SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.

8 93 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.21 106

Pointers The Address Operator &

• A pointer is a memory address int y = 5;
int * yPtr ;
• Pointer variables are variables whose values are memory addresses

• Referencing a value though a pointer is called indirection yPtr = &y:

• Pointer variable declaration in C: • The operand of & must be a variable

int * countPtr, count; Confusing Declaration! • & can not be applied to

– constants
– countPtr is a variable of type “int *”, i.e., a pointer to an int
– expressions
– count is a variable of type int.
– register variables

• Type rule: If e has type t , then &e has type t *.

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Use of Pointers in C The Pointer Dereferencing Operator *

Pointers are a low-level mechanism that allows to simulate important high-level int y = 5;
constructs: int * yPtr ;

• call by reference
yPtr = &y;
• (certain) subarrays
printf ( "%d\n", *yPtr );
• recursive datastructures
*yPtr = 7;
• graph-like datastructures printf ( "%d\n", y);

• higher-order functions The dereferencing operator, applied to a pointer value p, returns the variable p
points to, i.e.,
But: Pointers must be used very carefully! • in an expression: the contents of the memory address p
• to the left of an assignment: the variable at memory address p

Make sure p points to a sensible address!

Type rule: If e has type t *, then *e has type t

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Simulate Execution! — 1 Simulate Execution! — 3

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>

void swap(int * p, int * q) void swap(int * p, int * q)

{ {
int h = *p; *p += *q;
*p = *q; *q −= *p;
*q = h; *p += *q;
} *q = 0 − *q;
}
int main () {
int i=4, j=7; int main () {
swap( &i, &j ); int i=4, j=7;
printf ("i = %d; j = %d\n", i, j); swap( &i, &j );
return 0; printf ("i = %d; j = %d\n", i, j);
} return 0;
}

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Simulate Execution! — 2 Relationship between Pointers and Arrays

#include <stdio.h> Arrays are like
• const pointers
void swap(int * p, int * q)
{ • for which the size of space pointed to is known
int h = *p;
Assume:
*p = *q;
double b[5];
*q = h;
} double * bPtr ;
bPtr = b;
int main () { Then:
int i=4, j=7; • bPtr == &b[ 0 ]
swap( &i, &i );
• bPtr + 1== &b[ 1]
printf ("i = %d; j = %d\n", i, j);
return 0;
• *(bPtr + 3) == b[ 3 ]
} • bPtr + 3 == b + 3
• bPtr [ 1] == b[ 1]
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Arrays of Strings Command-Line Arguments: char **argv

#include <stdio.h> • The array char *argv[] contains argc+1 elements.
int main() { • argv[argc] == NULL
const char * suit[4] = {"Hearts", "Diamonds", "Clubs", "Spades"};
• Some people declare their main functions with int main(int argc, char **argv)
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) printf ("suit[%d] = %p\t: “%s”\n", i, suit[i], suit[i]); • This declares the intent to use argv as the beginning of a
printf ("suit[2][3] = ‘%c’\n", suit[2][3]); NULL-terminated “string of pointers”
suit[3] = "Shovels"; #include <stdio.h> // argvS.c
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) printf ("suit[%d] = %p\t: “%s”\n", i, suit[i], suit[i]); int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
return 0; char ** argp;
} argp = argv;
while ( *argp ≠ NULL ) {
• char * suit[4] — an array of char * values printf ("argv[%d] = %p\t: “%s”\n", argp − argv, *argp, *argp);
• char * values interpreted as beginning of zero-terminated character strings argp++;
}
• Can be considered as an array of arrays — suit[2][3] works. return 0;
• Subarrays can be anywhere — nothing is known about relative arrangement in }
memory of suit[2] and suit[3]

SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.55 140 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.57 142

Command-Line Arguments Experiment: Flipping Command-Line Arguments

#include <stdio.h> // argv.c #include <unistd.h> // flip.c
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int i; int main(int argc, char * argv[]) {
for (i = 0; i ≤ argc; i++) char * newargv[argc];
printf ("argv[%d] = %p\t: “%s”\n", i, argv[i], argv[i] ? argv[i] : ""); int i;
return 0; for(i=1; i ≤ argc; i++) newargv[i−1] = argv[i]; // copying argv
} if (argc ≥ 4) {
newargv[1] = argv[3];
• The command line consists of space-separated words:
newargv[2] = argv[2];
– the command, and return execvp(argv[1], newargv);
– arguments }
• argv contains the whole command line else return 1;
• char * argv[] can be used as an array with argc elements: }
– argv[0] is the command, and
– argv[1] … argv[argc−1] are the arguments
– the number of arguments is (argc−1)!
• char ** argv can also be used as the beginning of a
NULL-terminated “string of pointers”
SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.59 144 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.68 153

const The sizeof Operator

const variables cannot be assigned to — but still have addresses: sizeof is a keyword used like a function that accepts as single argument
#include <stdio.h> – any variable, or
int main () { – any type,
const int n = 42; and returns an integral value of type size_t indicating
printf ("%d %p\n", n, &n); – how many bytes are reserved for the given variable, or
return 0;
– how many bytes are reserved for variables of the given type.
}
Note: For array variables this yields sizeof(element_type) * array_size.

General rules:
• a byte has 8 bits
• in C, characters are 8-bit integral values
• on a n-bit architecture, int and pointers occupy n bits, i.e., n/ 8 bytes
• (double variables occupy twice as much space as floats)
• long occupies not less space than int

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const and Pointers Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic

For pointer arithmetic, a T-pointer ptr should be understood as an
int * p; p contains a non-constant pointer to non-constant data
“abstract index into memory considered as an array of T-variables”
const int * p; p contains a non-constant pointer to non-constant data Therefore:
int * const p; p contains a non-constant pointer to non-constant data • ptr + 1 is “the next index” — it points to the next T-variable
• when considering pointers as integers (for example when printing with “%p”)
const int * const p; p contains a non-constant pointer to non-constant data
the difference between ptr + 1 and ptr is: sizeof(T )
• for pointers of the same type (e.g. after ptrB = ptr + n;)

• constant: read-only one may calculate the pointer difference ptrB − ptr , which will be n.

• non-constant: variable, read-write Other pointer arithmetic operators:

• “+=”, “−=”, “++”, “−−”
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void Pointers Local Variables Must Not Escape Their Scope!

void * ptr ; #include <stdio.h> /* locstring.c */
• ptr is a void pointer — a “raw address” #include <string.h>

• any pointer value can be assigned to ptr char * reverse(int length, char * string) {
• ptr can be assigned to any pointer variable char result[length+1];
int i,j;
• void pointers are used as “pointers to anything” — faking polymorphism for ( i = length−1, j=0; i ≥ 0; i−−, j++ ) result[j] = string[i];
result[length] = ’\0’;
• void pointers cannot be dereferenced — a cast is necessary first
return result;
#include <stdio.h> }
int main() {
char s[] = "Hello World!"; int main() {
void * p = s; char msg1[] = "Hello world!";
void * q = p + 1; char * msg2;
printf ("%d “%s”\n", sizeof(void), (char *)q); msg2 = reverse(strlen(msg1), msg1);
return 0; printf ("Reversing finished!\n");
} printf ("msg2=‘%s’\n", msg2);
return 0;
}

SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.82 167 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.91 176

NULL Stack vs. Heap

• NULL is defined in stdio.h as the zero-value for pointers • Local variables, function arguments, return values, and return addresses are
• NULL must not be dereferenced kept in stack frames on the execution stack
• NULL is the only pointer value for which you can determine in a safe way that
you are not allowed to dereference it • The stack “grows” and “shrinks” with the number of nested function calls.
• The presence of NULL allows pointers to be used as optional references: • Consecutive function calls use the same stack space.
Each pointer value – either is a reference to a variable
– or is NULL • Therefore, if a “new variable” needs to be accessible after a function returns, it
cannot be allocated on the stack.
void myInit(int * p) { /* p is either a reference or NULL */
if (p ≠ NULL) { • The heap is the space for dynamic data:
p = getLogLines(logfile); – void *malloc(size_t size) allocates size bytes on the heap and returns a pointer
log("Initialisation message: New run\n"); to the allocated memory (from stdlib.h).
}
else – void free(void *ptr ) frees the memory space pointed to by ptr, which must
unlink(logfile); have been returned by a previous call to malloc().
}
SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.92 177 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.104 189

strdup Parameterised Sorting Using Function Pointers

#include <string.h> int leq(double x, double y) { return x ≤ y; }
int geq(double x, double y) { return x ≥ y; }
char *strdup(const char *s);
void sort(double a[], const int size, int (*compare)(double x, double y))
The strdup() function returns a pointer to a new string which is a duplicate of the {
...
string s. Memory for the new string is obtained with malloc(3), and can be freed
if ( (*compare)(a[i], a[i+1]) ) {
with free(3). ...
} else {
The strdup() function returns a pointer to the duplicated string, or NULL if ...
insufficient memory was available. }
...
}

int main() {
...
sort(b, SIZE, leq);
...
}

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Pointers to Functions Exercise: count_maximum

int leq(double x, double y) { return x ≤ y; } Design and implement a C function count_maximum that, given an int array,
int geq(double x, double y) { return x ≥ y; }
• finds the maximum element in this array
This defines two functions:
• at runtime, functions are machine code fragments, stored at some address • with respect to an ordering passed to count_maximum as a function pointer
• therefore, at run-time. the name leq is bound to an address argument,
• leq is a function pointer value • and also counts how many times this maximum occurs,
• leq can be passed as argument to functions, or assigned to pointer variables
• The type of a variable or argument compare accepting binding to leq is: • and makes both the maximum and this count available to its caller.

int (*compare)(double x, double y) • The array should be traversed only once!

• Full prototype:
void sort(double a[], const int size, int (*compare)(double x, double y));
• Short prototype: void sort(double[], const int, int (*)(double x, double y));
• Use of function pointer: if ( (*compare)(a[i], a[i+1]) ) ...
• Invocation: sort(b, SIZE, leq);
SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.107 193 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.118 204

String Initialisation and Modification The Character Handling Library (ctype.h)

#include <stdio.h> int isdigit(int c); /* checks for a digit (0 through 9) */
int isalpha(int c); /* checks for an alphabetic character */
char a[] = "Hello world!"; int isalnum(int c); /* checks for an alphanumeric character;
char * p = a; equivalent to (isalpha(c) || isdigit(c)) */
char * s = "Hello world!"; int isxdigit(int c); /* checks for a hexadecimal digits, i.e. one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F */
int main () { int islower (int c); /* checks for a lower-case character */
a[5] = ’~’; int isupper (int c); /* checks for an uppercase letter */
int toupper (int c); /* converts the letter c to upper case, if possible */
printf ("p = %s\n", p); int tolower (int c); /* converts the letter c to lower case, if possible */
p[5] = ’_’; int isspace(int c); /* checks for white-space characters.
printf ("p = %s\n", p); In the C and POSIX locales, these are: " \f\n\r\t\v") */
int iscntrl(int c); /* checks for a control character */
printf ("s = %s\n", s); int ispunct(int c); /* checks for any printable character which is
s[5] = ’_’; not a space or an alphanumeric character */
printf ("s = %s\n", s); int isprint(int c); /* checks for any printable character including space */
int isgraph(int c); /* checks for any printable character except space */
return 0;
}

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Chapter 8 — C Characters and Strings String Conversion Functions from stdlib.h

• Character handling No error detection:
• String handling int atoi(const char *nptr );
long atol(const char *nptr );
• Accessing memory chunks long long atoll(const char *nptr );
Chapter 9 — C Formatted Input/Output double atof (const char *nptr );

• printf and scanf Setting endptr to first invalid character, and setting errno:
long int strtol(const char *nptr , char **endptr , int base);
long long int strtoll(const char *nptr , char **endptr , int base);
unsigned long int strtoul(const char *nptr , char **endptr , int base);
unsigned long long int strtoull(const char *nptr , char **endptr , int base);

double strtod(const char *nptr , char **endptr );

float strtof (const char *nptr , char **endptr );
long double strtold(const char *nptr , char **endptr );
SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.121 207 SE2S03, 2006 — WOLFRAM KAHL, Computing and Software, McMaster University 3.131 217

Using strtod String Manipulation Functions (string.h)

#include <stdio.h> size_t strlen(const char *s);
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <errno.h> char *strcpy(char *dest, const char *src);
char *strncpy(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n);
int main( int argc, char * argv[] )
{
double d; /* variable to hold converted number */ char *strcat(char *dest, const char *src);
char *restPtr ; /* pointer variable to hold rest pointer */ char *strncat(char *dest, const char *src, size_t n);

errno = 0;
int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
d = strtod( argv[1], &restPtr );
int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
if (errno) perror ("ERROR in strtod");
printf ( "Conversion of the string \"%s\"\n", argv[1] ); int strcasecmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
printf ( " * produces the double value “%.2g”\n", d); int strncasecmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
printf ( " * and leaves the remainder string \"%s\"\n", restPtr );
int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2); /* uses locale */
return 0;
}

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Standard Input/Output (stdio.h) String Search Functions (string.h)

int getchar (void); /* returns character or EOF */ char *strchr (const char *s, int c);
char *gets(char *s); /* reads up to newline or EOF */ char *strrchr (const char *s, int c);

int putchar (int c); /* returns c , or EOF on error */ size_t strspn(const char *s, const char *accept);
int puts(const char *s); /* returns EOF on error */ size_t strcspn(const char *s, const char *reject);

int sprintf ( char *str , const char *format, ...); char *strpbrk(const char *s, const char *accept);
int snprintf (char *str , size_t size, const char *format, ...);
char *strstr (const char *haystack, const char *needle);
From the man page: The function snprintf does not write more than size bytes
(including the trailing ’\0’). If the output was truncated due to this limit then the char *strtok( char *s, const char *delim); /* Don’t use! */
return value is the number of characters (not including the trailing ’\0’) which char *strtok_r(char *s, const char *delim, char **ptrptr ); /* Don’t use! */
would have been written to the final string if enough space had been available.
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Memory Functions (string.h)

void *memcpy(void *dest, const void *src, size_t n);
/* ranges must not overlap */

void *memmove(void *dest, const void *src, size_t n);

/* handles overlapping ranges */

int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);

void *memchr (const void *s, int c, size_t n);

void *memrchr (const void *s, int c, size_t n); /* GNU extension */

void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);