you how to use the nslookup command in Linux.

Although there are other DNS lookup tools, such as dig, nslookup could
be a better choice as it is a powerful tool present in almost every
system.

For more details: Nslookup on Wikipedia

432
The cmp command

The cmp command is used to compare the two files byte by byte.

Example:

cmp file1.txt file2.txt

Syntax:

cmp [option] File1 File2

433
Few Examples :

1. Comparison of two files:

Perform a simple comparison of the two files to check out if they differ
from each other or not.

Example:

cmp File1 File2

2. Comparing Files after Skipping a Specified Number of

Bytes:

Compare two files after skipping a certain number of bytes

Example:

cmp -i 2 list.txt list2.txt

Here “INT” represents the number of bytes to be skipped

3. Display the Differing Bytes of the Files in the Output:

Example:

434
 cmp -b list.txt list1.txt

4. Display Byte Numbers and Differing Byte Values of

the Files in the Output:

Example:

cmp -l list.txt list1.txt

5. Comparing the First “n” Number of Bytes of the Files:

Example:

cmp -n 10 list.txt list2.txt

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-b --print-bytes print differing bytes
skip first SKIP bytes of both
-i --ignore-initial=SKIP
inputs
skip first SKIP1 bytes of
-i --ignore-initial=SKIP1:SKIP2 FILE1 and first SKIP2 bytes
of FILE2
output byte numbers and
-l --verbose
differing byte values
-n --bytes=LIMIT compare at most LIMIT bytes

435
Short
Long Flag Description
Flag
-s --quiet, --silent suppress all normal output
output version information
v --version
and exit
--help Display this help and exit

436
The expr command

The expr command evaluates a given expression and displays its

corresponding output. It is used for basic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus on integers and
Evaluating regular expressions, string operations like substring, length
of strings etc.

437
Syntax

expr expression

438
Few Examples:

1. Perform basic arithmetic operations using expr

command

expr 7 + 14
expr 7 * 8

2. Comparing two expressions

x=10
y=20
res=`expr $x = $y`
echo $res

3. Match the numbers of characters in two strings

expr alphabet : alpha

4. Find the modulus value

expr 20 % 30

439
 5. Extract the substring

a=HelloWorld
b=`expr substr $a 6 10`
echo $b

Additional Flags and their Functionalities

Flag Description
--version output version information and exit
--help Display this help and exit

For more details: Expr on Wikipedia

999-wrap-up.md

440