CHAPTER

7 Electrodynamics

7.1 • ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

7 .1.1 • Ohm's Law

To make a current flow, you have to push on the charges. How fast they move,
in response to a given push, depends on the nature of the material. For most sub-
stances, the current density J is proportional to the force per unit charge, f:

J= af. (7.1)

The proportionality factor a (not to be confused with surface charge) is an empir-

ical constant that varies from one material to another; it's called the conductivity
of the medium. Actually, the handbooks usually list the reciprocal of a, called
the resistivity: p = 1/a (not to be confused with charge density-I'm sorry, but
we're running out of Greek letters, and this is the standard notation). Some typical
values are listed in Table 7.1. Notice that even insulators conduct slightly, though
the conductivity of a metal is astronomically greater; in fact, for most purposes
metals can be regarded as perfect conductors, with a = oo, while for insulators
we can pretend a = 0.
In principle, the force that drives the charges to produce the current could be
anything-chemical, gravitational, or trained ants with tiny harnesses. For our
purposes, though, it's usually an electromagnetic force that does the job. In this
case Eq. 7.1 becomes

J = a(E + v x B). (7.2)

Ordinarily, the velocity of the charges is sufficiently small that the second term
can be ignored:

J=aE. (7.3)

(However, in plasmas, for instance, the magnetic contribution to f can be signif-

icant.) Equation 7.3 is called Ohm's law, though the physics behind it is really
contained in Eq. 7.1, of which 7.3 is just a special case.
I know: you're confused because I said E = 0 inside a conductor (Sect. 2.5.1).
But that's for stationary charges (J = 0). Moreover, for peifect conductors

296
7.1 Electromotive Force 297

Material Resistivity Material Resistivity

Conductors: Semiconductors:
Silver 1.59 X 10-S Sea water 0.2
Copper 1.68 X 10-S Germanium 0.46
Gold 2.21 X 10-S Diamond 2.7
Aluminum 2.65 X 10-S Silicon 2500
Iron 9.61 X 10-S Insulators:
Mercury 9.61 x 10-7 Water (pure) 8.3 X 103
Nichrome 1.08 x 10-6 Glass 109- 1014
Manganese 1.44 x 10-6 Rubber 1013 - 1015
Graphite 1.6 x 10-5 Teflon 1022- 1024

TABLE 7.1 Resistivities, in ohm-meters (all values are for 1 atm, 20° C). Data from
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 91st ed. (Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2010) and
other references.

E = Jj a = 0 even if current is flowing. In practice, metals are such good con-

ductors that the electric field required to drive current in them is negligible. Thus
we routinely treat the connecting wires in electric circuits (for example) as equipo-
tentials. Resistors, by contrast, are made from poorly conducting materials.

Example 7.1. A cylindrical resistor of cross-sectional area A and length L is

made from material with conductivity a. (See Fig. 7.1; as indicated, the cross
section need not be circular, but I do assume it is the same all the way down.) If we
stipulate that the potential is constant over each end, and the potential difference
between the ends is V, what current flows?

FIGURE7.1

Solution
As it turns out, the electric field is uniform within the wire (I'll prove this in a
moment). It follows from Eq. 7.3 that the current density is also uniform, so
aA
I= JA = aEA = - V.
L
298 Chapter 7 Electrodynamics

Example 7.2. Two long coaxial metal cylinders (radii a and b) are separated
by material of conductivity a (Fig. 7 .2). If they are maintained at a potential
difference V, what current flows from one to the other, in a length L?

(J __________

a)_________________________ J
1 J

FIGURE7.2

Solution
The field between the cylinders is

A A
E= - -S,
2nE 0 s

where A is the charge per unit length on the inner cylinder. The current is therefore

I = f J · da = a f E · da = AL.

(The integral is over any surface enclosing the inner cylinder.) Meanwhile, the
potential difference between the cylinders is

V = - fa E · dl =
Jb
_ A_ ln
2nEo
(!!_)
a
,
so
2na L
I= V.
ln (bja)

As these examples illustrate, the total current flowing from one electrode to
the other is proportional to the potential difference between them:

I v =IR. I (7.4)

This, of course, is the more familiar version of Ohm's law. The constant of propor-
tionality R is called the resistance; it's a function of the geometry of the arrange-
ment and the conductivity of the medium between the electrodes. (In Ex. 7.1,
R = (Lja A); in Ex. 7.2, R = ln (bja)j2na L.) Resistance is measured in ohms
(Q): an ohm is a volt per ampere. Notice that the proportionality between V and I
7.1 Electromotive Force 299

is a direct consequence ofEq. 7.3: if you want to double V, you simply double the
charge on the electrodes-that doubles E, which (for an ohmic material) doubles
J, which doubles I.
For steady currents and uniform conductivity,
1
V · E = - V · J = 0, (7.5)
(]'

(Eq. 5.33), and therefore the charge density is zero; any unbalanced charge re-
sides on the surface. (We proved this long ago, for the case of stationary charges,
using the fact that E = 0; evidently, it is still true when the charges are allowed
to move.) It follows, in particular, that Laplace's equation holds within a homo-
geneous ohmic material carrying a steady current, so all the tools and tricks of
Chapter 3 are available for calculating the potential.

Example 7.3. I asserted that the field in Ex. 7.1 is uniform. Let's prove it.
Solution
Within the cylinder V obeys Laplace's equation. What are the boundary condi-
tions? At the left end the potential is constant-we may as well set it equal to
zero. At the right end the potential is likewise constant-call it V0 • On the cylin-
drical surface, J · ii = 0, or else charge would be leaking out into the surround-
ing space (which we take to be nonconducting). Therefore E · ii = 0, and hence
aV 1an = 0. With V or its normal derivative specified on all surfaces, the poten-
tial is uniquely determined (Prob. 3.5). But it's easy to guess one potential that
obeys Laplace's equation and fits these boundary conditions:

V( ) = Voz
z L '
where z is measured along the axis. The uniqueness theorem guarantees that this
is the solution. The corresponding field is
VoA
E= -VV = - - z
L '
which is indeed uniform. D
Contrast the enormously more difficult problem that arises if the conducting
material is removed, leaving only a metal plate at either end (Fig. 7 .3). Evidently

V=O

FIGURE7.3
300 Chapter 7 Electrodynamics

in the present case charge arranges itself over the surface of the wire in just such
a way as to produce a nice uniform field within. 1

I don't suppose there is any formula in physics more familiar than Ohm's law,
and yet it's not really a true law, in the sense of Coulomb's or Ampere's; rather,
it is a "rule of thumb" that applies pretty well to many substances. You're not
going to win a Nobel prize for finding an exception. In fact, when you stop to
think about it, it's a little surprising that Ohm's law ever holds. After all, a given
field E produces a force qE (on a charge q), and according to Newton's second
law, the charge will accelerate. But if the charges are accelerating, why doesn't
the current increase with time, growing larger and larger the longer you leave
the field on? Ohm's law implies, on the contrary, that a constant field produces a
constant current, which suggests a constant velocity. Isn't that a contradiction to
Newton's law?
No, for we are forgetting the frequent collisions electrons make as they pass
down the wire. It's a little like this: Suppose you're driving down a street with
a stop sign at every intersection, so that, although you accelerate constantly in
between, you are obliged to start all over again with each new block. Your average
speed is then a constant, in spite of the fact that (save for the periodic abrupt stops)
you are always accelerating. If the length of a block is ).. and your acceleration is
a, the time it takes to go a block is

t=f§,
and hence your average velocity is

Vave = = .j¥.
But wait! That's no good either! It says that the velocity is proportional to the
square root of the acceleration, and therefore that the current should be propor-
tional to the square root of the field! There's another twist to the story: In practice,
the charges are already moving very fast because of their thermal energy. But the
thermal velocities have random directions, and average to zero. The drift velocity
we are concerned with is a tiny extra bit (Prob. 5.20). So the time between col-
lisions is actually much shorter than we supposed; if we assume for the sake of
argument that all charges travel the same distance ).. between collisions, then

t= ---, )..

Vthermal

and therefore
1 aJ.
Vave = - at = - - -
2 2vthermal

1
Calculating this surface charge is not easy. See, for example, J.D. Jackson, Am. J. Phys. 64, 855
(1996). Nor is it a simple matter to determine the field outside the wire-see Prob. 7.43.
7.1 Electromotive Force 301

If there are n molecules per unit volume, and f free electrons per molecule, each
with charge q and mass m, the current density is
2
njq}.. F ( nj}..q )
J = nfqVave = = E. (7.6)
2Vthennal m 2m Vfuermal
I don't claim that the term in parentheses is an accurate formula for the con-
ductivity, 2 but it does indicate the basic ingredients, and it correctly predicts that
conductivity is proportional to the density of the moving charges and (ordinarily)
decreases with increasing temperature.
As a result of all the collisions, the work done by the electrical force is con-
verted into heat in the resistor. Since the work done per unit charge is V and the
charge flowing per unit time is I, the power delivered is

2
I p = vI= I R. I (7.7)

This is the Joule heating law. With I in amperes and R in ohms, P comes out in
watts Goules per second).

Problem 7.1 Two concentric metal spherical shells, of radius a and b, respectively,
are separated by weakly conducting material of conductivity u (Fig. 7 .4a).

(a) If they are maintained at a potential difference V, what current flows from one
to the other?

(b) What is the resistance between the shells?

(c) Notice that if b »a the outer radius (b) is irrelevant. How do you account
for that? Exploit this observation to determine the current flowing between two
metal spheres, each of radius a, immersed deep in the sea and held quite far apart
(Fig. 7 .4b), if the potential difference between them is V. (This arrangement can
be used to measure the conductivity of sea water.)

(a) (b)

FIGURE7.4

2 This classical model (due to Drude) bears little resemblance to the modern quantum theory of con-

ductivity. See, for instance, D. Park's Introduction to the Quantum Theory, 3rd ed., Chap. 15 (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1992).
302 Chapter 7 Electrodynamics

Problem 7.2 A capacitor C has been charged up to potential V0 ; at time t = 0, it is

connected to a resistor R, and begins to discharge (Fig. 7.5a).

(a) (b)

FIGURE7.5

(a) Determine the charge on the capacitor as a function of time, Q(t). What is the
current through the resistor, I (t)?

(b) What was the original energy stored in the capacitor (Eq. 2.55)? By integrating
Eq. 7.7, confirm that the heat delivered to the resistor is equal to the energy lost
by the capacitor.
Now imagine charging up the capacitor, by connecting it (and the resistor) to
a battery of voltage V0 , at timet = 0 (Fig. 7.5b).

(c) Again, determine Q(t) and I(t).

(d) Find the total energy output of the battery (j Vol dt). Determine the heat de-
livered to the resistor. What is the final energy stored in the capacitor? What
fraction of the work done by the battery shows up as energy in the capacitor?
[Notice that the answer is independent of R !]

Problem 7.3

(a) Two metal objects are embedded in weakly conducting material of conductivity
a (Fig. 7 .6). Show that the resistance between them is related to the capacitance
of the arrangement by

aC
(b) Suppose you connected a battery between 1 and 2, and charged them up to
a potential difference V0 • If you then disconnect the battery, the charge will
gradually leak off. Show that V (t) = V0 e-tf'r, and find the time constant, r, in
terms of Eo and a.

FIGURE7.6
 7.1 Electromotive Force 303

Problem 7.4 Suppose the conductivity of the material separating the cylinders in
Ex. 7.2 is not uniform; specifically, a(s) = kjs, for some constant k. Find there-
sistance between the cylinders. [Hint: Because a is a function of position, Eq. 7.5
does not hold, the charge density is not zero in the resistive medium, and E does
not go like 1/s. But we do know that for steady currents I is the same across each
cylindrical surface. Take it from there.]

7 .1.2 • Electromotive Force

If you think about a typical electric circuit-a battery hooked up to a light bulb,
say (Fig. 7. 7)-a perplexing question arises: In practice, the current is the same all
the way around the loop; why is this the case, when the only obvious driving force
is inside the battery? Off hand, you might expect a large current in the battery and
none at all in the lamp. Who's doing the pushing, in the rest of the circuit, and how
does it happen that this push is exactly right to produce the same current in each
segment? What's more, given that the charges in a typical wire move (literally)
at a snail's pace (see Prob. 5.20), why doesn't it take half an hour for the current
to reach the light bulb? How do all the charges know to start moving at the same
instant?
Answer: If the current were not the same all the way around (for instance, dur-
ing the first split second after the switch is closed), then charge would be piling up
somewhere, and-here's the crucial point-the electric field of this accumulating
charge is in such a direction as to even out the flow. Suppose, for instance, that
the current into the bend in Fig. 7.8 is greater than the current out. Then charge
piles up at the "knee," and this produces a field aiming away from the kink. 3 This
field opposes the current flowing in (slowing it down) and promotes the current
flowing out (speeding it up) until these currents are equal, at which point there is
no further accumulation of charge, and equilibrium is established. It's a beautiful
system, automatically self-correcting to keep the current uniform, and it does it
all so quickly that, in practice, you can safely assume the current is the same all
around the circuit, even in systems that oscillate at radio frequencies.

FIGURE7.7 FIGURE7.8

3 Theamount of charge involved is surprisingly small-see W. G. V. Rosser, Am. J. Phys. 38, 265
(1970); nevertheless, the resulting field can be detected experimentally-seeR. Jacobs, A. de Salazar,
and A. Nassar, Am. J. Phys. 78, 1432 (2010).
304 Chapter 7 Electrodynamics

There are really two forces involved in driving current around a circuit: the
source, f 8 , which is ordinarily confined to one portion of the loop (a battery, say),
and an electrostatic force, which serves to smooth out the flow and communicate
the influence of the source to distant parts of the circuit:

f= fs +E. (7.8)

The physical agency responsible for fs can be many different things: in a battery
it's a chemical force; in a piezoelectric crystal mechanical pressure is converted
into an electrical impulse; in a thermocouple it's a temperature gradient that does
the job; in a photoelectric cell it's light; and in a Van de Graaff generator the
electrons are literally loaded onto a conveyer belt and swept along. Whatever the
mechanism, its net effect is determined by the line integral off around the circuit:

(7.9)

(Because rj E · dl = 0 for electrostatic fields, it doesn't matter whether you use

for f 8 .) £ is called the electromotive force, or emf, of the circuit. It's a lousy
term, since this is not aforce at all-it's the integral of aforce per unit charge.
Some people prefer the word electromotance, but emf is so established that I
think we'd better stick with it.
Within an ideal source of emf (a resistanceless battery,4 for instance), the net
force on the charges is zero (Eq. 7.1 with a = oo), so E = -f8 • The potential
difference between the terminals (a and b) is therefore

V = - 1b E · dl = 1b fs • dl = f fs • dl = £ (7.10)

(we can extend the integral to the entire loop because fs = 0 outside the source).
The function of a battery, then, is to establish and maintain a voltage difference
equal to the electromotive force (a 6 V battery, for example, holds the positive ter-
minal6 V above the negative terminal). The resulting electrostatic field drives cur-
rent around the rest of the circuit (notice, however, that inside the battery fs drives
current in the direction opposite to E). 5
Because it's the line integral of f 8 , £ can be interpreted as the work done per
unit charge, by the source-indeed, in some books electromotive force is defined
this way. However, as you'll see in the next section, there is some subtlety in-
volved in this interpretation, so I prefer Eq. 7.9.

4 Real batteries have a certain internal resistance, r, and the potential difference between their termi-
nals is E - I r, when a current I is flowing. For an illuminating discussion of how batteries work, see
D. Roberts, Am. J. Phys. 51, 829 (1983).
5 Current in an electric circuit is somewhat analogous to the flow of water in a closed system of pipes,

with gravity playing the role of the electrostatic field, and a pump (lifting the water up against gravity)
in the role of the battery. In this story height is analogous to voltage.
 7.1 Electromotive Force 305

e
Problem 7.5 A battery of emf and internal resistance r is hooked up to a variable
"load" resistance, R. If you want to deliver the maximum possible power to the
e
load, what resistance R should you choose? (You can't change and r, of course.)

FIGURE7.9

Problem 7.6 A rectangular loop of wire is situated so that one end (height h) is
between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor (Fig. 7.9), oriented parallel to the
field E. The other end is way outside, where the field is essentially zero. What
is the emf in this loop? If the total resistance is R, what current flows? Explain.
[Warning: This is a trick question, so be careful; if you have invented a perpetual
motion machine, there's probably something wrong with it.]

7 .1.3 • Motional emf

In the last section, I listed several possible sources of electromotive force, batteries
being the most familiar. But I did not mention the commonest one of all: the
generator. Generators exploit motional emfs, which arise when you move a wire
through a magnetic field. Figure 7.10 suggests a primitive model for a generator.
In the shaded region there is a uniform magnetic field B, pointing into the page,
and the resistor R represents whatever it is (maybe a light bulb or a toaster) we're
trying to drive current through. If the entire loop is pulled to the right with speed v,
the charges in segment ab experience a magnetic force whose vertical component
q v B drives current around the loop, in the clockwise direction. The emf is

E= f fmag · dl = vBh, (7.11)

where h is the width of the loop. (The horizontal segments be and ad contribute
nothing, since the force there is perpendicular to the wire.)
Notice that the integral you perform to calculate E (Eq. 7.9 or 7.11) is carried
out at one instant of time-take a "snapshot" of the loop, if you like, and work

a d

FIGURE7.10