PosITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Steve R. Baumgardner
Claire
University of Wisconsin-Eau

Marie K. Crothers
Claire
University of Wisconsin-Eau
S.S2

19NQV4U
IPCL
94257

S:523 P9
 MINDFULNESS AND WELL-BEING
ln addition to the
ment cvolving list of well-being enhance
strategies
approach has grown described above, a quite different
out of the meeting of
philosophy and Western
tive practices, like
Eastern
psychology. Eastern medita
those of Buddhist
long past in their own right, traditions have a
in
psychology. However, this but only a short history
has begun to change as
Buddhist
practice ofphilosophy, particularly the concept and
mindfulness,
Western empirical psychology, has made its way into
beginning with the work of Ellen perhaps most notably
1989, 2002; Langer & Langer (Langer,
mainstream psychologyMoldoveanu,
has viewed
2000). Historically,
mindfulness and
meditation as falling under the umbrella
Consciousness". -a popular topic in theof1970s "states of
and
1980s. A number of texts and
topic emerged during this anthologies on the
1973: Wallace & Fisher, period (e.g., Ornstein,
1983). A chapter on human
Consciousness has become fairly standard in general
psychology textbooks ever since.
Mindfulness is a slippery
concept that will be
defined more fully in a subsequent
now, think of mindfulness as a discussion. For
attention focused on the "here and present-centered
now" of our
experience. That is, seeing clearly what is actually
going on in our lives when our
tered by wishes, desires, and perception is unclut
needs. Mindfulness
meditation is a means of increasing the clarity of
perception by observing and learning about the self.
Meditation is aimed at increasing the accuracy of our
self-understanding and providing a basis for self
improvement and enhanced quality of life.
Mindfulness meditation has been most exten
sively investigated as a therapeutic practice for peo
ple dealing with a variety of mental and physical
disorders, particularly those caused by high levels
of stress. Although some have criticized this research
for its lack of rigor (e.g., Bishop, 2002), others
argue that over the last 30 years a substantial research
 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero
literature has established the value of mindfulness of our behaviors are habitual and
meditation in improving the lives of people coping
with diverse problems (e.g., Shapiro, Schwartz, &
ing litle, if any, conscious
car). Bargh and Chatrand
automatic,
attention (like requir-
Santerre, 2002; Walsh & Shapiro, 2006), Such prob (1999)
cations of this fact of life as describe thedriving a
lems include psychosomatic and cardiovascular disor maticity of being." They believe
the
"unbearabl c imauto-pli-
ders, asthma, hypertension, chronic pain,
cancer, automatic, unconsciously the value of
panic attacks, anxiety, phobias, and cating disorders. grcat, but it is controlled behavi
The most well-known clinical intervention "unbearable"
because it
program
based on mindfulness was developed by Jon Kabat
both psychologists' lay-persons beliefcontinradicon.cts
scious, volitional control
and
Zinn, founder of the Center for Mindfulness in actions. Bargh and Chartrand through
argue that
self
-directed
the henefite
Medicine, Health Care and Society (CFM) at the of automaticity include
University of Massachusetts Medical School. The CFM releasing
of continual effortful control
us from the burden
and
website provides many informative resources. In his conscious and "truer" expression of providing
our preferences
well-known book FullCatastropbe Living: Using tbe than is revealed in the
Wisdom of Y'our Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, consciously stated reasons
people give for their behavior.
and llness (1990), Kabat-Zinn gives a detailed
description of his mindfulness training program. automaticity is negatively regardedDespite
because
its value
it con
tradicts people's view that they "know" why they do
However, it isonly recently that psychologists things.
have begun to define and measure mindfulness
and assess its effects on well-being in non-clinical Proponents of mindfulness acknowledge the
settings and populations (Brown & Ryan, 2003,
efficiency of well-learned, automatic behaviors and
their value in conserving conscious
2004; Wallace, 2005, 2006; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006; resources. However, they point out that self-control
Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). The bottom-line assump easily become victims of their own people can
tion of this work is that mindfulness may be an unconscious
habits and knee-jerk emotional reactions.
important vehicle for self-change and improved Ask any
smoker whowants to quitor any dieter who wants to
well-being. stop overeating. An undesirable habit that is automat
ically triggered by many external and internal cues,
What is Mindfulness? like a morning cup of coffee, an after-dinner drink.
stress, or boredom, is difficult to break. From the
MINDFULNESS AS AN ANTIDOTE FOR MINDLESSNESS perspective of mindfulness, awareness of when and
More than one author has commented that it is easier
why you smoke or overeat is necessary to control
to describe the absence of mindfulness than its pres the habit.
ence. The opposite of mindfulness is mindlessness, At a mnore general level, Brown and Rvan
captured by phrases such as "the lights are on, but (2003) note that the potential value of mindfulness
nobody is home" and "going through the motions, for improving well-being is suggested by substantial
but my heart's not in it." Mindlessness, here, does research on the importance of attention in the self
not mean being crazy or reckless, although not pay
ing attention to what is in front of you can regulation of behavior (see Chapter 8). Successul
certainly goal pursuit requires some degree of continuous
get you into trouble. Mindlessness refers to a state
attention (mindfulness) so that goal progress is mon
of consciousness marked by little awareness of what
itored, necessary adjustments made, and efforts
is going on in the present moment. It is a state "gov
remain focused on, rather than distracted from, goal
erned by rule and routine" (Langer, 2002, p. 214) achievement. In addition, mindfulness may con
rather than by what is happening "right now." All of tribute to more self-determined and autonomous
çs are familiar with mindless states, We may read a
actions. As we saw in Chapter 7, personal goals that
book or talk with another person, but our minds are
are freely chosen are likely to be personally expres
absorbed in our own thoughts, emotions, worries, sive and therefore more satisfying than goals
Concerns, and anxieties about the future, or rumina
tions about the past. imposed by circumstances or by others.
Autonomy means making a choice when
The review of self-regulation research in multiple alternatives are on the table. Automatic
Chapter 8points to another potentially significant behaviors which, by definition, are "unthinking" (ie.,
source of mindless behavior. In a typical day many mindless) may limit our understanding of options
 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero 281
and,
tionaltherefore, may also limit
action. In some ways, frecly-chosen, inten focusing on the here-and-now, rather than ruminat
operate like the genetic automatie behaviors ingabout the past, or entertaining anxieties and wish
they represent potential happiness set-point beCAuNC ful thinking about the future. This means living inthe
be a significant issue barriers to change. Tlhia may present--not for the prescnt. Mindfulness does not
when automatic behaviors arc
not personally expressive or mean living for the noment without regard for the
desirable (e.g., bad
habits or a short temper), In such future, In this respect, rmindfulness is similar to the
would first seem to require casCs, sclf-change
present-centered awareness and activity-focused
that past behaviors have beenconscious
controllcd
recognition
by factors
attention described by Caikszentmihalyi "flow
as
of which one was largely experience" (Csikszentrnihalyi, 1990;
unaware. This recognition
would then need to be followed by ongoing atten Secondly, while mindfulness may be aChapter 3).
tion and efforts to exert conscious control over the
self-analysis, it is oriented toward sirnply vehicle for
tserving,
rather than evaluating the self. In this regard,
behavior. A mindful state focused on the here-and ing mindfulness is analogous to increa
now opens the possibility that we can consciously increasing
tivity of a radar system that is not
the enst
override automnatic behaviors that might occur if we look for anything in particular. More programned to
lapse into a state of mindlessness. (For a review of objects are
"seen," but what is seen is not constrained or biased
supporting evidence, see Brown & Ryan, 2004; also by attention to some objects and not others. A radar
see a recent study by Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2007.) operator can decide what is and what is not worth
Mindfulness is a potential avenue to greater auton paying attention to. But the nain advantage is the
omy because it expands our awareness of choices by ability to "see" more of what is actually out there. It is
disengaging us from reflexive thought patterns and this "seeing more" that makes mindfulness a potential
habitual/automatic responses. And, when more antidote for the blunted awareness stemming from
options are on the table, we are more likely to make hectic lives, defensiveness in self-examination of
freely-chosen, personally expressive decisions that faults, and unexamined cultural assumptions about
enhance our wel-being. how we should live. Instead of relying on habitual
reactions and ways of thinking that fit current reality
MINDFULNESS AS PRESENT-CENTERED AWARENESs into pre-established boxes, mindfulness provides an
AND ATTENTION Weston (1999) describes con opening for understanding "the way things are
sciousness as the interrelation of awareness and before we judge, analyze, and evaluate.
attention. Awareness describes all the things that are This may seem like some idealized state of
presently on our minds. Awareness involves contin omnipotent knowing, but all of us have had times of
ual monitoring of the internal and external environ great clarity and epiphany when we finally see what
ment. At any given moment, we may be conscious is really going on and what is really important. For
of our immediate circumstances and activities many people such epiphanies result from dramatic
(external) and a rich array of associated thoughts, events that force a rethinking of assumptions about
feelings, and experiences (internal). Attention the self and life. Death, loss, and tragedy, as we saw
focúses our conscious awareness on a more limited in Chapter 4, lead many people to see themselves
set of-experiences. Take vision as an example. We and life more clearly. Before considering mindful
may be conscious of events occurring in both our ness meditation as a gentler and more gradual
will
peripheral vision (awareness) and at the focal point approach to many of these same ends, we
Of our visual field (attention), We can be aware of review some recent studies related to posttraumatic
values that
ings without responding to them or having them growth (PTG) and the changes in life
death.
uIe center of our attention, Awareness and atten may result from confrontations with
On are intimately connected such that ". attention
Life's
continually pulls 'figures' out of the 'ground' of Focuson Research: Getting to
awareness,
of holding them focally for varying lengths
time" (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822).
Bottom Line
naturalistic studies
As Brown and Ryan (2003) note, a central Recall (from Chapter 4) the
confronting life-threaten
feature of mindfulness is an open and receptive, showing that many people life benefits from such
positive
ing events report Park, & Calhoun, 1998,
relPreexisentve -candenterednon-judgmental.
attention and awareness that is pre- experiences (see Tedeschi,
Mindfulness means
 282 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero

for a review), These events can include divorce, sex that leath awareness causes an oppoSite,
ual assault, bone marrow transplants, cancer, heart reaction driven by the need to reduce
a8s0ciated with thinking about ones the
own
defanxiensievtey
attacks, HIV infection, house fires, and lo%s of a inevitable
mortality. Rather than changing life
loved one. Researchers have also studicd the after
math of near-death experiences among people who
management theory predicts that prioriawareness
death tics,
terror
were close to dying or who had been declared clin ClUSCS US to rcaffirm our belicfs and 0Ur
sclf-worth, and to seck feclings of 5ense of
ically dead. The pattern of positive growtlh that sccurity
inn
rial posICssÍons and the acccumulation of wealthmate.
someimes emerges following such criscs involves a Put
general shift from extrinsic values toward more another way, PTG research supports the
leath awareness in producing shifts role of
intrinsic life values, People become less concerned tgWard
more
intrinsic values and toward an acceptance of degth
about materialistic issues such as money, posses
SiONs, appearances, getting ahcad and social status, Terror management theory predicts that
and more focused on personal relationships, com awareness
of death reinforces extrinsic and materialistic yal.
passion for others, and transcendent meanings and in an attempt to deny the reality of death.
Attempts to reconcile these
dictions have focused on the veryContradictorydeathpre-
purposes in life, Wealth and success often seem
shallow and meaningless after a tragedy or a close different
brush -with death. Many people also report awareness experiences studied by PTG
increased feelings of autonomy, self-reliance, as compared to terror management researchersresearchers,
resilience, and a greater appreciation and zest for Terror management researchers use a manipulation
life. In shot, confronting tragedy seems to shake up called mortality salience to create awareness
people's priorities so that the most important things of death. This might involve brief exposure to
in life-the bottom lines, So to speak-become death-related scenes (e.g., a funeral home) and
much clearer. As you may have noticed, many of Words. A Common procedure involves simply asking
these new priorities and self-perceptions are in line people to write down their thoughts, feelings, and
with the lifeorientations of happy and healthy peo emotions when thinking about their own death. In
ple identified by positiv psychology research. contrast, PTG researchers study people who have
When posttraumatic growth (PTG) is dis actually experienced tragic and life-threatening
cussed in your first author's positive psychology events that cannot be duplicated in laboratory stud
class, students reliably raise two questions. First, ies. As researches have noted, PTG is more con
how long do the positive changes following crete, more emotionally absorbing. and takes place
tragedy last? Are they long-term, or is it back to life over a much longer period of time, allowing a per
as usual fairly quickly? Secondly, students ask son to review his or her life through the lens of hav.
whether these changes can be achieved without ing nearly lost it (Cozzolino, Staples, Meyers, &
confronting actual tragedy or threats to life and Samboceti, 2004; ILykins, Segerstrom, Averill, Evans,
limb. Does it take tragedy to shake us out of our & Kemeny, 2007). Studies by Cozzolino and col
take-life-for-granted complacency and make us leagues (2004) and Lykins and associates (2007)
more mindful of what is important in life? Can we have evaluated the importance of the severity of
experience PTG vicariously, through imaginative mortality threats, the duration of such threats, and
thinking (e.g., of our own death)? Or does it the importance of life review in differentiating
require the real thing? Several recent studies sug between PTG effects (i.e.. shifts toward intrinsic
gest that the PTG changes may be relatively long values) and those predicted by terror management
term and that PTG can be engendered through theory (i.e., affirmation of extrinsic values).
imagined experiences. Lykins and her colleagues (2007) examined
The two studies to be reviewed focused on an Iife value changes among California residents who
apparent contradiction between PTG (Chapter 4) experienced a major earthquake in 1994, and among
research and terror management theory (Chapter 7). college students who vicariously experienced,
PTG research documents the change in life values through media coverage, the 9/11 attacks on the
that result from actual life-threatening events that World Trade Center in New York. Compared to
bring people into acute awareness of their own
appropriate control groups, people who directly or
mortality. Terror management theory and the work vicariously confronted events that were powertul
of Earnest Becker (The Denial of Death) argue
reminders of their own mortality reported significant
 shifts away from extrinsie
appearances,
ships, giving to(involving
goals
intrinsic goals and sOcial status), (relatecd
cultivatingH
to
and towardmoney.
cloe
more
relatton-
nlghtatanel
Chupter |2 " Life Abeve Zero
ate ahrr krelaned turn on
tr inel the the light. You
283

growth). others, and engaging in with tiiek rlrHra roon filling fast
sity of the Consistent with predictions, peronal rof
rearh rirsnoke.
of the perceived threat to life and botlh the inten he dri anel You run to
threat the pull bAck in pair the
values. In thewere elated to the degree ofduration the knob gcalela ag the tanlle. You
carthquake
most acutely aware
that
study, thOse wloahift were
in A intenseCrahbing
blanket off thheyrmtierlvirlently heat ot
showed the they Could have dicd
Io the 9/11 strongest shift toward intrinsic
shifts toward more values.
protecthon,
lle and openyro maiaye tr urn
nel usiny it a5
alues wereinvestigation,
most intrinsic
thee
ately, a huge waveelre.
the han
Alrnest irnrmeci
the attck. Lykken evident
and her several months after pours into the f flarme ad srnke
time factors and colleagues
threat intensity are argue that back and literally roorn,
off yurknoekin
PTG and help no way to feet. Thereyt1s
distinguish PTG effectsimportant
predicted by terror from those
in
very hard to leave the
breathe
room It is Eting
defensive responses to management the flames is and the heat frtorn
death occurtheory. That is, almost unbearable.
to threat is when
low-intensity and short-term.
requires a significant
exposure Panicked,in the scramble to the ony
window
you
PTG room and try to
vival and takes time toperception of threat to Sur- As you
struggle, you realize thatopen t.
about the event and develop, as people think window is
virtually the old
People's initial response reevaluate their life priorities. all the edges. It painted shut around
to eyes are barely open doesn't budge. You
may be defensive. life-threatening events now, filled with
mortality awarenessHowever, over time, tears from the
may contribute tocontinuing for help but the smoke. You try calling
air to form the
psychological growth. positive not here. You drop to the floorwords
is
Cozzolino and his colleagues (2004) created a to escape the hoping
vicarious death
reflection of late. The roomrising smoke, but it is too
leled the essential features manipulation that paral- is
with thick fumes filled top to bottom
ances. The positive grOwth effects near-death experi-
of near-death in and
flames. With your nearly entirely
PKperiences are thought to result fromn life review
orocesses and from taking the perspective of
it
to
suddenly hits you, heart pounding.
as time seems
others. stand still. that you are
Iife review and moments away from dying.literally
reports of people perspective-taking
are based on The
who have had near-death experi inevitable unknown that was always
ences. Such individuals say they intensely.
relived waiting for you has finally arrived. Out
their lives and their of breath and weak, you
interactions with shut your eyes
others. Reliving life through one's own significant and wait for the end.
through the eyes of others is thought to beeyes and
respon After reading this death
were asked to answer the scernario,
sible for the changes in life priorities and self participan
Conceptions associated with near-death experiences. following questior
(Cozzolino et al., 2004, p. 281):
Participants in the death reflection condition
Were asked to read and imagine the
dtually happening to them (Cozzolino following event
et al., 2004, 1. Please describe in detail tbe tbougbts
p.290,
Appendix A): and emotions you felt wbile imagining tbe
scenario.
Imagine
who
that you are visiting a friend 2. If you did experience tbis event, bow do
lives on the 20th floor of an old, you think you would bandle thbe finai
downtown apartment building. It's the
middle of the night when you are sud-
moments?

3. Again imagining it did baDpen to yo4,

thedenlySound
awakened from a deep sleep by describe the life you led up to that potnt.
of Screams and the choking
Smell of Smoke. 4. Howdo you feel your family would react
You reach over to the if it did bappen to you?
284 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero
Lykins, Cozzolin0, and their
Questions 3 and 4 were meant to parallel
the life review and perspective-taking described by
individuals who have actually survived near-death
acknowledge the preliminary nature of
clusions. Yet they offer suggestive
col
theileragues
answersto con-
two questions raised by students in the
experiences. Participants in the control conditions author's positive psychology class. the
Do the first
read and imagined more positive scenariOs of PTG last? Lykins and colleagues effects
and were asked to write abou their thoughts and argue that the
answer is likely, yes. As they note, "As
feelings about the scenario in response to questions
paralleling those of the death reflection condition.
Hoal shifts appcar to lead to the huilding
, ofintrinsic
ln an additional study, PTG and terror competence), it is difficult to
impor-
tant resources (i.e., Close relationships, feclino
imagine that these
managenment pretictions were evaluated by compar effects would be transient. Thus,
ing the effects of deth reflection to thosce of mortality changes in goal values appear possible as a long-term
salience. In this "notality salicnce" condition (follow between confrontations with death and link
nmethodology),
ing terror management research describe their (Lykins et al., 2007, p. 1097). PTG"
participants were simply asked to Can PTG effects Occur without
thoughts and feelings regarding their own death.
The death reflection manipulation (imagining
confronting
actual life-threatening experience? Results of both an
studies reviewed here would suggest that
dving in a fire) was found to produce significant emo the
tional and value changes in comparison to control and answer to this question is a qualified yes. Three
con-
ditions appear toincrease the odds that
mortality salience conditions. Content analysis of reflecting
on
one's own mortality will increase awareness of life's
participants' responses in the death reflection condi
tion revealed a significant degree of life reflection that bottom lines (i.e., what is most important). First
focused on regrets and thoughts about important death reflection needs to OCCur over some period of
people in their lives. Consistent with findings from time rather than being a quick consideration that
near-death studies, the experience of imagining one will most likely produce defensive reactions.
self dying in a fire appeared to prompt life review and Second, thinking about mortality needs toprompt a
taking the perspective of others. In addition, the death life review in which death is incorporated into life
reflection caused people with a high extrinsic value and accepted, rather than denied. Third, it seems
orientation to become more intrinsically oriented as important that death reflection include consideration
assessed by a behavioral measure of greediness of how friends and family would respond to one's
(they were less likely to take more than their fair share own death. One important bottom line of life
of lottery tickets). As evidence for the power of the involves our important, but often taken-for-granted
vicarious experience of death, consider the two connection to those who love us.
quotes below (Cozzolino et al., 2004, p. 289): The connection between death awareness
and Our next topic-mindfulness--is made
"I realize now that our time here is rela explicit in the concluding section of Cozzolino and
tively short and it makes me want to live colleagues' article. In considering the deeper
life to the fullest. It seems like such a existential-philosophic meanings of death aware
waste of precious time to become caught ness, Cozzolino and his colleagues (2004, p. 289)
up in materialistic modes of thinking." note that"... individuals can take one of two routes
"I wondered if I had done all that to existing in the world; one in which they are
Icould to make my life meaningful. I forgetful of being and one in which they are mindful
thought of expressing to my family that I of being." The first route means forgetfulness of
loved them, I wondered if there were the fact of death and leads people to immerse them
people whose feelings I've hurt and I selves in the everyday materialisticworld. However,
was sorry for that." .. people who are mindful of being are more apt
to become intimately aware of their own existence
The first quote is from a man who had an actual
and feel responsible for--and capable of changing
their lives. It is these persons who embrace their
near-death experience resulting from a river rafting potential and become aware of their ability to tran
accident. The second quote is from a research partici scend their limits" (Cozzolino et al., 2004, p. 289).
pant in the death reflection condition. The most significant limit to be transcended is our
 Chapter I2 " Life Above Zero 285
about the reality of death. Mindfulness and
aNxiety Irom avaricty of religious traditions
aCCeptanceof death reduce the deleterious cffects of
ness, Kalbat-Zinn practice mindful
(1990) points out that mindfulness
anddenial of death, thereby allowing people to is not a mystical or
fear
fullerandricher lives., spiritual activity and it is not
ve ...theaNswer' to all lifc's problems,
all lifc's problems can be seen more Rather it is that
Mindfulness Meditation aclcar mind" (p. 26), clearly through
Mindfulness
ally quite practical and, at one meditation is actu
WithinEastern philosophy (e.g., Buddhism, Taoism), It is not an level, even simple.
mindfulness pracicein the form of meditation and major changes all-encompassing activity that requires
in your everyday life routine. It is
zazen(sitting) has along tradition as one vehicle for more like taking a walk every day, setting
aside time
enhancing clarity and well-being. An excellent intro- to pray if you are religious, or taking time to step
ductionto Zen meditation and practice can be found of the hectic pace of life. out
in Shunryu Suzuki's book, Zen Mind, Beginner's The basic idea of mindfulness meditation
Mind(1986). For an exploration of one man's jour- begins with an awareness that most of our waking
ney through a year of "sitting and running," see Leo consciousness is dominated by a steady streamn of
DiPorta's Zen Running (1977). An informative unexamined thoughts and feelings. The constant
isusion of Buddhism and the psychology of well mental chatter of one thought after another con
heing are provided by recent articles in American sumes our mental energies and may distract us from
Bchalogist by Walsh and Shapiro (2006) and by what is actually taking place in the moment. Even
Jallace and Shapiro (2006). McIntosh (1997) though we live in the present, our minds frequently
nrovides an excellent review of the relationships drift off to the past, or to anxieties about the future.
hetween Zen Buddhism and social psychology. For Mentally removed from the here-and-now, people
the general reader, Kabat-Zinn's (1994), Wberever often imbue their thoughts with a sense of reality
You Go Tbere You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in that they don't deserve-or perhaps more correctly,
Exeryday Life, offers a highly accessible understand they fail to separate their thoughts from what is truly
ing of the purpose, value, and specific techniques of happening in the present. In its more extreme
mindfulness practice. We will rely heavily on Kabat forms, this confusion of thoughts with reality is the
Zinn's work in our review of mindfulness meditation. basis for many kinds of pathology and many irra
According to Walsh and Shapiro (2006), despite the tional fears, in which people's internal beliefs distort
diversity of Eastern meditative traditions, theyshare a their perceptions in ways that are personally
common focus on attention and awareness (i.e.. distressing. To a less extreme degree, living in our
mindfulness): "The term meditation refers to a family thoughts rather than in the present is a common part
of self-regulation practiçes that focus on training of everyday experience. Kabat-Zinn (1990) gives the
attention and awareness in order to bring mental example of someone whose attention is captured by
processes under greater voluntary control and a particularly beautiful sunset. Instead of savoring
thereby foster general mental well-being and devel the moment, enjoying and taking in the fading sun
opment and/or specific capacities such as calm, clar and all its brilliant colors, the person describes
ity and concentration" (p. 228, emphasis in original). his/her feelings to a companion and begins to think
It is important to point out that even though about similar sunsets observed in the past. Now,
mindfulness meditation training is an integral part of instead of experiencing the sunset as an unmediated
Eastern philosophies and religions, it is not in itself a sensory event, the person experiences the sunset
religion, particularly as translated into Western psy through the filter of his/her thoughts and verbal
chology and culture. As Speca and his colleagues put descriptions. The actual sunset is lost in the person's
it,"...Derived from what were originally and prima thoughts about it. In line with this example, Langer
nly religious or spiritual practices, meditation has (2002) argues that mindfulness involves an under
been adapted for secular purposes" (Speca, Carlson, standing that "events do not come with evaluations;
Goodey, &Angen, 2000). It does not require you to we impose them on our experiences, and in so
Delieve in anything-except perhaps yourself. In its doing create our experience of the event" (p. 219).
Secular form, mindfulness is a means of self-change The point of mindfulness is to see the world before
hrough self-discovery, but its purpose is not to con we judge, evaluate, and stuff it into preconceived
Vert people to a particular set of doctrines. People categories and boxes.
286 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero

The sunset experience descrilbed by Kabat first author knows lifelong fly fishermen whe t
Zinn can be contrasted with the experience of an their trout fishing carcers with only the
accomplished photographer or landscape artist who the sport and the desire to catch fish. enjOver
however, with increasing experience and knrom
oymenttime,of
"sees" keenly what is actually there and finds ways
to capture it. Famous natue photographers like cdge, trout fishing mushroomed into an
Ansel Adams (1985) have the albility able to capture ing of inscct entomology, trout understand-
CCOsystems,
the subtleties and nuances of light, shadow, reflec to the environment, and the
theenvironment. In addition, asnecessity
darmage
of protecting
tions, and human feelings that put the snapshots of partially captured in
the untrained eye to shame. Scasoned photogra the film ARiver Runs Through Ii, flying fishing
phers may spend days waiting for the right combi teaches discipline, patience, attention to detail and
nation of conditions, and may spend hours Inindful awareness of changing environmental con
positioning themselves to get the right perspective ditions, and the complexities of trout behavior, Skila
and attitudes learned on the trout stream have a way
and "feel for ascene before shooting a photograph.
In asimilar vein, an informed sports fan sees more of spilling over to all areas of life.
of what is going on during a game as a result of
extensive knowledge and past observations. When ATTRIBUTES OF MINDFUL AWARENESS Beconing
the first author of your textbook was in graduate more mindful through meditation involves seting
school, he remarked to a faculty member who was a aside a piece of time (perhaps 15 to 45 minutes a
devoted baseball fan that, while baseball was relax day), and a place to quiet the mind down and gain
ing to watch, it was kind of boring. The professor's some insight into how thoughts control our experi.
response was, That's because you are utterly igno ence. Although there are many forms of mindfulness
rant of the game!" He went on to explain the practice, sitting and following your breath is perhaps
nuances of in-field and out-field adjustments for the most common. Kabat-Zinn (1994) provides one
each batter's typical pattern of hitting, the way of the more straightforward descriptions of mindiul
catchers call pitches to offset a batter's strengths, ness practice for a Western audience. You might sit
and how pitch sequencing can create a batter's on acushion or pillow with legs crossed in front and
expectations of the next pitch (which can be used to hands on your knees, or in a straight-backed chair.
make the batter swing at,a pitch outside the strike Youshould be comfortable and a bit relaxed, but the
zone). After he finished, Idid indeed feel like an head, back, and neck should align vertically so that
ignorant fan! Ihad no ide so much was going on you are alert to good posture. Then you focus your
during a baseball game. attention on your breathing, following your breath in
The point of these exanmples is twofold. First, and out without trying to control or change it, but
mindfulness is not foreign to people's experience. just experiencing its ebb and flow. When your atten
We have all had experiences of living in the moment tion wanders away to something else, just note the
and probably each of us has an area of expertise or OCcurrence and bring your attention back to your
knowledge that makes us more attentive and aware breathing. Beginning meditators often discover how
than others in observing some aspect of life. difficult this seemingly simple task can be. The mind
Secondly, at one level, the purpose of mindfulness wells up an endless st:eam of distracting thoughts
meditation is to extend the context of limited mind discomnfort, boredom, fantasies, memories from the
ful experiences, like the ones described above, to past, plans for the future, thinking about your
develop a generalized ability to see life more clearly, spouse, boss, work, vacation, what you need to do
in all its moment-to-moment richness and subtlety. after this, and So forth. Our thoughts seem to have a
Mindfulness as a personal quality is first cultivated life of their own, comning in an endless stream that is
gradually in the limited context of meditation, and difficult to shut off, even for a few brief momnents. As
then begins to transfer to other aspects of life. This Kabat-Zinn (1990) tells his beginning meditation
is analogous to the common experience of immers practitioners, whatever your mind brings to your
ing yourself in an intensive study and observation of attention, just acknowledge it and let it go. DOn
a particular activity and finding that you can't help judge or evaluate, just accept and return to your
thinking of other life domains in new ways as a breath. The idea is to watch your thoughts rather
result of what you have learned. For example, your than trying to suppress them.
 Shapiro and her
As
techniques are
colleagues
founded argue "All
on the medi- Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero 287
cation
Attention.Attention by
itself cultivation of present desires, Kabat-Zinn gives
et al., 2002, p. 639),
howcver, enough" help itwho opens a hutterfly's theexample of a
is not child
(Shapiro
interrelated Kabat-Zinn (1990) emerge carlier, Of cocoon hoping to
for the course, this is
describesseven attitudes
understandingthe purpOSe of that are impor- butterfly tha. is not yet fully not good
formed or
tion.ThepurpOse of mindfulness is tomindful
cultivatemedita-
ready to emergc. Patience
these Crs, and the
present cxtends to oneself, oth
serenqualities, By practicing them in small doses ing us morc open tomoment, Its value lies in mak
heybegintoCarry over into everyday life, increasing in the prescnt what is going on right
moment, now,
'sgenerallevel of
person nmindfulness. take comfort in the idea thatand encouraging us to
a their own things will develop in
1. NonJudging difficulties. time--rushing ahead usually causes
basicidea of 3. Beginner's Mind
non-judging is to recognize that Beginner's mind means an open mind that "is will
coontinually evaluate things in our lives as
ne ing to see
R0od" "bad" when, in fact, most things,
Zinn, 1990, everything
events, for the first time" (Kabat
p. 35). A
a neople we encounter are not inherently so.
(2002) has pointed out
drawback of knowledge and
familiarity is that we may
Langer that "things begin to take things and
there are not seif-evidently good or bad," out
and that activities for granted because we have seen
done them, and think we them,
"the prevalence of value judgments in our lives understand them. What
reveals nothing about the world, but much about we "know" may deaden our
old things in new ways, or to sensitivity to seeing
our minds" (p. 218). It is the lack of awareness of appreciating how
things change. This may happen with
bic fact that represents one important difference places, activities, and aspects of our people,
between mindlessness and mindful awareness. The
Perhaps you have passed an object such environment.
point of mindfulness practice is not to Stop our as a tree,
Constant evaluation of the world, but to be aware building, or particular landscape every day without
really looking; then oneday you've noticed some
that we are doing it. That is, it would be Counter-
thing unusual or interesting about it. This would be
Droductive to "judge the judging and make matters an example of seeing something very familiar as if
even more complicated for yourself (Kabat-Zinn, for the first time. The value of an open
1990, p. 34). The value.of non-judgment is that we beginner's
mind is to see the world in its present richness and
see the world more clearly by recognizing that not just through our past experiences and under
much of what we like and dislike is not literally standings. Beginner's mind is an antidote for bore
true of the world. This does not mean that dom and our seemingly insatiable need to see and
we should try to give up our preferences or do "new" things. Newness is always here. We just
take a completely neutral stance toward the world. need to become aware of it.
That would be foolish and impossible. Rather, non 4. Trust
judging makes us aware that our immediate Trust is captured in Shakespeare's familiar dictum,
respónses are likely to be limited by our prefer "To thine own self be true." Trust means taking
ences. Langer's (1989) work has been devoted to responsibility for being yourself; some psycholo
showing that a significant benefit of mindfulness is gists describe this as authenticity (Harter, 2002).
Opening people up to novel ways of thinking and Imitating others, trying to be someone other than
dealing with life's problems. This opening-up who you are, and relying too much on others'
OCcurs when we become aware that we frequently ideas would all indicate a lack of trust in self. Trust
Put the world into our little, preferential boxes. To is important because even if you make mistakes in
Use the popular catch phrase, mindfulness allows the course of following your own intuitions and
us to "think outside the box" of our own estab feelings, at least they are your mistakes. Learning
lished patterns of thinking. about the self requires, first of all, that we try to be
2. Patience ourselves.
PatOWniencetime meeans allowing
rather than
events to unfold in their 5. Non-striving
Non-striving is a slippery concept because it is
always pushing, wishing, or
often taken to mean a lack of desire and purpose,
working to make things happen according to our
 288 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero
consideration of why certain thoughts,
as if the goal of meditation is to eliminate desires,
or to see them as trivial, or as roadblocks to some
"higher" state of awareness, Kabat-Zinn focuses
or cxperiences have such prominence in our fantasies,
tal life, It is useful to ask ourselves why we men-
obsessed with a particular thought or are so
non-striving on the practice of mindful meditation. past experi-of
cncc. This, in turn, may be a valuable
By this, he only mcans that people should take up sclf-insight. SOurce
mindfulness meditation without preconceived
Overall, mindfulness practice is
ideas regarding what will or should happen. observe the processes of your own mind
a
way to
Striving toachieve a particular result of meditation from a per-
spective akin to that of an outside,
sets us up to make ongoing comparisons of what non-judgmental
observer. This is quite a diferent experience tha
is happening against what we want or expect to
Our usual state of Conscious awareness, in
happen. This distorts and forecloses the processes which we
often get caught up in our thoughts,
of discovering what actually does happen. Not
to expect and not to strive creates a more recep
actions without much awareness of feelings, and
these mental
tie attitude to what mindfulness means for
each preoccupations. Kabat-Zinn argues that the
individual. dramatic effect of mindfulness meditation amongrmost his
practitioners is the realization that they are not their
6. Aceptance
Acceptance means being yourself rather than deny thoughts. "It is remarkable how liberating it feels to
ing who you are, wishing you were different, or be able to see that your thoughts are just thoughts
feeling bad because you aren't the person you and that they are not 'you' or 'reality' " (Kabat-Zinn
would liketo be. Acceptance does not mean pas 1990, p. 69). This realization allows people to con.
sive resignation or losing the desire to change sciously choose how they respond or do not
aspects of your self and your life. It means letting respond totheir thoughts about themselves and the
go of some of the tension caused by the constant world they live in. Mindfulness helps us distinguish
comparison of who you are now and who you between reality and illusion-that is, between the
would like to be. Perhaps having some compassion world as experienced through our self-generated
for yourself is another way to put it. The yalue of thoughts, and the world as it is. If you are consider
acceptance is that "you are much more likely to ing trying mindfulness meditation, it is important to
know what to do and have an inner conviction to have help from experienced practitioners. Most
act when you have a clearer picture of what is large cities have Zen and other meditation centers
actually happening than when your vision is and the Internet can be very helpful. For example,
clouded by your mind's self-serving judgments and Kabat-Zinn's web site offers numnerous instructional
desires or its fear and prejudices" (Kabat-Zinn, tapes and print resources.
1990, p. 39). In other words, acceptance is a basis
for actionnot an impediment.
7. Letting Go
Like non-striving and acceptance, letting go
Mindfulness and Positive Psychology
Research
can easily be misinterpreted as giving up on, or
renouncing life goals. In mindfulness mneditation, A recent review (Shapiro et al., 2002) notes that
"letting go" refers to practicing non-attachment to considerable research has been devoted to exam
prominent thoughts and feelings. In meditation, ining the well-being benefits of mindfulness medi
people find that certain thoughts, feelings, and tation of the sort described by Kabat-Zinn (see
experiences occur more frequently or with greater also Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). Despite concerns
emotional intensity. That is, there are certain about the scientific rigor and datedness of early
things that "the mind seems to want to hold on to" studies, Shapiro and her colleagues believe they
(Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 39). People may hold onto represent a hopeful beginning that supports the
some thoughts because they are pleasant or try value of mindfulness in improving positive healtn
and phys
to avoid others because they are upsetting. In and well-being. In addition to emotional more
relaxation and
meditation practice, such thoughts are simply ical health benefits (such as
noted and then let go, as attention returns to pain),
effective coping with illness, stress, and medita
the breath. Letting go within meditation may also connected mindfulness
Studies have
set the stage for acceptance and more detached self-actualization; a positive
tion to increased
 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero 289

control; emotional maturity and auton- training. In aseries of studies, these researchers
of
andheightenedalertness, concentration, and
sense

omy;
cdeveloped and valiclated a Mindful Attention
tention. More directly related to the goals of pos- Awarencss Scale (MAAS). Perhaps because exam
iive
psychology. Shapiro and her colleagues note ples of mindlessness are more common and easier
studies,
showing that even brief mindfulness medt- to discern than mindfulness, Brown and Ryan (2003)
(ation
training (1 to 6 wecks) was found to be found that statistically, the best way to measure
AssOCiated with increased self-csteem, happincss, mindfulncss was indirectly. In other words, they
positive affect, and personaliy growth, as measurc mindfulness in terms of the absence of
daily
Assessed by the Big Five personality factors. mindless behaviors, This may seem problematic,
specilically. researchers have found increascs in but validating studics strongly suggest that the
version, agreeableness, openness to experi- scale does indeed measure the presence mind
extrav
cnce,
emotional stability, self-csteen, happiness, fulness. Respondents rate the frequency of their
And daily positive
affect. Mindfulness has also experiences with instances of mindlessness on a 16
been
related enhanced interpersonal behaviors scale (where 1 almost always and 6 = almost
such.asempathy
and trust, and to greater receptiv- never). Sample items from tne 15-item MAAS
spiritual concerns and experiences, These scale are given below (Brown &Ryan, 2003, p. 826):
researchers concluded that "meditation appears
and
menhancè physiological, psychological " "I could be experiencing some emotion and
ranspersonal well-being. Specific enhancements not be conscious of it until some time later."
hserved include physiological rest and increased " "IL find it difficult to stay focused on what's
happiness, acceptance, sense of coherence, stress happening in the present."
hardiness, empathy and self-regulation.Thus med " "I tend not to notice feelings of physical ten
iation may help human beings identify and actual
ize their potentials" (Shapiro et al., 2002, p. 638). sion or discomfort until they really grab my
attention."
However, they also note the need for more sys
tematic and well-controlled explorations.of the " "It seems Iam 'running on automatic' without
mechanisms linking mindfulness to enhanced much awareness of what I'm doing."
well-being. " "I rush through activities without really being
Recent studies by Brown and Ryan (2003, attentive to them."
2004) may exemplify the kind of research needed
in order to address the limitations of previous " "Iget so focused on the goal Iwant to achieve
that I lose touch with what I am doing right
studies. As noted in our previous discussion of now toget there"
mindfulness as an antidote to mindlessness,
Brown and Ryan approach mindfulness from the " I find myself listening to someone with one
perspective of self-determination theory, specifi ear, doing something else at the same time."
cally the ability of mindfulness to facilitate ""I find myself preoccupied with the future or
autonomous and self-regulated actions. Using the past."
well-established measures, these researchers have " "I snack without being aware that I'm eating."
defined mindfulness clearly, operationalized and
validated its measurement and shown, in well
controlled studies, a relationship between mind Evaluated in diverse samples, the MAAS has
fulness and improved well-being. Mindfulness is shown good test-retest reliability and meaningful pat
defined as "an open or receptive awareness of and terns of positive and negative correlations with
attention to what is taking place in the present measures of other, related experiences, such as self
moment" (Brown & Ryan, 2004, p. 116).
consciousness, self-monitoring, rumination-reflection,
Brown and Ryan have taken an individual absorption, and openness to experience. The MAAS
aitterences approach to mindfulness on the assump shows a strong positive relationship to other scales
tion that people vary in their characteristic levels dealing with attention,clarity of experience, and active
Of"present-centered" awareness. That is, some life engagement. In line with the present-centered
nature of mindfulness, the MAAS was weakly or nega
People are more mindful than others, whether tively related to measures of rumination (rehashing
Or not they have had any kind of mindfulness
 290 Chapter 12 " Life Above ZerO
events and experiences) and sell-conscioUsness. personally expressive, they
Mindfulness is significantly rclatedto nmeasures of Ixh something important about presumably
themsclves "discover"
subjective and cudainonic well-}eing, and negatively makes them happy and healthy. and what
Comelated with negative afletivity.
Consistent with the predicted rclationship
cultivate a kind of consciosness that is
tive to these "discoveries,"
Mindfulness rmay
rmore recep-
between mindfulness and aulonomy as described
by selt-deteminationtheory (SDT), the MAAS was
positively rlated to measures of autonomy, com Mindfulness and Psychotherapy
petence, and elatedness, ln addition, an alterna Why does increased mindfulness
tive forn of the MAAS with items written in the improvea well-
being? Walsh and Shapiro (2006)) argue
that
mindfulness diretion (ie., endorsenent indicates reason may be the "refined
awareness" rrIajor
the prewnce of mindfulness) corelated highly with tion practices share with nany forms of that medita-
the MAAS scale (r= 0.7). Overall, these results sug
gest that people high in mindfulness are more
apies. As
awareness
they note, the idea that
is, in itselt, a healing and
psychrsher-
hei ghtened
aware of both their inner experiences and their
health-Drormre
ing quality is central to both Eastern
overt behavior, and are more likely to report fulfill meditative tra-
ditions and Western psychotherapies. Observing
ment of their basic psychological needs as speci he
self clearly and setting aside the blinders of habit
fied by SDT. Perhaps as a consequence, they enjoy and reflexive emnotional responses are
a higher level of well-being than those who score considered
low in mindfulness.
foundations for healthy functioning in both the East
and the West.
Further validating studies showed that (1) As a practicing psychotherapist, your second
students actively practicing Zen mindfulness train authorsees firsthand the close connection between
ing scored significantly higher on the MAAS scale mindfulness and psychotherapy. When life pres
than a matched community sample; (2) people ents hardships, troubling sitvations, or traumatic
high in mindfulness showed greater concordance experiences, it's easy to get caught up in our
between their consciously controlled, explicit distressing emotions, or in the anxiety ot struggling
emotional reactions and their implicit, intuitive, to cope. We often resort to "defense mechanisms.
and unconscious reactions; (3) day-to-day state which are very adaptive in the short haul because
increases in mindfulness were related to increased they allow us to continue functioning through
autonomy and lower levels of negative affect; and crises and highly emotional circumstances. But
(4) mindfulness training reduced levels of mood over the long haul, defense mechanisms, if used
disturbance and stress among people dealing with rigidly and in eXcess, can rob us of the opportunity
prostate and breast cancer. Brown and Ryan to cope with hardships in a straightforward
(2003) conclude that mindfulness is a reliably
and validly measured characteristic that has a
manner that will promote healing. We end up
significant role to play in a variety of aspects of expending somuch energy to hold our defenses in
place that little energy remains available for more
mental health. Further research into this attribute
may open up significant new avenues for wel
direct coping.
In essence, psychotherapy is a form of mind
being enhancement" (p. 844). fulness coaching. A client may enter treatment
In its most general form, nindfulness might be
considered a foundation for the many well-being deeply immersed in a troubling situation and
enhancement interventions that are built on struggling to hold his or her life together. When
increased self-understanding. What many people are in such situations, they have a strong
tions may share is their ability to cultivate ainterven
mindful
tendency to cope defensively, avoiding their feel
awareness that leads people to become more self ings at all cost. They fear that if they allow them
aware, more fOcused on the present, more con selves to really feel their emotions fully, they will
scious of the conditions of their lives, and how become overwhelmed and incapacitated. They
experience their own powerful emotion as "the
consciously-chosen actions might improve well enemy," which needs to be vanquished. The skil
being. For example, when people are asked to prac Tu psychotherapist provides reassurance that the
tice gratitude, forgive others, write about meaningful client can dare to feel his or ber emotions without
goals, or engage in intentional activities that are
fear of losing control.
 Chapter 12 " Life Above Zero 291
Clients are often surprisingly unaware of their A final
feelings until they try to communicatethem to
example of the connection between
oWn
psychotherapist. Sometinmes, just hearing them- nindfulness and psychotherapy is Aaron Beck's
classic work on the cognitive
depression and his development underpinnings of
he speak aloud about strong
emotions leads to
selves
heightened mindfulness. Other times, defenses are of cognitive ther
apy as an effective treatment (Beck, 1967; Beck,
that the therapist needs to assist the client Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979). Beck found that many
othick hearing himself. This can often be accom-
truly
plished using the most basic and time-honored of
in depressed patients were locked into a particular,
negative way of interpreting their experiences that
therapeutic skillssimple reflection. It is the fed their depressed emotional state. Research has
psychotherapist's craft to be keenly attentive to shown that depressed people tend to believe they
boththe
spoken and unspoken aspects of human are responsible for the bad things that happen to
communication, and to reflect these back as accu- them. They see the worst in every situation and feel
rately as possible, as if holding up a mirror so the they have little control over the occurrence of
client can become self-awvare. Countless times, I lis- unpleasant experiences (Abramson, Metalsky. &
ten as a client
describes deeply emotional material Alloy, 1989; Alloy & Abramson, 1979; Seligman,
in a tone that su8gests an almost complete absence 1975). Cognitive therapy helps patients to see how
of emotion. A gentle, well-placed reflection often their interpretations of an experience (rather than
alows the client to get in touch with the emotion the experience itself) contribute to their depression.
hat has been wvalled off. Tears often flow at In some cases, this involves giving specific home
momernts like this, and such moments can be pro- work assignments in which people note their imme
foundly challenging and painful; but it is precisely diate reactions to emotional events during the day,
these difficult moments that often turn out to be the along with their underlying thought patterns. Then,
pivot points in therapy, because cnce the true emo they are encouraged to think of alternative explana
tions are acknowledged, the energy the client has tions that are less toxic and self-defeating.
been deploying to hold emotions at bay becomes A telltale sign of emotional problems is when
available for the work of healing. What has little things become big things. A depressed person.
Occurred, in essence, is that the psychotherapist has anticipating a call from a significant other, may
invited the client to enter a state of mindfulnessa believe that not getting the call means the person
does not care about him. For example, the person
state in which strong emotion is acknowledged,
accepted, and embraced. Once there, the therapist may think, "cne more case of failed relationship."
provides encouragement for the client to "stay with Or, "when people get to know me they don't like
the feeling" rather than recoiling into a defensive what they see." The point of cognitive therapy is to
become aware of these irrational, depressing expla
stance. Clients often emerge from these periods of
nations and to think of more rational ones, like
intense mindfulness with calm expressions of sur
the "maybe she had to work late," or "maybe she is
prise that they did not become incapacitated by that waiting for me to call her." BeComing more aware
emotion, that they weathered it quite well, and
they feel a sense of relief and wholeness that
was through cognitive therapy is quite similar to becom
working so hard to ing more mindful through meditation. Both lead to
absent before, while they were new insights regarding the ways our thoughts can
Suppress their emotions.
determine our "reality." These insights may result
Frederick Perls developed a therapeutic
(Perls, from a process called disidentificaion, which is
psychotherapy
approach known as Gestalt described in meditative practice, but which also
Lhe idea that
1969). This approach is based upon split off parts seems to apply to cognitive and other therapies
Psychological problems arise when we personality (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). Disidentification means
acknowledge
of ourselves, refusing to unsavory observing oneself closely and stopping the process
characteristics and emotions that we deem of identifying with one's thoughts rather than with
goal of Gestalt therapy is to
or distressing. The awareness of emotions and per reality. As we disidentify with our thoughts, they
heighten the client's disownedto lose their power to control our reactions, thereby
been
Sonality aspects that have allowing us to see more clearly the difference
simply another special
restore wholeness. This is between what is actually happening and our
describing a specific type of
ized language for interpretations of what is happening.
increased mindfulness.