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sample size and sampling methods
Presentation · July 2023
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14970.26566
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Dalowar Hossan Mushtaq Alhasnawi
Universiti Putra Malaysia University of Thi-Qar
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Sample Size Issues
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The population vs A sample
A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises
some members selected from it.
The population refers to the entire group of people, events,
or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
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Why we should take a sample
Some reasons why we choose a sample:
❖ Time and Cost Efficiency: Collecting data from an entire population
can be time-consuming, expensive, and sometimes even impossible.
❖ Feasibility: In some cases, collecting data from the entire population
may be impractical or unfeasible.
❖ Destructive Testing: In certain research scenarios, taking
measurements from the entire population could destroy it.
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The answer depends on
- The number of factors
- The purpose of the study
- The population size
- The allowable sampling error
The major steps in sampling include
Define the population
Determine the sample frame
Determine the sampling design
Determine the appropriate sample size
Execute the sampling process
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Define the population
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What are the strategies for determining Sample Size
Use the entire population as sample
Using a sample size of a similar study
Using formulas for sample size
Rely on published tables
Using Software or web site
Using formulas for sample size
Examples of formulas
• Cochran Formula
• Taro Yamane
• Steven Thompson
• Kergcie & Morgan
• Richer Geiger
• Robert Mason
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Taro Yamane Formula (1967)
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Steven K. Thompson formula
n: Sample size
N: Population size
Z: based on the confidence level
d: Error proportion (0.05)
P: Probability (50%)
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Sample size
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Krejcie and Morgan (1970)
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[Link]
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Sampling Methods
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Sampling Methods
The sampling method is the process or technique by which the sample is selected
Purpose of sampling: We cannot study entire populations because of feasibility and cost constraints, and hence, we must
select a representative sample from the population of interest for observation and analysis.
One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from
a target population is sampling bias. Sampling bias refers to
situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of
the target population.
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Population = the residents of slums across
the globe
Target population= the residents who live
in Nigeria, Kenya, Pakistan, India, and
Bangladesh
Sampling frame= the residents who have
inadequate housing, lack of basic services,
etc.
The sampling frame is the actual list of
individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire
target population (and nobody who is not
part of that population).
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Types of Sampling Methods
Sampling methods
Probability Non-probability
Simple random sampling Convenience sampling
Stratified random sampling Purposive sampling
Systematic random sampling Quota sampling
Cluster sampling Snowball sampling
Multi-stage sampling Volunteer sampling
Multi-phase sampling
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Simple random sampling (Unrestricted random sampling):
In this type of sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Researchers can use computer programs or manual methods such as lottery or random number tables to
conduct sampling.
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling without Simple random sampling with
replacement replacement
✓ To carry out Simple random sampling without replacement, researchers will take a random sample of 100 people from
a population of 1,000 people. After a student is selected as the sample, the student will be returned to the population.
This means, in the next sampling, these students still have the opportunity to be re-elected.
✓ To carry out the Simple random sampling with replacement, researchers will take a random sample of 500 people from
a population of 5,000 people. However, once a child is selected as the sample, the child will not be returned to the
population. This means, in the next sampling, the population available to be selected as a sample is getting smaller.
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Stratified sampling:
This type of sampling divides the population into subgroups or strata based on some characteristic (e.g., age,
gender, income level). The researcher then selects a sample from each stratum in proportion to the size of the
stratum in the population.
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Systematic sampling:
In this type of sampling, the researcher selects a starting point at random and then selects every nth member of the
population to be included in the sample. For example, if the population is 1,000 and the sample size is 100, the
researcher would select every 10th member of the population.
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Cluster sampling:
Cluster sampling is a method of obtaining a representative sample from a population that researchers have divided into
groups. An individual cluster is a subgroup that mirrors the diversity of the whole population while the set of clusters is
similar to each other. Researchers do not need to obtain samples from all clusters because each one reflects the entire
population, and their homogeneity makes them interchangeable, which simplifies the sampling process.
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Multistage sampling:
Multistage sampling is a version of cluster sampling. Multistage sampling begins when researchers randomly
select a set of clusters or groups from a larger population. Then, the researchers randomly select people within
those clusters, rather than sampling everyone in the cluster. This type of sampling combines two or more
sampling methods.
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Multi-phase sampling:
Designs in which initially a sample of units is selected for obtaining auxiliary information only, and then a second
sample is selected in which the variable of interest is observed in addition to the auxiliary information. A large first-
phase sample is used to generate a very good estimate of the mean or total of an auxiliary variable, which is relatively
cheap to measure. Then, a second-phase sample is selected, usually from the first-phase sample, and both auxiliary and
target variables are measured in selected second-phase population units. Two-phase ratio or regression estimators can
be used effectively in this context. Errors of estimation reflect first-phase uncertainty in the mean or total of the
auxiliary variable, and second-phase errors reflect the nature of the relation and correlation between auxiliary and
target variables.
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A forest resource manager is interested in estimating the total number of dead trees in a 400-acre area of heavy
infestation. She subdivides the area into 200 plots of equal sizes and uses photo counts to find the number of dead
trees in 18 randomly sampled plots. She then randomly samples 8 plots out of these 18 plots and conducts a ground
count on these 8 plots.
Estimate the total number of dead trees in the 400-acre area. Let x denote the number of dead trees in the plot by
photo count and y the number of dead trees by ground count. The data are given as:
Out of these 18 plots, 8 are randomly selected and a ground count is conducted.
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Convenience (or accidental) sampling:
In this sampling, the researcher studies all those persons who are most conveniently available or who accidentally
come in his contact during a certain period of time in the research.
For example, the researcher engaged in the study of university students might visit the university canteen, library,
some departments, playgrounds, and interview a certain number of students. Convenience sampling is primarily
guided by proximity or ease of access to the researcher. In convenience sampling, the characteristics of the units are
not known to the researcher before the study.
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Purposive (or judgmental or, selective) sampling:
Purposive sampling is used when we rely on our expertise to choose members of the population (based on some
appropriate characteristic) to participate in the survey.
It is often used when the population being studied is too small, too difficult to access, or too heterogeneous to use
probability sampling methods.
Identify the research question or The first step in conducting purposive sampling is to clearly define the research question or
objective objective. This will help you determine the criteria for participant selection.
Determine the criteria for Based on the research question or objective, determine the specific criteria for selecting
participant selection participants. These criteria should be relevant to the research question and should help you
identify individuals who are most likely to provide valuable insights.
Identify potential participants Once you have determined the criteria for participant selection, identify potential participants
who meet these criteria. Depending on the sampling method you are using, this may involve
reaching out to experts in the field, identifying individuals who share certain characteristics or
experiences, or asking for referrals from existing participants.
Select Participants Based on the identified potential participants, select the individuals who will participate in the
study. Make sure to select a sufficient number of participants to ensure that you have a
representative sample.
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Quota sampling:
In quota sampling, a population is divided into subgroups by characteristics such as age or location and targets are set for the
number of respondents needed from each subgroup. The main difference between quota sampling and stratified random sampling
is that a random sampling technique is not used in quota sampling, whereas quota sampling chooses the respondents for each group
using convenience sampling. Two types of quota sampling, non-proportional and proportional quota sampling.
Step Investigating the career goals of university students
Divide the We decide that we want to look at the differences among majors, so our strata are the different programs (e.g., economics,
population into strata engineering, education).
Determine a quota we decide to examine the difference between economics and education students in regard to their career goals. Number of
for each stratum students from each major that you include in our sample should be based on the proportion of economics and education students
to the total number of students in these two programs.
if there are 2,000 university students enrolled in the two programs, made up of 800 (40%) education students and 1,200 (60%)
economics students, our sample should comprise 40% education students and 60% economics students.
If our desired sample size was 100 students, our sample should include a quota of 40 education students and 60 economics
students.
we can divide our quotas into further subcategories. For example, our quota of 40 education students could include a
proportional number of undergraduate and graduate students. If the proportion is 50/50, we would choose 20 undergraduate and
20 graduate students.
Continue recruiting Once we reach the quota of 40 education majors, we stop and only recruit economics students until we meet the set quota of 60
until the quota for economics majors.
each stratum is met
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Snowball sampling:
The researcher uses this technique to begin the research with the few respondents who are known and available to
him. Subsequently, these respondents give other names who meet the criteria of research, who in turn give more
new names. This process is continued until an ‘adequate’ number of persons is interviewed or until no more
respondents are discovered.
If you are studying the homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within a
specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you may find that they know
very well who the other homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find them.
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Volunteer sampling:
A common form of voluntary sampling is the customer satisfaction survey. After a business provides a service or
good, they often ask customers to report on their satisfaction. Because the business is asking all customers to
volunteer their thoughts, the sample is voluntary and susceptible to bias.
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Thank You very much
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