SOURCES OF DATA

=Survey=
Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences,
variable. Data is plural of datum which literally means to give or management, marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys
something given. can be conducted in different methods.

Data is thought to be the lowest unit of information from which =Questionnaire=

other measurements and analysis can be done. Data can be Questionnaire is the most commonly used method in survey
numbers, images, words, figures, facts or ideas. Data in itself Questionnaires are a list of questions either an open-ended or
cannot be understood and to get information from the data one close-ended for which the respondent give answers. Questionnaire
must interpret it into meaningful information. There are various can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an
methods of interpreting data. Data sources are broadly classified institute, through electronic mail or through fax and other
into primary and secondary data. methods. Interview Interview is a face-to-face conversation with
the respondent. It is slow, expensive, and they take people away
IMPORTANCE OF DATA AND DATA COLLECTION from their regular jobs, but they allow in-depth questioning and
follow-up questions.
Data is one of the most important and vital aspect of any research
studies. Researchers conducted in different fields of study can be =Observations=
different in methodology but every research is based on data Observations can be done while letting the observing person know
which is analyzed and interpreted to get information. Data is the that he is being observed or without letting him know.
basic unit in statistical studies. Statistical information like census, Observations can also be made in natural settings as well as in
population variables, health statistics, and road accidents records artificially created environment. You sent
are all developed from data.
=FGD(FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION)=
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
There are two sources of data collection techniques. Primary and •Data interpretation is better. Targeted Issues are addressed.
Secondary data collection techniques, Primary data collection uses • Efficient Spending for Information.
surveys, experiments or direct observations. Secondary data • Decency of Data.
collection may be conducted by collecting information from a • Addresses Specific Research Issues.
diverse source of documents or electronically stored information, • Greater Control. Proprietary Issues.
census and market studies are examples of a common sources of
secondary data. This is also referred to as "data mining." DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY RESEARCH
✓ High Cost
PRIMARY DATA ✓ Time Consuming
✓Inaccurate Feed-backs
Primary data means original data that has been collected specially
✓More number of resources is required
for the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from
the original source first hand. Data collected this way is called
SECONDARY DATA
primary data.
Secondary data is the data that has been already collected by and
readily available from other sources. When we use Statistical
Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable,
Method with Primary Data from another purpose for our purpose
authentic and objective. Primary data has not been changed or
we refer to it as Secondary Data. It means that one purpose's
altered by human beings; therefore its validity is greater than
Primary Data is another purpose's Secondary Data. So that
secondary data.
secondary data is data that is being reused. Such data are more
quickly obtainable than the primary data. These secondary data
=Primary Sources of Data=
may be obtained from many sources, including literature, industry
•Individuals
surveys, compilations from computerized databases and
•Focus groups
information systems, and computerized or mathematical models of
environmental processes.
-Aimed at obtaining respondents' impressions, interpretations, and
opinions. Provides only qualitative and not quantitative
information.
• Advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time
-Cannot be considered to be truly representative
and costs of acquiring information
• Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific needs of a
- Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making
particular situation or setting
generalizations based on the information gathered by them, and
(3) conducting sample surveys Videoconferencing.
1. Published Printed Sources SAMPLING
- Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer information
There are varieties of published printed sources. Their credibility about a Population based on results from Sample. Sampling
depends on many factors. For example, on the writer, publishing Techniques is a method we use to get sample in a population.
company and time and date when published. New sources are -It is a technique of selecting participants/respondents from a
preferred and old sources should be avoided as new technology subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them
and researches bring new facts into light. Books Books are and estimate the characteristics of the whole population.
available today on topic that you want to research. The uses of
books start before even you have selected the topic. After Broadly Sampling is divided in to two Categories:
selection of topics books provide insight on how much work has • Probability Sampling
already been done on the same topic and you can prepare your • Non-probability Sampling
literature review. Books are secondary source but most authentic
one in secondary sources. Population is the entirety of the group including all the members
that forms a set of data.
Journals/periodicals Group from which a Sample is drawn Exact population will depend
Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as far as on the scope of the study.
data collection is concerned. The reason is that journals provide
up-to-date information which at times books cannot and secondly, Sample contains a few members of the population. They were
journals can give information on the very specific topic on which taken to represent the characteristics or traits of the whole
you are researching rather talking about more general topics, population. It is a small group of members selected from a
population to represent the population. Also known as Subset of
Magazines/Newspaper Population.
Magazines also effective but not very reliable. Newspaper on the
other hand is more reliable and in some cases the information can =Probability Sampling=
only be obtained from newspapers as in the case of some political In probability sampling, every member of the population has the
studies. chance of being selected. It involves principle or randomization or
chance.
2. Published Electronic Sources Probability sampling is based on the fact that every member of a
As internet is becoming more advance, fast and reachable to the Population has a known and equal chance of being selected.
masses; it has been seen that much information that is not
available in printed form is available on internet. In the past the TYPES:
credibility of internet was questionable but today it is not. The 1. Simple Random Sampling
reason is that in the past journals and books were seldom -A probability sample in which every member of a study population
published on internet but today almost every journal and book is has an equal chance of selection.
available online. Some are free and for others you have to pay the -A probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a
price. E-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than subset of participants from a population.
printed journals. Latest journals are difficult to retrieve without Examples:
subscription but if your university has an e-library you can view any A. Using a container where the names of 200 participants are
journal, print it and those that are not available you can make an written and you pick up 30 names as respondents in your study.
order for them. General Websites; Generally websites do not
contain very reliable information so their content should be B. A list of 500 people are encoded in a random number generator
checked for the reliability before quoting from them. Weblogs: and let the program select 50 persons are respondents in your
Weblogs are also becoming common. They are actually diaries survey.
written by different people. These diaries are as reliable to use as
personal written diaries. 2. Systematic Sampling
-The first element is selected randomly from a list or from
ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA sequential files, and then every nth element is selected.
➤Inexpensive -A probability sampling in which a random sample, with a fixed
➤Easily accessible periodic interval is selected from the population.
➤Immediately available Examples:
A. Choose every 10th customer entering the mall as participants
➤Will provide essential background and help to clarify or refine
for a study for the buying habits of shoppers.
research problem - essential for literature review
➤Secondary data sources will provide research method
B. In DMLMHS you use the attendance sheet of Grade 9 Advisers of
alternatives.
Grade 9 students every 3 school days to gather data on
➤Will also alert the researcher to any potential difficulties.
absenteeism and tardiness.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
-A probability sampling procedure that involves dividing the B. Campus Library Feedback
population in groups or strata defined by the presence of certain Suppose you're a student conducting a small research project on
characteristics and then random sampling from each stratum. library preferences. Opting for convenience sampling, you
-A probability sampling in which selecting a sample in which the approach students studying in the campus library at a particular
researchers first divide a population into smaller subgroups based time, collecting feedback from those who are easily accessible.
on shared characteristics of the members and then randomly While this method is quick, it may not capture the opinions of
select among each subgroup for your sample. students who don't frequent the library during that timeframe.
Examples:
A. There are 80% male and 20% female in a population of 1000 2) Purposive/Judgemental Sampling
students. You need 80 respondents and you randomly selected 64 - samples are chosen based on the goals of the study. They may be
male and 16 female students. chosen based on their knowledge of the study being conducted or
if they satisfy the traits or conditions set by the researcher
B. Dividing adults into subgroups by age like 18-29, 30-39, 40-49, - Selecting samples based on his or her own judgement.
50-59, 60 and above - Selecting samples based on the researcher's judgement
Examples:
4. Cluster sampling A. Expert Panel for Product Development
-A probability sampling procedure that involves randomly selecting Imagine you're developing a high-tech gadget, and you want to
clusters of elements from a population and subsequently selecting gather insights from experts in the field. You use purposive
every element in each selected cluster for inclusion in the sample. sampling to select a panel of renowned experts and professionals
-A probability sampling in which you divide the population into who have a deep understanding of the technology involved. Their
clusters and then randomly select one these cluster as your insights, based on expertise, become valuable inputs for refining
sample. and enhancing your product.
Examples:
A. Using postal codes randomly select 2 towns and 2 cities in B. Interviewing Successful Entrepreneurs
Negros Occidental for the target participants of your study. Suppose you're conducting research on the key success factors
for entrepreneurs. Instead of randomly selecting participants, you
B. Using the barangays in Silay City, randomly select a purok from opt for purposive sampling by specifically choosing individuals who
each barangay to analyze the performance of smartphones across have a proven track record of building successful businesses. Their
Silay City. experiences and insights are likely to provide targeted and valuable
information for your study.

=Non-Probability Sampling= 3) Quota Sampling

In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population -proportion of the groups in the population were considered in the
has the equal chance of being selected. It can rely on the number and selection of the respondents
subjective judgement of the researcher. It involves non random -Quota sampling means to take a very tailored sample that's in
selection based on convivence. proportion to some characteristic or trait of a population.
-It is a method of selecting subsets from a population using a -It means to take a very tailored ample that's in proportion to
subjective (non-random) method. some characteristic or trait of a population.
Examples:
TYPES A. Political Polling in a City
1) Convenience Sampling Imagine you're conducting a political poll in a diverse city. Instead
- selecting a sample based on the availability of the of random selection, you use quota sampling to ensure
member and/or proximity to the researcher representation from various demographic groups such as age,
- also known as accidental, opportunity or grab gender, and ethnicity. You set quotas for each category based on
sampling the city's demographics, ensuring a more balanced and reflective
- Involves selecting samples based on convenience. sample.
- Also known as Accidental Sampling.
- It involves selecting samples based on convenience of the B. Customer Satisfaction Survey in a Retail Store
researchers. Suppose you're interested in assessing customer satisfaction in a
Examples: retail store. Using quota sampling, you ensure that your survey
A. Coffee Shop Survey includes a proportional representation of different types of
Imagine you want to quickly gather opinions on a new coffee customers, like frequent shoppers, occasional visitors, and first-
blend. You decide to approach customers in a popular local coffee time buyers. This approach helps capture a broad range of
shop during a busy afternoon, asking those who are willing to perspectives among the customer base.
share their thoughts. This convenient approach might not
represent all coffee drinkers, but it provides swift insights from
those readily available.
4) Snowball Sampling Mutually Exclusive Events: Two or more events are said to be
- participants in the study were tasked to recruit other members mutually exclusive events; if the happening of any one of them
for the study excludes the happening of all the others in a single experiment.
- Select samples and ask them to refer them to refer you to others. Examples:
- It select samples and ask them to refer other persons also as (a) In throwing a coin, events H and T are mutually exclusive. Here
samples to the researchers. if Head occurs, it prevents the occurrence of Tail.
Examples: (b) When a die is thrown, the occurrence of faces marked 1,2,3,4,5
A. Studying Rare Diseases Support Groups and 6 is mutually exclusive. Here the occurrence of one face
Imagine you're researching the experiences of individuals with a prevents the occurrence of the other.
rare medical condition. Using snowball sampling, you identify and
interview a few initial participants from online support groups.
Then, you ask them to refer others they know who share similar
experiences. This method helps you gradually expand your
network of participants within a niche community.

B. Exploring Niche Hobby Communities

Suppose you're interested in understanding a specific hobby or
interest that has a tight-knit community. You start by approaching
a few enthusiasts you already know, and through them, you
discover and interview additional individuals who are deeply
involved in the hobby. Snowball sampling allows you to tap into a
subculture that might be challenging to access through
traditional methods.

QAR-PROBABILITY

Probability is the chance of happening of an event in a random

experiment.
RANDOM EXPERIMENT: An experiment when conducted
repeatedly under the same conditions, if it does not give the same
result, it is called the random experiment.
Example:
When a coin is thrown, it will not fall with a particular face always
up. Any of the two faces marked head (H) or tail (T) come up each
time.
EVENT: The outcome of a random experiment is called the event.
Simple or Compound Event: An event is called the simple event,
if it corresponds to a single outcome of a random experiment.
Examples:
While tossing a die the chance of getting face marked 5 is a simple
event.
"An event is called a compound event if it corresponds to more
than one possible outcome."
For example, in the above example, the chance of getting any face
marked even is a compound event (since even numbers are more
than one, i.e. 2, 4 and 6).
Exhaustive Events: All possible outcomes of an event are known
as exhaustive events.
Examples:
A. When a coin is thrown, there are only two exhaustive events
H and T (Head and Tail).
B. When two coins are thrown, the number of exhaustive events
is 4 (2 x 2), i.e. HH, HT, TH, TT.
C. When a die is thrown, there are six exhaustive events
(i.e. the occurrence of faces marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).