physics

2016-2017 nygh syllabus

reference: 2015 pearson all about physics

measurement
0. science practical assessment
waves
1. physical quantities
12. general wave properties
13. light
newton mechanics
14. electromagnetic spectrum
2. kinematics
15. sound
3. dynamics
4. mass, weight and density
electricity and magnetism
5. turning effect of forces
16. static electricity
6. pressure
17. current of electricity
7. work, energy and power
18. D.C. circuits
19. practical electricity
thermal physics
20. magnetism
8. kinetic model of matter
21. electromagnetism
9. temperature
22. electromagnetic induction
10. transfer of thermal energy
11. thermal properties of matter

amanda koh 411’2017

compilation of formulas

newton mechanics thermal physics electricity and magnetism

● s = ut + 21 at2 ● Q = C Δθ = mcΔθ ● Q = IT
(u+v) ● Q = mlf = mlv ● W =VQ
● s = 2 t

● v 2 = u2 + 2as ● V = IR
1 1 1 1
● v = u + at waves ● RE = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

● F = ma ● v = fλ ● R = ρ AL
1
● ρ= m ● f= T V R1
v ● V2 = R2
v1 v2
● M = Fd ● λ1 = λ2 V2
● P = I V = I 2R = R
F c
● P = = hρg ● n=

is
A v
● E = PT
● P 1V 1 = P 2V 2 ● n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 Vs Ns
1 2 1
● Vp = Np
● Ek = 2 mv ● sin c = n

● E P = mgh ● n1 d1 = n2 d2 ● I sV s = I pV p
hi
● W = Fd ● magnif ication = = v
ho u
E
● P = T = Fv ● 1
= 1
+ 1
f u v
mu
D
=

I = I
-
00 science practical assessment

variables
● specific physical quantities
● measurable with an instrument or calculated from direct measurements
● name the independent and dependent variables, as well as 2 constant variables
● direct measurement
○ length of simple pendulum
○ height at which ball is released
○ time for 20 oscillations
○ electrical current passing through a wire
● indirect calculation
d
○ average speed of moving ball ( v = t
)
○ frequency of simple pendulum ( f = T1 )
V
○ resistance of metal wire ( R = I
)
● DO NOT use size of ball (weight, diameter or volume) or how fast a ball moves (average speed, time taken)

apparatus and diagram

● select suitable apparatus from given list and other common apparatus
● indicate quantity if more than 1 is needed
● large and clear diagram(s)
● label items, including the variable if visible
● retort stand needs a weight

procedure
● describe steps very clearly in a numbered list

template
1. set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above
2. measure the [independent variable] with [apparatus]
3. [steps to measure the dependent variable]
4. [if dependent variable is calculated, include formula to calculate]
5. repeat steps [numbers] to obtain more reliable readings
6. calculate the average value
7. tabulate readings of [all raw data and calculated values]
8. repeat steps [numbers] for further readings over [a suitable wide range]
9. plot graph of [variable] against [variable]
10. use the graph obtained to draw a suitable conclusion
safety precautions
● mention separately, not just in the procedure
● ensure safety of person and apparatus

● light: handle optical pins with care to avoid injury

● electricity: connect fixed resistors in series with battery to prevent large current from flowing and damaging
circuit components
● thermal physics: handle boiling water with care to avoid scalding
● position retort stand away from the edge of the bench to prevent it from toppling and hitting someone

precautions for reliability

● not accepted: parallax error, disturbance due to wind
● mechanics
○ checking for horizontal and vertical alignments
○ make use of vertical edge of door, blackboard or wall to judge is apparatus is vertical
○ use level or set-square to judge if apparatus is horizontal
● timing oscillations
○ amplitude of oscillation should be small (<10 degrees for pendulum) so they are regular
○ ignore first few oscillations and start timing only when they become steady for higher accuracy
○ disturbance due to wind avoided by switching off fans and closing windows
● balancing moments
○ check uniform stick/rod/ruler can be balanced at mid-point
○ check that it can rotate freely about balancing point or other pivots
● light
○ optical pins
■ use protractor or set-square to ensure pins are vertical
■ 2 pins should be more than 5.0cm apart to minimise errors in location of ray
○ lenses
■ place upright (right angle to bench) to object and image distances are measured along line
parallel to principal axis
■ illuminated object placed at same height as optical centre so image is formed at same level
■ screen should be placed in plane at right angles to principal axis to capture sharp image of object
● electricity
○ contacts
■ tightened to reduce contact resistance
■ checked by shaking/tapping wires lightly and observe ammeter reading
■ if reading fluctuates, poor connection
○ close circuit only when taking readings to avoid heating effect which could cause rise in temperature and
affect resistance
● thermal physics
○ water or liquid in vessel stirred constantly so ensure uniform temperature
○ reduce heat loss/gain through conduction, convection or radiation to/from surroundings
01 physical quantities

physical quantities and units

● physical quantity: a physical property of a body or substance that can be quantified by measurement
● numerical value (magnitude) + unit of measurement

S.I. units

S.I. base unit

base physical quantities
name symbol

length metre m

mass kilogram kg

time second s

electric current ampere A

temperature kelvin K ->

k x
=
+

273 15.
.

amount of substance mole mol

luminous intensity candela cd

prefixes

prefix multiplying factor symbol

giga (billion) 1 000 000 000 109 G

mega (million) 1 000 000 106 M

kilo (thousand) 1 000 103 k

deci 0.1 10-1 d

centi 0.01 10-2 c

milli 0.001 10-3 m

micro 0.000 001 10-6 µ

nano 0.000 000 001 10-9 n

precision vs accuracy
● precision: reproducibility (close to other values obtained)
● accuracy: correctness (close to true value; use accepted value)
● error: anything that causes a measurement to differ from the true value
○ random: occurs inconsistently, equal chance of being positive or negative (eg parallax error)
■ can cause poor precision, reduced by averaging results of repeated measurements
○ systematic: occurs consistently, can be compared with a calibration standard
■ can cause poor accuracy in measurement, adjusted by applying a correction factor
● precision also refers to that of an instrument, ie the number of s.fs
measurements

length (m)
1dp
● ruler - don’t use ½ division as precision, because scale is read twice (each end of the length to be measured)
2dP
● vernier calipers (0.01cm or 0.1mm)
○ read main scale marking immediately to the left of the vernier
scale (0.1cm or 1mm)
○ read the vernier scale that coincides with the main scale
(0.01cm or 0.1mm)
○ add the two values and compensate for zero error
● micrometer screw gauge (0.01mm)
○ turn the ratchet to prevent over-tightening and to ensure identical pressure applied on the object
○ read main scale at the edge of the thimble (0.5mm)
○ read the number on the thimble (0.01mm)
○ add the two values and compensate for zero error

time (s)
● stopwatch

pendulum
● definitions

○ time taken for 1 complete oscillation: 2π

√ l
g

○ length: the distance from the point of suspension to the middle/center of the bob
○ amplitude: the maximum distance that the bob travels
○ angular amplitude: the maximum angular deviation from the equilibrium position of the bob
○ oscillation: a complete cycle from a to b to c and back to a
○ period: the time taken for the pendulum to complete one oscillation
○ frequency: the number of complete oscillations in 1 second
● sources of errors
○ small fluctuations in wind during the experiment, causing the pendulum to oscillate unevenly
○ human judgment error in judging when the pendulum has completed exactly one complete oscillation,
causing error in recording the period of oscillation
○ inconsistent human reaction time, causing error in recording the period of oscillation
● precautions
○ switch off fans to reduce the amount of wind, which allows the pendulum to oscillate more evenly,
allowing more precise measurements of the period
○ allow the pendulum to swing freely for several oscillations before starting to take readings. this allows the
oscillations to stabilise into a regular pattern, allowing more precise measurements of the period
○ the length of the pendulum was measured after suspending it from the split cork to take into account any
changes in length due to extension of the spring under tension
○ angle of oscillation should be small, not more than 10 degrees
○ allow pendulum to swing to ensure that it is along the vertical plane
recording and processing of raw data
● raw data: readings/measurements taken directly from an apparatus or measuring instrument
● constants: provided values
● addition/subtraction: least number of d.p.
● multiplication/division: least number of s.f.
● trigonometry: 3s.f.

presentation and interpretation of data

tables
● headings: symbols and appropriate units (e.g. L / m)
● first column: independent variable (arranged in increasing order if possible and with regular intervals)
● at least 6 sets of readings for straight line graph, and 8 sets for curved graph
● repeat measurements of dependent variables and obtain an average value
● raw data on the left side, before processed data

graphs
● first quantity: vertical axis (remember: at the top)
○ i.e. plot a graph of T2/s2 against L/m → T2/s2 is on the vertical axis
● axes must have arrowheads, and labelled correctly
● scales do not have to start at the origin unless necessary (and don’t draw zig zag lines)
● cover 75% of the graph paper
● don’t use odd number scales
● draw a best fit line/curve - (close to) equal number above and under the line
● finding gradient: draw a right angled triangle that covers at least 50% of the plotted graph (cannot be a data
point). write the coordinates of the two chosen points at the point of contact.
● SPLA-CT (scale points line axes; for gradient: coordinates triangle)
● common relationships
○ y increases/decreases as x increases
○ y increases/decreases linearly as x increases (straight line)
○ y is directly proportional to x (straight line, passes through/very close to origin)
02 kinematics

definitions
● scalar quantity: a physical quantity that only has magnitude
○ distance: how much ground an object has covered
○ speed: rate of change of distance of an object at a specific instant
● vector quantity: a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction
○ displacement: how far out of place an object is (overall change in position)
○ velocity: rate of change of displacement of an object at a specific instant
○ acceleration: rate of change of velocity at a specific instant
● scenario: a car is moving around a circular track continuously. it covers a distance of exactly 2.0 metres/s
○ speed is constant (the car travels the same distance every second)
○ velocity is not constant (the direction in which the car is travelling is changing every instant)
○ acceleration occurs all the time (velocity is constantly changing, therefore acceleration is not zero)

motion data collected at a constant frequency

● e.g. ticker tape timer, oil dripping
● a ticker tape timer marks dots on a ticker tape at a constant frequency f to measure the speed of a moving object
(50Hz = 50 dots per second)
1
○ time interval between 2 dots/1 dot interval is f
(eg for 50Hz, duration is 1/50=0.02s)

● narrow strip of paper is slotted through the ticker tape timer, and attached to a moving object. as the object
moves, it pulls the paper through it and the distance between the dots can help measure the speed of the object
● closest to the object: initial velocity

● to find average acceleration

1. determine time interval of 1 spacing ( 1f )

2. consider two sections of the ticker tape representing the initial motion and final motion
3. determine average velocities of the two sections
4. determine time difference (duration between mid-point timings of both sections)
5. average acceleration: (final velocity - initial velocity) / time
graphical analysis
● displacement/time graph
● velocity/time graph
● sign convention
○ values may be positive/negative as they are vector quantities
○ decide on the sign convention: which direction is positive direction

describing graphs
( VIt integrated)

W
r V

I
t

9 9 9

t I t

type of graph gradient area under graph

(slope: magnitude, sign: direction)

distance/time speed

displacement/time velocity

speed/time acceleration (if motion in straight line distance

in one direction)

velocity/time acceleration displacement

free fall
● falls under the sole influence of gravity (no air resistance)
● 9.81 m s-2 (just use 10 m s-2 unless stated)
● if dropped from a height, initial velocity is 0 m s-1
● if projected upwards, velocity at highest point of motion is 0m/s and velocity at which it is projected is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to that when it returns to the same height
● air resistance is a frictional force that opposes the motion of moving objects, increases with the speed/surface
area of the object as well as density of air → for most/all questions air resistance is ignored

terminal velocity
● air resistance increases when velocity increases
● therefore when an object falls through a long distance in air, there will be a point when the air resistance will equal
the weight of the object, and there will be no acceleration
● small dense objects have high terminal velocity, while light objects or with a large surface area have a low
terminal velocity

equations of motion
● applicable for motion with uniform acceleration (eg free fall)
● problems can be solved when 3 variables are known
● choose the formula that is missing the one variable you are not given or asked to find (eg if given u, a, t and asked
to find v, use the formula that is missing s)
● legend
○ u: initial velocity
○ v: final velocity
○ s: displacement
○ a: acceleration
○ t: time

● [v] s = ut + 12 at2
(u+v)
● [a] s = 2 t

● [t] v 2 = u2 + 2as
● [s] v = u + at
03 dynamics

what is a force?
● an influence which changes, or tries to change, the state of motion of a body or the shape or size of a body
● not needed for motion, but needed for change of motion
● S.I. unit: Newton (N)

types of forces

friction
● exists between two surfaces when at least one is rough, due to the microscopic surface irregularities of surfaces
● opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact
● increases with applied force until maximum value (not constant)
○ limiting friction: maximum friction that occurs between the two surfaces
○ proportional to the normal contact r from the surface in contact
● zero when there is no force applied on the object or when surfaces are smooth
● can exist between non-solids
○ e.g. drag force between a body moving in a fluid or between two fluids (eg air resistance)
● reduced greatly by use of lubricant on a surface
○ fills in the spaces between the surfaces, filling the microscopic surface irregularities to make it smoother
● direction of friction on car wheels:

↓
>motion

Ffriction

tension
Nope
● a force which acts through a stretched rope/string/cable
● each rope experiences only one tension value along the rope ↑Ftension
● tension is always a pull (you cannot use a rope to push an object)
plank
● direction of tension depends on object being considered or referred to

normal contact force

● force perpendicular to the surface -"normal
● arises from the action force at the point of contact and application -

F weight Fresultant
upthrust
E
● provided by the fluid displaced by a submerged or floating object
● upward force exerted by a fluid on an object immersed (fully or partially) in the fluid, opposing the object's weight
● density: mass per unit volume, measuring how compact the particles are packed in a unit volume
○ density of water: 1g/cm3 = 1000kg/m
free body diagram
● diagram showing the chosen body
itself, free from its surroundings
● vectors to show magnitudes and
directions of all forces applied to the
body by the various other bodies
interacting with it
● essential to help identify relevant forces
in many problems in mechanics
● include forces acting on the body (and not forces the body exerts on others)

resultant forces
● when forces acting on an object are balanced, there is no resultant force
● when unbalanced, there is a resultant force

Newton's laws of motion

law 1
● an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue in motion at constant speed in a straight
line unless a resultant force acts on it
● in other words, if no resultant force acts on an object, the object has zero acceleration
● inertia: tendency to continue with its state of rest or motion
-
- -

● mass of a body is a measure of its inertia (greater mass → greater inertia)

law 2
● the resultant force acting upon an object is equal to the product of the mass and acceleration of the object, the
direction of the force is the same as that of the object's acceleration
● F = ma (force = mass of body × acceleration of body)
○ 1N is the resultant force which produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 when applied to a mass of 1kg
○ i.e. 1N = 1 kg m s -2
○ a form of F=ma is W=mg
■ weight of an object is the force due to gravity
■ the acceleration produced is the acceleration due to gravity
● terminal velocity
○ when an object falls vertically through air, the upward resistive force r (air resistance) acting on it
increases as the velocity of the object increases
○ when downward force of gravity is equal to the upward resistive force r on the object, the object will fall
with terminal velocity (the constant maximum velocity of the object)

law 3
● force which body a exerts on body b is always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force which
body b exerts on body a
● forces always occur in pairs, called action and reaction forces
vectors

indicating direction of vector

● state with reference to north, south, east or west
○ eg 20° north of east / 70° east of north
● (anti)clockwise from horizontal or vertical (only if relevant to question - eg object hanging)
○ eg 30° anticlockwise from W
● (anti)clockwise from other known vectors
○ eg 40° clockwise from T

drawing vector diagrams

● to find resultant vector R
○ draw one vector from A, followed by another vector (ending
at B)
○ draw resultant vector from A to B
● to find an unknown force when forces are balanced
○ draw the two known forces
○ draw a last force to end at A
○ direction of arrows must be clockwise or anticlockwise
● check
○ magnitude or symbol/name of vectors
○ direction of vectors (arrows) - double arrow for resultant
○ any known angles

finding unknown vector from diagram

● follow method if stated in question
● scale diagram (need ruler and protractor)
○ state scaled used (eg 1cm represents 2N)
○ label vectors
○ use suitable scale to make use of space provided, but easy for measurement
● sketch and calculation
○ neat sketch
○ label vectors
○ check shape of triangle (equilateral, isosceles or right angled - pythagoras’ or trigonometry)
04 mass, weight and density

weight vs mass

mass weight

both are physical quantities

measure of the amount of substance in a body due to gravitational force on a body

scalar; only has magnitude vector; has both magnitude and direction

constant regardless of the gravitational field strength varies according to gravitational field strength

measured by a beam/electronic balance measured by a string/compression balance

weight
● gravitational field: a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction
● gravitational field strength: gravitational force (in N) acting on a unit mass
● a body on earth's surface experiences a downward gravitational force which is the pulling force on it due to the
earth
● for every 1kg of mass, earth exerts 10N (or 9.81N) of gravitational force, giving the weight
● from newton's second law: w = mg (gravitational force on body = weight = mass * gravitational acceleration)
force
● 10 N kg-1 = 10 m s-2 weight/gravitational changes
gravity is the acceleration (10ms")
inertia ↳ constant
● all bodies with mass possess a property known as inertia, the reluctance of an object to change its state of
motion
● force is needed to overcome inertia I =

I L= angular momentum
w= amgular velocity
● depends on mass and not weight
○ force required to overcome inertia same on the moon as it is on the earth
● e.g. when the vehicle we are travelling in suddenly stops, we lurch forward because of tendency to maintain our
motion
● the greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia and the more difficult it is to change its state of motion

density
● denoted by ρ
● mass per unit volume
● SI unit is kg m-3
● determining densities
○ solid: displacement method
○ liquid: mass of liquid / volume of liquid
● when an object is placed in a liquid of lower density, the object sinks; when of higher density, it floats
05 turning effect of forces

moment of a force
● definition: the product of a force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot
○ moment = Fd

● SI unit: newton-metre (N m)
● vector quantity - direction (clockwise/anticlockwise)
● terms
○ light: has a small mass which can be ignored in calculations as it has a negligible weight
○ uniform: all parts of the rod are similar so the centre of gravity of the object is at its centre
● pivot point: point at which the object will last leave the ground (can change with direction of force)

principle of moments weight acts on the middle of object

● when an object is at equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point
● when doing a question with many forces, calculate clockwise and anticlockwise moments separately before
calculating resultant moment
● for an object to be in equilibrium, resultant of all forces and resultant moment must be 0

Xwhy is the magnitude of the weight of the ruler not needed?

the line of action of the weight of the ruler passes through the pivot point, resulting in zero moment
assuming pivot is at the middle

state how the object will move.

anticlockwise about the pivot. the anticlockwise motion caused by <> will be larger than that of the clockwise motion
caused by <>
centre of gravity
● definition: the point through which the entire weight of the object appears to act
● finding the cg of an object
○ divide the figure into pieces of regular shapes and locate the position of their cgs

stability
● measure of a body’s ability to return to its original position after being tilted slightly
● to make an object more stable, lower its centre of gravity (e.g. by increasing area of base)
● types of equilibrium

stable equilibrium

● when object is displaced, the cg of the object is raised

● the line of action through the cg still falls within its base
● its weight has a moment about the pivot causing the object to
return to its original position

unstable equilibrium

● when object is displaced, the cg of the object is raised

● the line of action through the cg falls outside its base
● its weight has a moment about the pivot causing the object to
topple over

neutral equilibrium

● when object is displaced, the cg of the object remains at the same

horizontal level
● the line of action through the cg will always pass through the pivot
point
● its weight has zero moment about the pivot

explain why the object topples when tilted.

1. where the cg is
2. weight, acting from the cg, creates a <> moment
3. rotates <> and topples over to the <>

e.g. the cg of the object shifts to the right of the pivot. therefore, the weight, which acts from the cg, creates a
clockwise moment about the pivot. the object rotates clockwise and topples over to the right.
06 pressure

what is pressure?
● force per unit area
F
○ P = A

● SI unit: N m-2 (pascal, Pa)

○ 1 Pa is very small - about a piece of paper resting on the table
● pressure in liquids
○ P = hρg where h is height, ρ is density and g is gravitational force
f orce weight mg (V ρ )g (Ah)ρg
○ P = area = A = A = A = A = hρg
○ the pressure at one depth in a liquid acts equally in all directions
● atmospheric pressure is about 105 Pa

hydraulic system
● a hydraulic system multiplies the effort so a small effort can be used to lift a
much greater load
● works because liquids are almost incompressible and transmit pressure equally
in all directions (pascal’s law)
● special hydraulic fluid vs water
○ high boiling point
○ anti-corrosion
○ low compressibility
○ constant viscosity
● application: car brakes
○ when a driver steps on the brake pedal, the force on
the small piston exerts pressure on the brake fluid
○ the brake fluid transmits the pressure to the larger
pistons
○ the pressure exerts a greater force on the larger
pistons, which clamps the disc and shows down
the car law
yay-lussac's
:

p kT
Charle's
=

law
TIK
:

boyle’s law boyle's law :

p =
W

● for a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature,

volume V of the gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure P
● P1V1 = P2V2
● explanation: decreasing volume increases number of
collisions and thus increases pressure
pressure measurement
● atmospheric pressure is due to force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of the air above that
surface
● atmosphere (atm) and centimetres of mercury (cm Hg) are common units for atm pressure
○ sea level: 1 atm or 76cm Hg

simple mercury barometer

● measures atmospheric pressure

● experiences atmospheric pressure outside the column (at P)

● pressure at Px (by mercury column) is equal to P
● the volume of mercury in the column will increase or decrease with changes in
atmospheric pressure such that P = Px
● to measure atmospheric pressure, take height h
● X and Y are the maximum and minimum pressure in the mercury column

state and explain what happens to the mercury column in the barometer in the following situations:

more mercury is poured into the mercury column level will rise by the same amount to maintain the column height
the reservoir h since pressure, density and g remains constant

perpendicular height of mercury column to the reservoir is unchanged as pressure is

the glass tube is tilted
dependent on the vertical height and not the length of the column

mercury height column decreases as water vapourises and sets up vapour pressure in
water is introduced into the
the space above the mercury column and presses downwards on the mercury column
space above the mercury
(column indicates pressure difference between atmosphere and water vapour
column
pressure)

there is a crack in the glass height of mercury decreases to the same level as the reservoir as air will move from
tube along the mercury outside the tube (a higher pressure region) to inside (lower pressure) until the pressure
column above the reservoir difference inside and outside the tube is zero

manometer
● used to measure the pressure due to a gas (when atm is known)
● the difference in gas pressure and atmospheric pressure is the excess pressure

● pressure at S = PG (gas supply)

● pressure at T = PA, (atm) + h1
● S = T so PG = PA + h1
● if column in left tube is higher, the same method works
07 work, energy and power

energy
● the capacity to do work
● SI unit: joule (J)
● kinetic energy: the energy a body possesses due to its motion
○ E k = 12 mv 2 , where m is mass and v is velocity
● gravitational potential energy: the energy a body possesses due to its position relative to the ground
○ change in gravitational potential energy: E P = mgh , where m is mass, g is gravity, and h is height

principle of conservation of energy

● energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only change from one form to another
● the total amount of energy in the universe is always the same

a boy fires a stone from his catapult upwards. the initial velocity of the stone is 12.0m/s and its mass is 200g. the
maximum possible height gained by the stone is 5.20m. calculate the stone’s loss in energy.

kinetic energy gained from catapult = gravitational potential energy gained + loss in energy
½ × 0.200 × 122 = 10 × 5.20 × 0.200 + loss in energy
loss in energy = 4.00J (3sf)

work done
● the amount of energy that has been converted from one form to another or transferred from one body to another

.*
● SI unit: joule (J) done
ifforce is acting in different direction no work
a done e
g in
, .

● W = F d (force F acting on an object moved it a distance, d in the direction of the force)

a man pulls a bucket of water up from a well. given that the mass of the bucket of water is 3.2kg, calculate the
minimum work done by the man to bring the bucket of water up from a depth of 5.0m.

W = energy converted to gpe = mgh = 32 × 10 × 5 = 1600J

* “minimum” work done because not all work is converted to useful energy -- heat, friction, etc

power
● rate of doing work or the rate at which energy changes from one form to another
● SI unit: watt (W)
E Fd
● P = T = t = Fv

efficiency
.
● the ratio of useful energy output to the total energy input of the system
● usually expressed as a percentage (useful energy output / total energy input × 100%)
● efficiency of a system cannot be greater than 100%

a lift is able to carry a load of 1000kg at a constant velocity of 1.5m/s. given that the motor driving the lift has an
input power of 20kW, calculate the efficiency of the lift

useful output power = 1000×10×1.5 = 15 000 W = 15kW

efficiency = 15÷20×100% = 75%
08 kinetic model of matter

introduction
● matter is made up of a large number of atoms or molecules which are in continuous random motion
● vibrations and translational motion
● collisions occur due to this motion

properties of solids, liquids and gases

solid liquid gas

distance close together in a regular not arranged in a regular pattern molecules are far apart
between pattern and are slightly further apart than
molecules in solids

cannot be compressed because not easily compressed as can be easily compressed

molecules are close together molecules are close and there is because molecules are sparse
with little space between them little space between them and there is a lot of space
between them

forces balanced forces between the not held in fixed positions, so move randomly at high speeds,
between molecules which hold them in molecules can move among one colliding with one another and
molecules fixed positions another and take the shape of the walls of the container
the container

can only vibrate about fixed molecules vibrate to and fro, intermolecular forces act only at
positions, alternately attracting alternately attracting and moments of collision; otherwise,
and repelling one another repelling one another with forces molecules are so far apart that
as strong as those in a solid the intermolecular forces
strong attractive forces prevent become negligible
molecules from leavigng their attractive forces make it difficult
positions, while repulsive forces for molecules to leave the liquid
act when they are too close to
prevent them from collapsing

heating when a solid is heated, when a liquid is heated, the

molecules gain energy and molecules vibrate and move
vibrate - separation between about vigorously; the liquid
molecules increases slightly, expands slightly
solid expands

brownian motion
● haphazard movement of microscopic particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) due to
the uneven bombardment of the suspended particles by the molecules of the fluid
● smoke particles are observed to move continuously and haphazardly as they are being
hit by unseen, fast-moving air molecules
explain the behaviour of gases
● temperature
○ when temperature is higher, brownian motion of smoke particles become more vigorous
○ thermal energy is transferred to the molecules, causing the molecules to move faster
○ surrounding air molecules are hitting the smoke particles more frequently with greater force
● pressure
○ when randomly moving gas molecules hit the wall of a container, they exert a force on the wall
○ since pressure is defined as force per unit area, the force acting on the container gives rise to gas
pressure
● relationship between pressure and temperature
○ for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume
○ when the temperature of the gas in the container increases, molecules move faster and hit the walls more
frequently and with greater force
P k (Boyle's law)
T

○ pressure increases
● relationship between volume and temperature
○ if we want pressure to remain constant, have to reduce the number of collisions per unit time with the
container V= KT (Charles /aw)
○ this can be done by increasing the volume of the container
○ volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure increases with temperature
● relationship between pressure and volume
○ for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, average speed of the molecules remains the same
○ decreasing the volume of the container means that the number of gas molecules per unit volume in the
container is increased

(payLussa's
○ number of molecules hitting the wall per unit time also increases P =

○ thus, pressure increases

09 temperature

introduction
● temperature is a measure of
○ how hot or cold a body is
○ the average kinetic energy of molecules in a body
● internal energy of the system
○ sum of potential energy and kinetic energy
○ the larger the spacing between the particles, the higher the potential energy of the particles
○ in any given system, there will be a distribution of kinetic energies of all the atoms or molecules
○ average kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the system

thermometer
● makes use of a physical property that
varies with temperature, known as the
thermometric property
● constructing a thermometer
○ select a thermometric property
that changes continuously and
linearly with temperature
○ select 2 fixed points
○ select appropriate divisions

liquid-in-glass thermometer
● thin glass bulb filled with liquid at the bottom of the thermometer, joined to a narrow capillary tube which is sealed
on the other end
● as temperature increases, liquid expands and the thread of liquid in the capillary tube increases in length
● liquids are usually mercury or coloured alcohol
● mercury
○ good thermal conductor and expands uniformly
○ not suitable for measuring very low temperatures because it freezes at -39°C
○ poisonous and care must be taken if the glass breaks
● alcohol
○ expansion is six times greater than mercury
○ can be used to measure very low temperatures because it freezes at -114°C
○ not suitable for measuring high temperatures because it boils at 65°C
● advantages
○ portable
○ independent of other equipment (e.g. power supply)
○ cheap and affordable
resistance thermometer
● usually made of platinum due to its linear resistance-temperature
relationship and chemical inertness
● resistance increases proportionally with an increase in temperature
● advantages
○ very accurate
○ has high sensitivity
○ can measure a wide range of temperature from -200°C to
1000°C

thermocouple
● consists of 2 wires of different metals joined together at the ends to
form 2 junctions (cold and hot)
● if the 2 junctions are at different temperatures, a small electromotive
force or voltage is produced
● greater the temperature difference, the larger the emf produced
● cold junction of the thermometer normally kept at 0°C
● temperature range over which a thermocouple operates depends on
the metals used for the wires
● advantages
○ can measure over a wide range of temperatures from -200°C to 1700°C
○ be used to measure the temperature at a point as the wire junctions are small
○ can measure temperatures that change rapidly due to its quick response (small mass and low heat
capacity)

temperature scales
● celsius (centigrade)
○ ice point: temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure (0°C)
○ steam point: temperature at which pure boiling water changes into steam at standard atmospheric
pressure (100°C)
● Kelvin (absolute)
○ based on efficiency of heat engines
○ 0K is absolute zero of temperature, which in theory is the lowest possible temperature that any substance
can reach
○ 0K corresponds with -273°C, magnitude of a unit on the Kelvin scale is the same as that on the celsius
scale
○ so K = °C + 273
10 transfer of thermal energy

● thermal energy flows from a region of higher temperature to a

region of lower temperature
● can be transferred through conduction, convection and radiation

conduction
● the process by which thermal energy is transmitted through a
medium from one particle to another
● no net movement of atoms during the process of conduction
● increase in vibrational kinetic energies of the atoms
● conduction in a metal rod
○ when one end of the rod is heated, the atoms there gain
energy and vibrate faster
○ these atoms collide with their less energetic neighbours
○ some of their energy is transferred to these neighbouring atoms, which in turn gain kinetic energy
○ thermal energy is passed along the rod by the vibrating atoms
○ continues until the cold end reaches the same temperature as the hot end
● conduction is far better in metals than non-metals
○ conduction takes place through both vibrating atoms and free electrons present in metals
○ free electrons gain energy and move faster
○ since free electrons are free to travel in the spaces between the atoms to transfer energy to other
electrons and atoms, conduction occurs much faster
● solids are better conductors of thermal energy than liquids and gases
○ molecules are closer together in solids than in liquids and gases, thus kinetic energy can be transferred
more quickly
○ polystyrene foam, wool and fibreglass are effective insulators because they contain small pockets of still
air so conduction cannot take place easily

uses of good conductors

● used where thermal energy has to be quickly transmitted
● cooking utensils which have to be heated directly are made of materials such as aluminium, copper and steel
● heat sinks in computers and other electronic equipment conduct thermal energy away to avoid overheating
● copper pipes used in heat exchangers in hot water tanks

uses of poor conductors (insulators)

● wooden ladle used to stir hot things
● kettles, saucepans and electric irons have plastic or wooden handles
● oven gloves used to take a hot dish out of the oven
● double-glazed windows
convection
● the process by which thermal energy is transmitted from
one place to another by the movement of heated gas or
liquid
● molecules or atoms move from one place to another
○ as atoms in solids only vibrate about their fixed
positions, convection does not occur in solids
● convection in liquids
○ when part of a liquid is heated, it expands in
volume, becoming less dense than the surrounding liquid and moves upwards
○ cooler and denser liquid moves down to replace it
○ the cooler liquid in turn gets heated up and rises, resulting in a continuous convection current
● convection in gases occurs much more readily than in liquids
○ gases expand much more than liquids when temperature rises

applications
● air conditioners are best placed near the ceiling of a room
○ cool air blown sinks as it is denser than the warm air in the room
○ the warm air rises and is drawn into the air conditioner where it is cooled
● freezer compartment is usually found near the top part of a refrigerator
○ cold air below the freezer compartment sinks
○ sets up a convection current which cools all the food effectively in the refrigerator
● sea and land breezes are natural convection currents

radiation
● the process by which thermal energy is transferred by
electromagnetic waves
● does not require any medium (can take place in a vacuum)
● energy is transmitted in the form of waves as part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (infrared radiation)
○ when absorbed, the energy of the infrared radiation transforms into thermal energy of the receiving body
● all objects emit and absorb infrared radiation, but they emit and absorb it at different rates depending on their
temperature and surface characteristics
● radiation is the means by which energy reaches us from the sun
○ there is a vacuum between the earth and the sun, meaning conduction and convection cannot take place
○ sun’s energy travels to the earth as electromagnetic waves at the speed of light
● factors affecting transfer of radiation
● surface temperature: the hotter an object, the higher the rate of energy emission
● surface colour and texture: a rough, dull black surface is a better emitter and absorber of infrared
radiation (dull black → shiny black → white → silvery)
● surface area: the larger the surface area, the higher the rate of energy transfer
applications
● shiny metal teapot is a poor emitter of infrared radiation, keeping the liquid hot
● cooling fins and heat sinks of electronic equipment
○ painted dull black to emit infrared radiation quickly
● thermal blankets
○ bright, shiny outer surface that emits infrared radiation at a slower rate
● factory roofs are sometimes coated with aluminium paint
○ reduce absorption of infrared radiation during the day and emission of infrared radiation during the night
○ maintain a fairly steady temperature within the factory
● solar panels painted dull black to absorb as much infrared radiation from the sun as possible

application: vacuum flask

● designed to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold
● double-walled glass container, with a vacuum between
the walls
○ prevents thermal energy transfer by conduction
and convection
● silvered surfaces on the inside and outside of the flask
○ poor absorbers and emitters of thermal energy
○ reflects infrared radiation from hot fluids back
into the flask
○ reflects infrared radiation from external
surroundings away from a cool flask
● foam plastic reduces rate of thermal energy transmitted
by conduction through thin glass walls
● plastic cap prevents convection and evaporation
11 thermal properties of matter

(specific) heat capacity

heat capacity of a body specific heat capacity of a substance

definition amount of thermal energy required to raise the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of the body by 1°C or 1K, without any temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1°C
change in state (already takes into consideration or 1K, without any change in state
of mass)

SI unit J K-1 or J (°C)-1 J kg-1 K-1 or J (kg °C)-1

equation Q = C Δθ Q = mcΔθ

C and I determined by material and state

● specific heat capacity is more commonly used because it is the fundamental property of a substance or material
● heat capacities are different when in solid, liquid or gaseous state

experimental determination of specific heat capacity

solid (e.g. aluminium) liquid (e.g. ethanol)

1. measure mass of substance, m

2. record reading on thermometer, θ1
3. switch on the heater
4. start the stopwatch
5. after a certain time interval, record the reading on the thermometer again, θ2
6. switch off the heater
7. record the time interval and the power output of the heat supply or the reading on joulemeter attached to the
heat supply

precautions

holes should not be too large so that there is better stir the liquid to allow better distribution of heat within the
contact between the heater and thermometer with the liquid
solid block

sources of error and possible improvements

block can be lagged (insulated or covered with a thermal reduce heat loss by lagging the container; cover beaker to
insulator) so that there is less heat lost to the environment minimise evaporation of liquid
latent heat
● melting/solidification and boiling/condensation and processes involving a change in state without a change in
temperature
● during melting and boiling, energy absorbed is used to overcome intermolecular forces and increases the internal
energy of the material
● extra work is done against atmospheric pressure during boiling so energy involved in boiling is greater than
energy involved in melting

latent heat specific latent heat

definition amount of thermal amount of thermal energy needed to change a unit mass of a substance from
energy needed to solid to liquid or from liquid to gas without any change in temperature
change a substance
from solid to liquid specific latent heat of fusion specific latent heat of vaporisation
or from liquid to gas
without any change amount of thermal energy needed to amount of thermal energy needed to
in temperature change a unit mass of a substance change a unit mass of a substance
from solid to liquid without any change from liquid to gas without any change
in temperature in temperature

SI unit J J kg-1 J kg-1

equation Q = ml f Q = ml v

experimental determination of specific latent heat

fusion (e.g. water and ice) vaporisation (e.g. water and water vapour)

procedure

1. measure initial mass of water 1. water is set boiling with a heater

2. switch on the heater 2. the joulemeter reading and mass of water is
3. after a certain amount of time, switch off the recorded after some bubbles are formed
heater and measure final mass of water 3. after a certain time interval, switch off the heater
4. record the reading on joulemeter attached to the and measure the final mass of water and final
heat supply joulemeter reading

sources of error and possible improvements

some water may evaporate from the beaker in both setups some water may be lost due to evaporation - use a control
- use a control to estimate the rate of loss of water mass to estimate the rate of loss of water mass due to
due to evaporation evaporation

some thermal energy supplied by the heater may go into may be difficult to determine the point at which the scale
increasing the temperature of the surrounding air, or not is balanced
be fully absorbed by the ice
evaporation
● process where a substance undergoes a change in state
● occurs in a slightly randomised manner
● substance with high boiling point will have a lower rate of evaporation
● factors affecting rate of evaporation - increases when
○ temperature increases - higher average kinetic energy of the molecules
○ surface area increases - liquid molecules are more likely to leave the surface of the liquid
○ humidity decreases
○ wind speed increases - carries away liquid vapour formed by evaporation and brings drier air
○ atmospheric pressure decreases - less air molecules bombard liquid molecules
● why does evaporation occur?
○ liquid molecules are in constant random motion and collide with each other continuously
○ when the molecules with higher kinetic energy collide with others when it is near the surface of the liquid,
it may gain enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of the liquid and leave the liquid body
● cooling occurs when a liquid evaporates
○ the fastest-moving molecules leave the the liquid
○ average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining in the liquid is decreased
○ since temperature is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid,
temperature falls and cooling occurs

boiling evaporation

occurs at boiling point occurs at any temperature

occurs throughout the liquid occurs at the surface

bubbles can be seen no bubbles can be seen

cooling and heating curves

● graphs are steeper in the beginning as compared to the end because the rate of heating/cooling is faster when
the temperature difference is larger
● gradients of the graph in each of the three states is related to the specific heat capacities of the substance
○ the steeper the graph, the lower the specific heat capacity
● flat sections related to latent heat of vaporisation and fusion
○ horizontal section of the boiling point (vaporisation) is longer than that at the melting point (fusion)
finding equilibrium temperature of a mixture

10g of ice is added to 200g of water and are mixed together in an insulated chamber. the ice is at -20°C while the
water is at 30°C. find the final temperature of the mixture.

1. find the amount of thermal energy required to reach a fixed temperature (choose based on the question - e.g. the
boiling/melting point of the substance)

Qwater reach 0°C = 0.200 × 4200 × 30 = 25 200J

Qice reach 0°C = 0.010 × 2050 × 20 = 410J
Qice melts = 3.34 × 105 × 0.010 = 3340J

2. infer whether the equilibrium temperature is above or below this fixed temperature

25 200 > 410 + 3340

therefore, equilibrium temperature is above the fixed temperature

3. let the equilibrium temperature be Tf, and solve

heat loss by water = heat gained by water

0.200 × 4200 × (30 − T f ) = 410 + 3340 + 0.010 × 4200 × (T f − 0)
25200 − 840T f = 3750 + 42T f
882T f = 21 450
T f = 24.3°C
12 general wave properties

general
● a wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through vibrations from one place to another, without the transfer of
particles/matter
○ carries energy away from the wave source
○ transfers energy without transferring matter
● transverse vs longitudinal waves
○ transverse: waves that travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction of vibrations
■ eg horizontal spring moved up and down, water waves, electromagnetic waves
○ longitudinal: waves that travel in a direction parallel to the direction of vibrations
■ eg horizontal spring moved to and fro, sound waves

ripple tank
● how ripples are produced
○ dip a horizontal bar into the water to obtain plane waves
○ a motor will cause the bar to move up and down repeatedly
○ to obtain circular waves, replace the horizontal bar with a ball-ended dipper
● how bright and dark images form
○ lamp in the overhead projector shines light onto the ripple tank
○ light shines through the ripples and casts an image of the ripples on the white screen consisting of a
series of dark and bright fringes which represent the positions of the troughs and crests respectively
○ the crest of the water wave behaves as a convex lens while the trough behaves as a concave lens
○ thus, light converges and form a bright fringe through the crest, while light diverges and forms a dark
fringe through the trough

terms

speed v distance moved by a wave per second m s -1

velocity = frequency × wavelength ( v = f λ )

frequency f number of crests or troughs that pass a point per second, ie the number of complete hertz (Hz)
waves generated per second
1
f= T

period T time taken for any given point on the wave to move a distance of one wavelength, ie s
the time taken to generate one complete wave
1
T = f

wavelength λ distance between 2 successive crests/troughs (or any 2 successive points vibrating m
in exactly the same way / “in phase”) in a wave

amplitude A magnitude of the maximum displacement from the rest position (height of crest or m
depth of trough)

wavefront the straight line joining all the crests (or all points in phase) on a wave
graphs
● displacement-position graph: shows the displacement of particles along a wave at one particular instance
(somewhat like a photograph)

● displacement-time graph: shows the motion of a single particle at a particular position as the wave passes

● unable to determine whether a wave is transverse or longitudinal through a graph: displacement represents that
of the particles in regards to their rest position as the waves pass through them

reflection of plane waves

● obey the same laws of reflection as light
● wavefronts are observed and drawn (perpendicular to the actual direction of the waves)
● perpendicular spacing between neighbouring wavefronts represent wavelength of waves, and remains unchanged
for both incident and reflected waves

1. draw dotted arrows as boundaries perpendicular to and on the ends of wavefronts to indicate direction of waves
2. each arrow meets the barrier at a point of incidence - draw the normal
3. measure the angle of incidence and draw the reflected waves with dotted arrows at an equal angle of reflection
4. draw the actual wave fronts (perpendicular to the dotted reflected arrows)

refraction of plane waves

● when plane water waves travel from one depth to another, they undergo refraction and obey the laws of refraction
● wavefronts are observed and drawn (perpendicular to the actual direction of the waves)
v1 v2
● λ1 = λ2 (since f remains constant)
I
frequency determined by source
● visible light and water waves are both transverse and thus have the same behaviour when undergoing refraction

visible light water waves visible light water waves

medium air → glass deep → shallow glass → air shallow → deep

increase in refractive decrease in depth of decrease in refractive increase in depth of
index water index water

bending direction towards the normal away from the normal

wave speed decreases increases

frequency constant constant

wavelength decreases increases

13 light

light
● an object can be seen only when light rays coming from it enter our eyes
● luminous objects give off their own light (eg lamps, sun)
● non-luminous objects do not, and are seen when they reflect light from a source
● angle of deviation (applies to both reflection and refraction): how much it has turned from its original direction
○ reflection: 180 - 2i
● whenever a light ray reaches a surface, part of the light will be partially reflected while the rest will pass into the
other medium and refract

reflection
● laws
1. the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane
2. the angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection

=n
● images in a plane-
mirror are
○ virtual
○ upright
○ same size as object
○ same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror
○ laterally inverted
● minimum height of the mirror to see the entire object is ½ the length of the object

problem solving with mirrors

● cone of light: 2 rays starting from the same point on the object but ending at different points on the eye
● large object: 2 rays starting from different points on the object but ending at the same point on the eye

1. locate mirror, object and image

a. if object is far off to one side, extend the mirror with a dashed line
b. if given grid, assume that grids are perfectly square
c. if not given a grid, draw perpendicular dashed line and measure distance accurately
2. draw ray from image to eye (the eye is looking at the image, not the actual object)
a. solid line from mirror to eye, and dashed from mirror to image
b. draw arrow to show direction that light is travelling
3. draw the ray from the object to the mirror from where the first ray meets
refraction
● bending of light rays when it passes from one medium to another
● bends due to the difference in speed of light
● refractive index (n) = speed of light in vacuum (c) / speed of light in that medium (v)
○ therefore, v = c / n
○ materials with higher refractive index are ‘optically denser’
○ speed of light: 3.0 × 108
○ vacuum has the smallest possible index of 1.00, while air is 1.03 (but normally assume it is 1)
● direction of bending
○ lower n to higher n → bend toward the normal FAST
○ higher n to lower n → bend away from normal
slower towards
*
if i
=
0 (parallel to normal) ,
no faster away ,

laws refraction

● incident ray, refracted ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane
● ratio of the sine of the incident angle to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant (aka snell’s law)
○ n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
○ θ refers to the angle between light ray and normal (ie angle of incidence/refraction)
● principle of reversibility: light ray will travel along the same path regardless of which direction it started from

denser to less dense medium

* must be from optically optically
total internal reflection
● as angle of incidence increases, the angle of
refraction also increases → this occurs until the
refracted ray passes exactly along the boundary of
the 2 mediums, and the angle of incidence is known
as the critical angle, c
○ therefore, critical angle: angle of incidence in the optically dense medium for which angle of refraction in
-

denser med in

erefractiveindex
the optically less dense medium is exactly 90° of optically a

,
1
○ to find critical angle, use snell’s law (or sin c = n )
● when the angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical angle, refraction can no longer occur
is
where i =r ,
● total internal reflection occurs, where light is reflected back into the object
● 2 conditions for TIR ⑰
○ light ray must be travelling from a material with higher refractive index towards a medium with lower
refractive index (so that it bends away from the normal until reaching 90°)
○ angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
of the medium

apparent depth
● refractive index = real depth / apparent depth (if it is air)
● the general formula is n1d1 = n2d2 n
=
● depth always seems lower / object seems nearer to you
lenses
● a piece transparent material (glass, plastic) with curved sides for concentrating or dispersing light rays
● most practical application of refraction - many uses including spectacles, cameras, telescopes, microscopes, the
human eye

terms
magnification
= hi / ho = image height / object height
= v / u = image distance / object distance

lens formula
1 1 1
f = u + v

● real images: u and v are positive

● virtual images: u is positive, v is negative

term definition

optical centre, C midway point between the lens surfaces on its principal axis - rays passing through optical centre
do not deviate

principal axis line passing through the optical centre of the lens and perpendicular to the plane of the lens

principal focus (on a converging lens) point on the principal axis to which an incident beam parallel to the principal
focal point, F axis converges

focal length, f distance between its optical centre and principal focus

focal plane vertical plane which passes through the principal focus and is perpendicular to the principal axis

behaviour of light through a converging lens

● rays passing through the optical centre do not deviate
● rays parallel to the principal axis will be refracted by the lens to pass through the focal point on the other side of
the lens
● rays passing through the focal point on one side of the lens will be refracted by the lens to emerge parallel to the
principal axis on the other side of the lens
● rays parallel to each other will converge to a point on the focal plane

images
● real: light rays coming from the same point on the object will meet at the corresponding point on the real image
after passing through the lens
● virtual: light rays coming from the same point on the object will appear to originate from the corresponding point
on the virtual image after passing through the lens
 V
virtual ,

must be dotted
14 electromagnetic spectrum

properties
● transverse waves speed of light
● travel at the speed of 3.0×108 in vacuum
● transfer energy from one place to another
● show wave properties like reflection and refraction
● obey the wave equation, velocity = frequency × wavelength

energy E
components
frequency f X

wavelength i

radio waves
I microwaves +l

radio waves
● few cm to several hundred metres
● radio and communication to transmit sound and pictures

microwaves
● satellite television and mobile phone networks
● microwave oven - microwaves of a particle wavelength are very strongly absorbed by water molecules, energy
carried by the absorbed microwaves then heats up the water and cooks food quickly

infra-red radiation
● every object that has a temperature above zero (0 K) emits infrared radiation
● as an object gets hotter, the infrared wavelength emitted gets shorter
● sensors that can detect infrared radiation used in thermal imaging equipment
○ search-and-rescue efforts to find survivors trapped beneath rubble
○ surveillance systems to detect intruders
○ diagnose cancerous growths and blocked blood circulation
visible light
● part of the EM spectrum that the human eye can detect
● when passed through a prism/water vapour, the wavelengths separate into the colors of the rainbow because
each color is a different wavelength
○ violet has the shortest wavelength at around 380nm, and red has the longest at around 700nm
● laser light - light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
○ digital signals are sent through optical fibres using short pulses of light
○ industries: weld metals together, cut through hard materials like steel, cut hundreds of layers of cloth to
the same pattern simultaneously
○ medicine: ‘spot weld’ a detached retina, cauterise or seal blood vessels

ultra violet rays

● main source: sunlight
● causes humans to tan
● stimulates our bodies to produce vitamin D, but overexposure can cause skin cancer and retinal damage
● can kill bacteria and viruses
○ hospitals sterilise surgical instruments in UV sterilisation boxes
○ grocery meat counters install UV lamps to reduce spoilage of meat
● cause some chemicals to glow - spot anti-forgery marks in bank notes

x-rays
● produced when high energy electrons lose their energy after striking a metal target
● used as diagnostic tool in medicine and dentistry, to observe the inner parts of one’s body
● treatment for certain forms of cancer
● can damage or destroy living tissues and organisms - avoid unnecessary exposure
● examine flaws and cracks in metal parts joined together
● inspect insides of articles such as electrical appliances, or the insides of luggages

gamma rays
● emitted as a result of the decay of radioactive nuclei, released during nuclear reactions
● cause serious damage when absorbed by living tissues
● used under controlled conditions to kill cancerous cells and sterilise hospital equipment
● check for flaws in metals

ionisation
● process in which an electron is given enough energy to break away from an atom
● results in the formation of 2 charged particles - a molecule with a net positive charge, and a free electron
● harmful to living cells as it results in the destruction or the modification of living tissues
● non-ionising radiation is the part of the EM spectrum which has photon energies too weak to produce ionisation
○ UV radiation, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radiowaves
● ionising radiation consists of extremely high frequency EM waves with enough energy to produce ionisation
○ have high frequencies and short wavelengths
○ X-rays, gamma rays
15 sound

● produced by vibration of objects, eg drum, tuning fork, vocal cords

● sound waves are propagated as longitudinal waves (travel in a direction parallel to the direction of the vibrations)
● mechanical waves, as they require a medium to travel
● when vibrating object alternately pulls or pushes on the layers of air adjacent to it, it causes small but rapid
changes in air pressure
○ pushed closer together → higher pressure → compression
○ pulled further apart → lower pressure → rarefaction
● diagram of positions of layers of air molecules before and after sound waves travel through them:

graphs
 properties
● loudness / volume
○ amplitude
○ measure of the amount of energy carried by the sound
● pitch
○ frequency (number of waves formed in 1s) > determined by source

● quality / timbre
○ the characteristic of sound that allows us to differentiate between
2 different sources of sound with the same pitch and loudness

same base sound ○ the 3 waveforms on the right displays waveforms of sounds from
+

different "noise" 3 different musical instruments, which differ only in their quality -
that
change the quality they have the same fundamental frequency and amplitude
by tuning fork
=> not technically a pure
note unless

speed of sound and echo

↓ ● speed of sound: 330 m/s

○ differs in gases, liquids or solids, due to the difference in the strength of interatomic forces, closeness of

density atoms/molecules and temperature

speed ○ propagate faster in denser mediums

● when a sound wave is reflected by a large, hard and smooth surface, an echo is produced
● methods of measuring speed of sound
○ direct: fire a starting pistol, a person 200m away starts a stopwatch on seeing the flash and stops on
hearin
■ assumption made: sound and light from the starting pistol produced at the same time
■ sources of error: wind, human reaction time
○ indirect: a person faces a high smooth wall at least 50m away and claps regular to coincide with echoes,
time for 50 claps is recorded
○ indirect: place a microphone at one end of a long hollow tube, with a smooth flat surface at the other end,
using CRO, record the time it takes for an echo from a clap or snap to reach the microphone

ultrasound
● human audible frequency is between 20Hz and 20kHz
○ infrasound: below 20Hz
○ ultrasound: above 20kHz
● ultrasound allows imaging because of the difference in time taken for the waves to return from different depths of
the medium
○ sound navigation and ranging (sonar) to measure distances in air or water - detector calculates the
distance from the time it takes for the ultrasonic pulse to reflect
○ quality control in manufacturing - detector monitors strength of ultrasonic signals passing through a
product, flaws/inconsistencies in product will affect strength of signals

cathode ray oscilloscope

● used for displaying waveforms
● y axis - voltage; x axis - time
16 static electricity

electrostatics
● objects can be neutral or electrically charged
○ two types of charges: positive and negative
○ electrons and protons have equal but opposite charges
○ neutral: positive and negative charges are equal
● charged objects are formed due to the movement of negative charges (electrons) between objects
○ positive charges (protons) cannot move (located in the neutron)
○ positively charged when it loses electrons and left with excess positive charges
○ negatively charged when it gains electrons and left with excess negative charges
● law of conservation of charge: charge cannot be created or destroyed
● law of electrostatics: unlike charges attract and like charges repel

charging

type of material charging discharging

insulators rubbing / friction expose to a flame

when rubbed with another material, electrons are transferred from one thermal energy from the
material to another (see triboelectric series) flame ionises the air
particles to produce
negative and positive
ions, which will discharge
an object

contact expose to moisture

may acquire a charge when placed in contact with another charged in moist conditions, water
object, but the charge transfer is minimal and limited to the point of vapour in the air removes
contact excess charges

conductors contact with another charged conductor expose to a flame

eg when a neutral sphere A touches a negatively charged sphere B, free ions in the flame
electrons are transferred from B to A remove excess charges
 conductors induction (2 spheres in contact + a third sphere) expose to moisture
inducing charges on a sphere without contact, such that opposite in moist conditions, water
charges reside on the 2 spheres which can then be pulled apart vapour in the air removes
excess charges

induction + earthing (1 sphere + a charged sphere + something to earthing

earth) connect the object to the
inducing charges on a single sphere, then earthing the sphere such that ground (earth) with a
electrons are transferred to/from the ground and only the induced conducting wire or by
charges remain touching it with a finger

triboelectric series
● ranks various materials according to their tendency to lose or gain electrons
● comes into play when charging by rubbing method
● not necessary to memorise but need to know how to read
○ since PVC is more negative than silk, if i rub silk with PVC, electrons from silk will be transferred to PVC
→ PVC will become negatively charged while silk becomes positively charged

glass increasingly positive

nylon

wool

fur

silk

cotton

perspex (acrylic)

polystyrene

polyethylene (polythene)

PVC increasingly negative

charge signs
● a neutral object has an equal amount of positive and negative charge; unless otherwise
instructed, no charge sign is drawn on it
● an isolated charged object has charge uniformly distributed on its surface
● when a charged rod induces charges on a metal sphere, draw an equal number of
opposite charge signs on the sphere
● if a charged rod induces charges on 2 metal spheres touching each other, the 2 spheres behave like a single
conductor - opposite charges are induced on opposite ends of the spheres

electric fields
● electric field: region in which an electric charge experiences a force
○ exist around all charges in 3 dimensions
○ usually drawn in 2 dimensions, using lines to show their shape
● electric field line: path in which a light positive charge would move if free to move
● direction of electric field at a point: direction of force acting on a small positive test charge placed at that point

guidelines
● field lines are directed from positive to negative charges

● field lines never intersect each other

● field lines enter or leave the surfaces of conductors at right angles
● field lines do not exist inside a charged conductor
● spacing of the field lines is an indication of relative strength of the electric field

● 2 common types of electric fields are radial field and uniform field

* must draw min6 lines

● uniform field: indicated by parallel and equally-spaced straight lines

example drawings

applications of electrostatics

photocopier
● makes use of selenium, a photoconductor - conductor under light, insulator in the dark
● inside a photocopier is a drum coated with a thin layer of selenium

1. whole surface of the drum is charged positively by rotating it near a highly charged metal wire
2. when a printed page is to be photocopied, light is reflected off the page and projected onto the drum
a. white parts of the page reflect intense light to some parts of the drum → these areas become conducting
and lose their charge
b. other parts of the page do not receive light → areas on the drum remain insulating and retains their
charge
c. thus, drum ends up with a pattern of a charge area which is an exact copy of the pattern of printing on the
original page
3. find particles of negatively charged carbon powder (toner) is attracted to the charged areas of the drum
4. toner is transferred onto the photocopy as the drum rotates and presses against the copy paper; heat is supplied
to melt the toner powder and fix it onto the paper surface

spray painting
● gives an even coating of an object (eg a car), ensuring that the paint reaches even the most inaccessible parts

car painting
1. paint droplets from an aerosol becomes charged by rubbing against the nozzle of the spray
2. the car’s body is earthed
3. charged paint droplets will be attracted onto the metal body
4. droplets all have the same charge and repel each other, spreading out evenly throughout the sprayed surface
glue spreading

● when the paper passes through the nylon friction pads, it is being charged negatively
● glue droplets are charged oppositely to the paper (positively) when passed through the nozzle
● hence, the glue droplets are attracted to the paper
● since like charges repel, the glue particles will repel each other and spread out evenly

precipitator
● clean smoke coming out
from industrial chimneys, by
removing fine ash and other
particles from waste gases
● consists of 2 flat metal
plates with a number of
metal rods running vertically
between them

1. plates are earthed but rods

↓
between are kept strongly
mesh
negatively charged
2. strong electric field in the
region between the rods and the plates
3. air molecules around the rods will be ionised due to the strong electric field
4. positive ions are attracted back to the rods while negative ions are picked up by the tiny particles of ash and dust
5. charged dust particles then move towards metal plates where they are collected

hazards of electrostatics
● rubbing can cause a large buildup of charge that can cause sparks

example:
1. the tyres of a moving truck rub against the surface of the road
2. electric charges accumulate on the truck
3. when there is a sudden discharge, sparks produced
4. ignite highly flammable load
5. fire

○ to prevent this, electrical connection is made between the container and the earth (ie earthing) - this will
allow the discharge of any excess charges that has already built up on the tanker to prevent eg ignition of
the flammable liquid due to sparking
● charges are built up when ice particles in clouds rub against each other; when the charge gets too large, it will
discharge to the ground via lightning
17 current electricity

charge
● charge of an electron is -1.6×10-19 C
● charge of a proton is +1.6×10-19 C

electric current (Q=IT)

unit ampere (A)

definition rate of flow of electrical charges

meaning (1A) 1 coulomb of charge flows through the circuit in 1 second

● caused by a flow of electrons when there is a potential difference

● for historical reasons, the direction of conventional current is taken as the direction a positive charge would flow
● in a common conductor, current is due to motion of negatively charged electrons (opposite of conventional
conventional
current)
reality
Set current <
>11>

● measured with an ammeter, which has very low internal resistance → connect in series
○ electric current must flow into the ammeter via the positive terminal and leave via the negative terminal

emt
electromotive force (W=VQ)

unit volts (V)

definition work done by the source in driving a unit charge round a complete circuit

meaning (1J) 1 joule of work is done to bring 1 coulomb of charge round the whole circuit

● free electrons in a wire will not flow unless forced to do so; thus, a source of energy is needed to drive the charge
around a circuit (battery, cell, generator)
○ electromotive force creates an electrical difference across the source, causing an electric current to flow
from the positive terminal back to the negative terminal
● measured with a voltmeter, which has very high internal resistance → connect in parallel

potential difference (W=VQ)

unit volts (V)

definition work done to drive a unit charge between 2 points

meaning (1J) 1 joule of energy is converted from electrical energy to <> energy when 1 coulomb of charge flows
through the bulb

*
↓
It +
circuit lamp resistor
● total electric potential energy gained by the charge when it passes through the cells must be equal to the total
Ielectrical potential energy lost by the charge when it passes through the components in the circuit
● measured with a voltmeter, which has very high internal resistance → connect in parallel
 resistance (V=IR)

unit ohm (Ω)

definition a measure of the degree to which an electrical component opposes the passage of an electric
current

meaning (1Ω) amount of electrical resistance that exists in an electrical circuit when 1A of current is flowing with
1V of potential difference applied to the circuit

● metals with low resistance are used as conductors or connectors (wires)

● when current flows through metals of high resistance, a lot of electrical energy is converted to thermal energy
○ metals with high resistance are used as heating elements (eg coils of electric kettles)

resistors
● a component in an electric circuit which provides a known value of resistance
● purpose: to control or limit the size of a current flowing in a circuit
● fixed resistors and variable resistors
↳
wheostat
factors affecting resistance

R = ρ AL unit explanation

resistivity, ρ constant Ωm intproperty of the material of the conductor

length, L m path is longer, so more energy is used

cross sectional area, A m2 wire is thicker, electricity can flow more easily

Ohm’s law
● Ohm’s law: current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the
ends of the conductor, provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain constant
○ a resistor that has constant resistance is said to obey Ohm’s law
● gradient and resistance

current
○ in a V/I graph, gradient = resistance
○ in a I/V graph, gradient = 1/resistance (greater gradient = smaller resistance)
only
one
flows
●
way a diode does not have negative resistance because the direction in which it is placed makes a difference
● cannot conclude a filament lamp is non-ohmic because temperature of the lamp always rises when switched on
(leading to increased resistance)

ohmic conductor filament lamp diode

W W V
18 D.C. circuits

series and parallel circuits

● in a series circuit, all electrical components are connected one after another to form a single loop, with only one
path in which the electric current can flow
○ current will stop flowing if there is a break anywhere in the circuit (eg if a single bulb blows)
● in a parallel circuit, several components are connected across 2 common points; all the terminals on one side of
the components are attached together, as are all the terminals on the other side
○ any breakdown in one of the branches does not affect the current flow in other branches

series parallel

current from the source is the sum of the currents

current at every point is the same as there is only in the separate branches
one pathway for current to flow

current

charges split into equal portions and each charge

only gains potential energy from one cell
charges gain potential energy from all three cells

electromotive
force

potential differences across the separate

sum of emf of cells equal to the sum of pd across branches are equal
all components

potential
difference

combined resistance is smaller than the smallest

of individual resistances
effective resistance of resistors in series is the
sum of individual resistances (R ) (R2)
,

R =

R, +

R2
resistance
 in parallel ,
current is divided
I
potential divider circuit according to the ratio of their voltages

● emf in a series circuit is divided among components according to the ratio of their resistances
V R1
V2 = R2

V1 R1
emf = Rtotal

● rheostat used to vary the voltage of a circuit is called a potential divider or potentiometer

describe and explain how the voltmeter reading changes as C is moved from X towards Y

since XC section of resistance wire and the thermistor are

connected in series, the same current flows through them. hence,
the p.d. is directly proportional to the resistance. when C is at X, the
resistance across CX is 0Ω; applying the potential divider concept,
the pd across CX is 0V and the pdp across the thermistor is 12V. as
C slid towards Y, the resistance across CX will gradually increase to
a maximum. applying the potential divider concept, the pd across
CX increases and the pd across the thermistor decreases.
↳ V= IR ,
I is constant
explain how the voltmeter reading changes as the surrounding temperature increases

the resistance of the thermistor decreases and the resistance of the resistance wire increases. thus, the ratio of the
resistance of the thermistor to that of the resistance wire decreases. based on potential divider concept, the pd across
the thermistor decreases.

types of resistors

rheostat
● resistance wire wound around an insulating tube
● current flows through the resistance wire between one end and the sliding contact (high
resistance due to length), then through the metal rod to the other end (without much resistance)
● used as brightness controls for lights or volume controls on radio and television sets

thermistor
● most common thermistors show a decrease in resistance as temperature increases
● resistance of most conductors increases with a rise in temperature

light dependent resistor

● resistance decreases as light intensity increases - when light energy falls on it, extra free
electrons are released, making it a better conductor
● example of a LDR: silicon

diode
● semiconductor which only allows current flow in one direction

↳ non-ohmic
19 practical electricity

heating effect
● electricity used to produce heat
● heating element usually made of nichrome wire coiled around an insulating fireproof material
○ does not oxidise or rust easily
○ high resistance, therefore heats up quickly
○ high melting point
● electric kettle
○ heating element is enclosed in a metal tube
○ when a current flows through the heating element, the water around the element is heated by conduction
and thermal energy is then transferred by convection
● electric iron
○ thermal energy produced is spread evenly over a large metal base which conducts thermal energy well
○ electric irons usually contain a thermostat which switches the current off when it gets too hot and
switches it back on when the iron cools below selected temperature

electric power
● P=IV
○ watts = amperes × volts
● E=PT
○ joules = watts × seconds
○ any unit of power and time will give you a unit of energy, but these are less commonly used
■ something that is commonly used is kWh, which is kW × hours
↳ used to measure electricity consumption
dangers of electricity
● damaged insulation
○ due to wear and tear
○ metal casing may become live
○ exposed live wire can cause an electric shock if someone touches it
○ may result in short circuit between the live and neutral wires, causing a surge in current and a fire
● overheating of cables
○ thinner wires may be cheaper but have a higher resistance, producing more heat → can catch fire if
current flow is high (i.e. when used for appliances which require high power)
○ overloading outlets (i.e. usage of extension cords and adaptors) increases current drawn from the mains,
heating up the wires, causing a fire
● damp conditions
○ non-pure water is an electrical conductor
○ water lowers resistance of human skin, causing electrocution
○ dry skin has a resistance of 100 000Ω or more, while wet skin can have a resistance of as low as a few
hundred ohms
safe use of electricity

plugs
● necessary wires:
○ live wire (brown) - 230V
○ neutral wire (blue) - 0V
● earth wire (green and yellow stripes) - 0V
○ only needed when appliance has a metal casing, not
needed when appliance is double insulated
○ connects outer metal casing to the ground
○ prevents electric shock in case the live wire touches the metal case - providing a path for charges to
travel from the metal casing to the ground
○ in addition, when this happens, a large current will flow and blow the fuse in the live wire

switches
● connected to live wire so it can be disconnected when the switch is open
● if the switch is placed on the neutral wire, the appliance will still be at high voltage even if the switch is open since
it is still connected to the live wire → large current will flow through the person
↳ not closed circuit , no current

but high voltage -)

fuses When person
touches ,
connection to Earth ,

● replaceable cartridge made of glass or ceramic large current through person ,

● has a low melting point

● when current through it exceeds its rating (there is a large surge of current), the fuse melts/blows and opens the
circuit
current, disconnecting appliance from high potential
● protects the equipment (just replace the fuse instead of the entire equipment)
● standard fuse ratings: 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A, 13A, 30A

fuse box (consumer unit)

● contains circuit breakers
● some modern consumer units have a main switch known as the earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) which will
disconnect all circuits in the house from the mains if an earth leakage occurs
● most modern units contain miniature circuit breakers (MCB) which control separate circuits in the house
● when a fault is detected, MCBs will switch off (tripped)
○ faults: short circuit, current too high

electricity in a household
● electricity meter
○ counts the amount of electricity used by the household
○ measured in kWh
○ located outside the house so that the recorder from the electrical company can easily record
● lighting circuit: when one bulb blows, others will still light up
● ring main circuit: connects all power sockets in a household
20 magnetism

magnets
● magnets attract objects made from ferromagnetic alloys and compounds, such as steel, iron, nickel, cobalt and
gadolinium
● magnets have 2 poles at which the attractive force is the greatest - north-seeking and south-seeking
○ law of magnetism states that like poles repel and unlike poles attract
● only repulsion between a specimen and a magnet allows us to conclude that the specimen is a magnet
○ important: not only a permanent magnet, it can be induced
● poles are not exactly at the very ends - distance between poles is approximately ⅚ of the length of a magnet
● magnetising an object means to align the magnetic domains within the object itself, while demagnetising involves
disturbing the alignment of the magnetic domains such that they all point in different directions

magnetic field
● region around a magnet where the force that a magnet
exerts can be felt
● direction of the magnetic field is from north to south
○ is indicated by the north pole of a small plotting
compass
● drawing is very similar to electric field drawings
○ lines cannot intersect
○ closer lines indicate stronger magnetic field
○ uniform magnetic field represented by straight
parallel lines
● when magnets are placed near other, magnetic
effects may cancel out to produce a neutral
point, where a compass needle experiences no
magnetic effect from the 2 magnets
○ 2 equally strong magnets such that
similar poles face each other
○ magnets are placed parallel to each
other min . 6 lines , symmetrical

earth’s magnetic field

● the earth has a magnetic field, with its magnetic south pole at the geographic north pole
● north pole (red) of a compass will be attracted to the geographic north pole and point there
temporary magnets

induced magnetism
● when a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material touches or is brought near to the pole of a permanent magnet,
it becomes a magnet itself
● explains why a magnet can attract an unmagnetised magnetic material - the material becomes an induced
magnet, and the end nearer the original magnet has an opposite polarity to the magnet and they attract

stroking
● material is stroked several times in the same direction along its length
● magnet must be lifted high above the bar between successive strokes
● end of the material where the stroke finishes has opposite polarity to that of the end of the stroking magnet
S
it
-
direct current S N

● magnetic effect of an electric current

● electromagnet
○ consists of a coil made from several hundred turns of insulated copper wire wound on a core of soft
magnetic material
○ when the current flows, the metal is magnetised
○ when the current stops, the metal is demagnetised
● to make a permanent magnet with this method:
○ place a steel bar inside a solenoid and pass a direct current through the solenoid
○ solenoid produces a strong magnetic field that magnetises the steel bar
grip
○ steel bar stays magnetised even if the current is switched off right-hand
to find polarity
demagnetisation
● alternating current
● heating
● hammering

hard vs soft magnetic materials

● soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetise and demagnetise and are thus used as temporary magnets
○ eg iron
● hard magnetic materials are difficult to magnetise and demagnetise are used as permanent magnets
○ eg steel
● experiment
○ place a permanent magnet on top of an iron bar and a steel bar of the same dimensions
○ an iron bar is able to attract more iron fillings than a steel bar → iron is easier to magnetise than steel
○ when the permanent magnet is removed, most of the iron fillings fall off from the iron bar while very few
fall off the steel bar → iron loses its magnetism more easily than steel
21 electromagnetism
S 7

legends W i

top view : X
● cross symbolises the current/magnetic field is going into the paper
● dot symbolises the current/magnetic field is going out of the paper
● think about shooting an arrow and seeing the feathery back part (cross) vs being shot by an arrow and seeing the
tip of the arrow (dot)
⑧(
magnetic effect of a current
..
right hand grip rule
● imagine gripping the wire with your right hand
● if thumb points to north (magnetic field), fingers point in the direction of the current
● if thumb points in the direction of the current, fingers give the direction of the magnetic field

soft iron core helps

concentrate magnetic fields in

the middle of the solenoid

magnetic field shapes

single coil solenoid

● field lines are closed loops along the circumference ● magnetic field is stronger in the region inside the
of the coil solenoid
● near the centre of the coil, field lines are almost ● field lines in the region inside the solenoid are
straight and parallel parallel (has same strength along most of the inner
● field lines are more concentrated inside the coil as part of the solenoid)
the magnetic field is stronger there ● magnetic field lines outside the solenoid are similar
to those of a bar magnet because the solenoid has
poles
applications

electric bell
● when the switch is pushed, the circuit is closed and the soft iron cores
are magnetised
● armature is attracted to the electromagnet and hammer strikes the bell
● forward movement of the armature breaks contact and cuts off current
● soft iron cores lose their magnetism and the armature is no longer
attracted
● steel spring causes armature to return to its original position and
remake contact, causing the cycle to repeat again
● bell will continue to ring as long as the switch is closed

magnetic relay
● using an electromagnet in one circuit to switch on
another circuit
● small current in the first circuit can be used to control
a second circuit that requires a large current
● how it works
○ first circuit is a simple electromagnet which
requires only a small current
○ current magnetises the soft iron core to
attract the soft iron armature
○ top end of the armature is raised as it swings about the pivot, closing the switch contacts of the second
circuit
● benefits
○ first circuit may contain components such as a LDR or thermistor that only uses small currents
○ only second circuit that requires a large current needs to be connected using thick wires
● used in the starter motor of cars as it requires a very large current and is inconvenient to have thick wires trailing
from the dashboard (where the starting switch is) → magnetic relay used to enable a small current in the relay
coil to control a larger current in the starter motor

circuit breaker
● device designed to switch off the current in a
circuit when the current exceeds a certain value
● when current is too high, electromagnet will be
strong enough to attract the iron lever upwards
● spring will then pull the springy metal to the
right and separate the contacts to stop the
current from flowing
● after the fault is repaired, the contacts can be
pushed back by pressing the reset button on the
outside of the circuit breaker box
force on a current-carrying conductor
● when a wire is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet, the magnetic field of the current in the wire will
interact with the magnetic field of the permanent magnetic poles to produce a force on the wire
● known as the motor effect where the
force produced is perpendicular to both
the direction of the current and the
direction of the magnetic field
● due to the combined magnetic fields of
the current and the magnets, the
unbalanced fields on both sides of a
conductor would produce a force
exerted on it

fleming’s left hand rule

● position the thumb, first and second fingers of your left hand such -

that they are at right angles to one another

finger represents analogy

thumb force father

first finger magnetic field mother

second finger current child

force on a beam of charged particles

● rule can be applied to all moving charges, but note that the rule is defined using the
direction of conventional current, i.e. the opposite of the direction of electrons
○ positively charged particle: current same direction as motion
○ negatively charged particle: current opposite direction as motion
● paths are always similar to an arc of a circle as the force acting on the particles is
always perpendicular to the direction of motion

forces between parallel current-carrying conductors

● conductors with currents flowing in the same direction attract
● conductors with currents flowing in the opposite directions repel
d.c. motors selectricity generates turning)
● electric motors are the basic components in electric fans, hairdryers, drills and many other electrical appliances
● makes use of the turning effect of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field to convert electrical energy to
mechanical/kinetic energy
● works only on direct current

direction : hand me
setup
turning
● coil of wire that rotates on an axle
● ends of the coil connected to a split-ring commutator
○ function: reverse the direction of current in the coil every half cycle so that the direction of the force will
be reversed on each side of the coil every half cycle for the moment to be in the same direction
● each half of the copper ring is connected to one end of the coil
● commutator turns with the coil and rubs against 2 carbon brushes
○ function: maintain good electrical contact between the external circuit and the split ring commutator

how it works
1. using fleming’s left hand rule, the left side of the coil experiences an upward force while the right hand side
experiences an equal downward force (directions only for this example - use the rule for each case!)
2. this makes the coil rotate clockwise until it reaches a vertical position
3. the current is cut off because the split ring commutator is not in contact with the carbon brushes, but momentum
of the coil will carry it slightly beyond the vertical position
4. the split ring commutator will be in contact with the carbon brushes and causes the coil to continue rotating in the
same direction
22 electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s law
● Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the
magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate at which magnetic field lines are cut by
>

the conductor
● a change in the magnetic environment will cause an
electromotive force to be induced in a conductor
○ moving a magnet towards or away from a conducting
coil
○ moving a conducting coil into or out of a magnetic field
○ rotating a coil relative to the magnet
○ changing the magnetic field strength
● if there are no magnetic field lines cut by the conductor, the induced emf is 0V
● the induced emf is constant if there is a constant rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut by the conductor

factors affecting magnitude of induced emf

● change in speed of moving/rotating coil or magnet
● strength of magnet
● number of turns in the coil
● soft iron in the coil - concentrates the magnetic field lines through the coil, leading to a stronger linkage of
magnetic field between coil and magnet
st reversed

Lo
but
s

Lenz’s law ↓
repel ,
oppose
:
cusing purp rules might hand rule

● Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that

the direction of the induced current is always in a
direction to oppose the change producing it
● induced current is only present when there is a closed
circuit
○ can be detected by a light bulb, galvanometer,
voltmeter, ammeter, or CRO
● Fleming’s right hand rule used to determine direction
of the induced current in a coil and hence the polarity
of the induced emf
● FYI: reason for difference between left and right hand rule: force in LHR refers to force acting on conductor due to
current and magnetic field; force in RHR refers to movement of conductor, so force acting on it due to the current
and magnetic field is opposite (in other words, technically can use LHR too but must be careful about direction of
force)
explanations
● explain why the pointer of the galvanometer is observed to momentarily deflect to one side
○ there is a momentary increase in the magnetic lines of force linked to the coil OR the coil cuts the
magnetic field lines at a certain rate
○ by Faraday’s law, an emf is induced in the coil which drives an induced current, hence the galvanometer
deflected to one side
● explain why the pointer of the galvanometer does not deflect
○ there is no change in the magnetic lines of force linked to the coil
○ by Faraday’s law, there is no induced emf and no induced current, and the galvanometer does not deflect
● explain why the pointer of the galvanometer deflects in the opposite side
○ there is a momentary decrease in the lines of force linked to the coil
○ motion of magnet is in the opposite direction to the previous part, the induced emf is in the opposite
direction, hence the induced current flows in the opposite direction by lenz’s law
● explain the changes you would expect in the magnitude of deflection
○ the rate of cutting of magnetic field lines by the coil increases
○ by Faraday’s law, this induces a greater emf and the galvanometer shows a larger deflection in the same
direction

alternating current generator

● VERY similar to DC motor
sturning generates electricity)
● consists of a rectangular coil mounted on an axle
which is fixed between the poles of a permanent
magnet
● how it works
○ when the coil is rotating, it cuts the
magnetic field lines between the
magnetic poles
○ the rate of cutting of magnetic field lines
decreases from a maximum (when coil
is horizontal) to a minimum (when
vertical), and then increases in the
opposite direction
○ by Faraday’s law, a varying emf is induced in the coil
● function of slip rings: allow firm contact between coil and the 2 carbon brushes and at the same time, maintain
freedom of rotation without twisting wires of the coil
● function of carbon brush: maintain good electrical contact between the external circuit and the rotating slip rings
so as to transfer the alternating emf generated to the external circuit
voltage output
● when coil is vertical, emf is minimum (0)
● when coil is horizontal, emf is maximum
● speed of rotation is doubled
○ frequency of AC doubled → wavelength
halved C :
v is constant)Yspeed of
charge
○ rate of cutting of the magnetic field lines
are doubled, increasing induced emf →
amplitude doubled
● number of turns of coil is doubled
○ frequency remains the same
○ maximum output voltage is doubled
(amplitude (

application: bicycle dynamo

● the coil is fixed and the magnet
rotates around the coil
● a permanent magnet connected to the
bicycle tyre is rotated inside the coil
● a wire is wound around the iron coil
● magnetic field lines cut the coil
● carbon brushes and slip rings not
required because the coil does not
move

mutual induction
● a changing current in a coil generates a varying magnetic field which can induce an emf in another coil nearby
● when switch S is closed, the current flowing in
-
"

P causes an increasing number of field lines N 1 --

-S -v N

cutting coil Q 1
2
1

○ by Faraday’s law, this induces an emf W

in Q, causing a momentary deflection

in the galvanometer
● the current in P sets up a magnetic field in P A

with a south pole on the right end

○ by lenz’s law, the induced current in Q will flow in a direction to set up a south pole on its left end to
oppose this change
○ since both coils have south poles facing each other, they repel and slide apart a little
● when S is opened again, the current decreases to 0 and there is decreasing magnetic field lines cutting the coil P
○ by lenz’s law, to oppose this change in P, the induced current in coil Q flows in the opposite direction,
inducing a north pole on the left side of Q
○ since both coils now have opposite poles facing each other, they attract and slide towards each other a
little
transformer
● transformer: device that changes a high alternating voltage (at low current) to a low alternating
voltage (at high current) and vice versa
○ a step up transformer increases output voltage
○ a step down transformer decreases output voltage
● uses
○ electrical power transmission from power stations to households and factories
○ regulate voltages for proper operation of electrical appliances
● how it works
○ 2 coils of insulated wire (known as primary and
secondary coils), both wound around an iron
core
○ when an alternating emf is supplied to the
primary coil, the alternating current will produce
a changing magnetic field within the primary coil
○ this changing magnetic field passes through the
secondary coil via the soft iron core and induces
an emf in the secondary coil
● turns ratio: number of turns of secondary coil / number of turns of primary coils
○ if turns ratio > 1 (i.e. more turns in secondary coil), it is a step up transformer
Vs Ns
● Vp = Np P P N
Pp
=
=

, ,

● since input power is equal to the output power, I s V s = I p V p (for an ideal transformer where efficiency=100%)
○ if voltage is stepped up, current is stepped down

power transmission
● generally transmitted using alternating currents at high voltage

why high voltage?

● decrease current
○ since P=IV, if voltage is increased, I is decreased
● minimise power loss in cables
○ power loss due to heating effect of current in cables is P=I2R (R is constant)
○ 2 ways to decrease this loss: decrease resistance of cables by using larger, thicker wires but this is
expensive and heavy, or decrease current
○ very important as electrical power generated at power stations need to be transmitted through long
distances
● allow for relatively thinner cables to be used for power transmission to save cost

why alternating current?

● can easily be stepped up or down by transformers cheaply and efficiently with very little loss of power