LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ON WIND AND SOLAR POWER IN AN IEEE 9 BUS

SYSTEM

A Project

Presented to the

Faculty of

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science

In

Electrical Engineering

By

Xiaodong Huang

2022
 SIGNATURE PAGE

PROJECT: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ON WIND AND

AUTHOR: Xiaodong Huang

DATE SUBMITTED: Spring 2022

Sean Monemi, Ph.D.

Jenny Yu, Ph.D.

Thomas Ketseoglou, Ph.D.

ii
 ABSTRACT

Renewable Energy plays a major role in today’s electric power system due to the

numerous benefits that come with them such as reduced carbon emissions and air

pollution, increased affordability, as many types of renewable energy are cheaper than

traditional energy sources, expand energy access to remote areas that are not connected to

the grid. They generate about 20% of all U.S. electricity, and it continues to grow. This

project will primarily focus on wind and solar power. This project aims to analyze the

load flow of wind and solar power in different scenarios in an IEEE 9 bus system. Study

is done by using MATLAB Simulink and Power World simulator.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SIGNATURE PAGE .......................................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

1.1. Types of energy storage ........................................................................................... 3

1.1.1. Electrochemical and battery energy storage ...................................................... 3

1.1.2. Thermal energy storage ..................................................................................... 4

1.1.3. Compressed air energy storage .......................................................................... 4

1.1.4. Pumped energy storage...................................................................................... 5

1.2. Categorizations and comparisons of energy storages .............................................. 7

1.2.1. Technical performance ...................................................................................... 7

1.2.2. Economics ......................................................................................................... 8

1.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages ........................................................................ 10

1.3. Energy Storage Value Streams ............................................................................... 10

1.4 Power Quality.......................................................................................................... 11

1.5. Demand for Energy Storage ................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER 2: WIND POWER ......................................................................................... 13

2.1 Basic Configuration of Wind Turbine..................................................................... 13

2.2 Aerodynamic block of Wind Turbine ..................................................................... 14

2.2.1 Wind speed ....................................................................................................... 15

2.2.2 Tip-speed ratio calculation ............................................................................... 17

iv
 2.2.3 Pitch-angle determination ................................................................................. 18

2.2.4 Rotor power coefficient (or CP calculation)..................................................... 18

2.2.5 Aerodynamic torque ......................................................................................... 20

2.3 Mechanical block if wind turbine............................................................................ 20

2.4 Electrical block of wind turbine .............................................................................. 22

CHAPTER 3: SOLAR POWER ....................................................................................... 24

3.1 Solar Irradiance ....................................................................................................... 25

3.1.1 Air mass (AM) .................................................................................................. 26

3.1.2 Zenith angle ...................................................................................................... 27

3.2 Azimuth and altitude angles .................................................................................... 28

3.2.1 Azimuth angle................................................................................................... 29

3.2.2 Altitude angle ................................................................................................... 29

3.3 Photovoltaic cell, module, and array ....................................................................... 29

3.4 Inverter .................................................................................................................... 32

3.5 Efficiency ................................................................................................................ 33

3.6 PV system circuit design ......................................................................................... 34

3.6.1 Max DC voltage................................................................................................ 35

3.6.2 Max PV output current ..................................................................................... 35

3.6.3 Maximum PV circuit current ............................................................................ 36

3.6.4 Maximum inverter input current....................................................................... 36

3.6.5 Maximum inverter output current..................................................................... 37

3.7 Protection of PV circuits ......................................................................................... 37

3.7.1 Disconnect ........................................................................................................ 37

v
 3.7.2 Ground fault...................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 4: IEEE 9 BUS SYSTEM .............................................................................. 39

4.1. Tools and Technologies Used ................................................................................ 39

4.2 Simulation ............................................................................................................... 40

4.2.1 Scenario A ........................................................................................................ 40

4.2.2 Scenario B......................................................................................................... 41

4.2.3 Scenario C......................................................................................................... 42

4.2.4 Scenario D ........................................................................................................ 42

4.2.5 Scenario E ......................................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 45

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 46

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Technical characteristics of energy storage technologies. .................................... 8

Table 2: Estimated capital cost for carious energy storage systems. .................................. 9

Table 3: advantages and disadvantages of various energy storages. ................................ 10

Table 4: Real and Reactive power production of the wind turbine model at different wind

speeds. ............................................................................................................................... 16

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Ragone plane: available energy of an energy storage device for fixed power. ... 2

Figure 2: Conceptual wind power based pumped hydroelectric storage system (PHES)... 6

Figure 3: Conceptual solar PV power based hydroelectric storage (PHES). ...................... 6

Figure 4: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram. ......................................................... 13

Figure 5: MATLAB Simulink model a fixed speed wind turbine. ................................... 14

Figure 6: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Aerodynamic block highlighted). ... 14

Figure 7: MATLAB Simulink model of the aerodynamic block. ..................................... 15

Figure 8: Power curve for 1.5 MW wind turbine vs the wind speed range of 5-25 m/s. .. 17

Figure 9: Blade tip-speed ratio vs Cp curve at different B (beta) values.......................... 19

Figure 10: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Mechanical block highlighted). .... 20

Figure 11: Wind turbine diagram. ..................................................................................... 21

Figure 12: MATLAB Simulink model of the mechanical model of the wind turbine. .... 22

Figure 13: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Aerodynamic block highlighted). . 22

Figure 14: MATLAB Simulink model of the electrical block.......................................... 23

Figure 15: Energy amount comparisons. .......................................................................... 25

Figure 16: Air mass and Zenith angle. .............................................................................. 27

Figure 17: Zenith angle calculation .................................................................................. 27

Figure 18: Azimuth and altitude angles. ........................................................................... 28

Figure 19: DC input voltage range of an inverter. ............................................................ 33

Figure 20: PV system circuit design. ................................................................................ 34

Figure 21: Single line diagram of an IEEE 9 bus system. ................................................ 39

Figure 22: Power World simulation scenario A. .............................................................. 41

viii
Figure 23: Power World simulation scenario B. ............................................................... 41

Figure 24: Power World simulation scenario C. ............................................................... 42

Figure 25: Power World simulation scenario D. .............................................................. 43

Figure 26: Power World simulation scenario E. ............................................................... 44

ix
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Energy systems play a key role in harvesting energy from various sources and converting

it to the energy forms required for applications in various sectors, e.g., utility, industry,

building and transportation. Energy sources like fossil fuels can be used to provide

energy according to customer demand, i.e., they are readily storable when not required.

But other sources such as solar and wind energy need to be harvested when available and

stored until needed. “Applying energy storage can provide several advantages for energy

systems, such as permitting increased penetration of renewable energy and better

economic performance. Also, energy storage is important to electrical systems, allowing

for load leveling and peak shaving, frequency regulation, damping energy oscillations,

and improving power quality and reliability. Energy storage systems have been used for

centuries and undergone continual improvements to reach their present levels of

development, which for many storage types is mature” [1]. Many types of energy storage

systems exist, and they can be categorized in various ways. For example, storage

characteristics of electrochemical energy storage types, in terms of specific energy and

specific power, are often presented in a ‘Ragone plot’, which helps identify the potentials

of each storage type and contrast them for applications requiring varying energy storage

capacities and on-demand energy extraction rates.

1
Figure 1: Ragone plane: available energy of an energy storage device for fixed power.[1].

The plot also aids in selecting the most appropriate energy storage for specific

applications or needs (see Figure 1.1). “Storage energy density is the energy accumulated

per unit volume or mass, and power density is the energy transfer rate per unit volume or

mass. When generated energy is not available for a long duration, a high energy density

device that can store large amounts of energy is required. When the discharge period is

short, as for devices with charge/discharge fluctuations over short periods, a high-power

density device is needed” [1]. Energy storage systems also can be classified based on

storage period. “Short-term energy storage typically involves the storage of energy for

hours to days, while long-term storage refers to storage of energy from a few months to a

season (3–6 months). For instance, a long-term thermal energy storage retains thermal

energy in the ground over the summer for use in winter” [2]. Note that only a few energy

storage types are shown in Figure 1.1 as the Ragone plot is traditionally used only for

batteries, capacitors, and fuel cells.

2
1.1. Types of energy storage

The various types of energy storage can be divided into many categories, and here most

energy storage types are categorized as electrochemical and battery energy storage,

thermal energy storage, thermochemical energy storage, flywheel energy storage,

compressed air energy storage, pumped energy storage, magnetic energy storage,

chemical and hydrogen energy storage.

1.1.1. Electrochemical and battery energy storage

Electrical energy can be stored electrochemically in batteries and capacitors. Batteries are

mature energy storage devices with high energy densities and high voltages. “Various

types exist including lithium ion (Li-ion), sodium-sulphur (NaS), nickel-cadmium

(NiCd), lead acid (Pb-acid), lead-carbon batteries, as well as zebra batteries (Na-NiCl2)

and flow batteries. Capacitors store and deliver energy electrochemically, and can be

classified as electrostatic capacitors, electrolytic capacitors, and electrochemical

capacitors. Among these three types, electrochemical capacitors, also called

supercapacitors or ultracapacitors (UCs), have the greatest cap acitance per unit volume

due to having a porous electrode structure” [1]. Several new electrode materials and

electrolytes have been reviewed and suggested to improve the cost, energy density, power

density, cycle life, and safety of batteries.

3
1.1.2. Thermal energy storage

Thermal energy storage refers to storage of heat or "cold" in a storage medium. Thermal

storage systems typically consist of a storage medium and equipment for heat injection

and extraction to/from the medium. The storage medium can be a naturally occurring

structure or region (e.g., ground) or it can be artificially made using a container that

prevents heat loss or gain from the surroundings (water tanks). There are three main

thermal energy storage (TES) modes: sensible, latent, and thermochemical. Traditionally,

heat storage has been in the form of sensible heat, raising the temperature of a medium.

Examples of such energy storage include hot water storage, underground thermal energy

storage, and rock filled storage.

1.1.3. Compressed air energy storage

In compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems, air is compressed and stored in an

underground cavern or an abandoned mine when excess energy is available. Upon energy

demand, this pressurized air can be released to a turbine to generate electricity. Caverns

can either be drilled in salt or rock formations, or existing cavities such as aquifer strata

can be utilized. Such geological formations do not exist everywhere and large steel tanks

that can maintain high pressures are sometimes installed under the ground at a higher

system cost. Compressed air energy storage systems can be economically attractive due

to their capacity to shift time of energy use, and more recently due to the need for

balancing effects of intermittent renewable energy penetration in the grid.

4
1.1.4. Pumped energy storage

Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) is a resource-driven facility that stores electric

energy in the form of hydraulic potential energy by using an electric pump to move water

from a water body at a low elevation through a pipe to a higher water reservoir. The

energy can be discharged by allowing the water to run through a hydro turbine from a

high elevation to a lower elevation. The turbine is connected to a generator that can

produce electricity as energy is discharged from the turbine, see Figures 1.2 and 1.3. The

inlet flow of water to the turbine can be controlled using gates to allow a variable power

output. Variable-speed drives can also be used to provide regulation during charging.

Pumped hydro energy storage systems require specific conditions such as availability of

locations with a difference in elevation and access to water. If conditions are met, it is a

suitable option for renewable energy storage as well as the grid. The energy efficiency of

PHES systems varies between 70–80% and they are commonly sized at 1000–1500 MW.

5
Figure 2: Conceptual wind power based pumped hydroelectric storage system (PHES).[1]

Figure 3: Conceptual solar PV power based hydroelectric storage (PHES). [1]

6
1.2. Categorizations and comparisons of energy storages

In this section several energy storage types are described and/or compared from technical

and economic perspectives, rather than their classifications and principles.

1.2.1. Technical performance

Energy storage technologies are reviewed and compared in this section from a technical

viewpoint, focusing on parameters that can improve the design and performance of

energy storage systems, rather than their classifications and principles. Some

comparisons are also made in previous sections of various energy storage technologies.

To assess the technical performance of various energy storage types, design parameters

such as efficiency, energy capacity, energy density, run time, capital investment costs,

response time, lifetime in years and cycles, self-discharge and maturity are often

considered. Here, technical characteristics of energy storage technologies are summarized

in Table 1. Differences that are noticed in technical information regarding a given energy

storage technology may be due to various factors such as different applications or

technical developments in a technology that have caused improvements to its technical

characteristics. It is observed that energy storage systems with higher power density are

often used for short-duration applications requiring fast response such as grid voltage

maintenance. Storage systems with higher energy density are often used for long duration

applications such as renewable energy load shifting.

7
 Table 1: Technical characteristics of energy storage technologies. [1]

1.2.2. Economics

Various economic advantages and challenges exist regarding the use of energy storage

technologies for the various applications. The cost of an energy storage system is often

application dependent. Cost of an energy storage system for a given application vary

notably based on location, construction method and size, and the cost effectiveness

depends on the price of the source of energy such as natural gas. For example, [3] capital

costs of CAES systems for bulk energy storage applications based on various geologic

8
formations: from $1/kWh for salt cavern (solution mined) to $30/kWh for hard rock

(excavated and existing mines). For this reason, economic analyses comparing a wide

range of energy technologies often have a degree of uncertainty, which needs to be taken

into account. Nonetheless, estimated capital costs for various energy storage systems are

listed in Table 2. Note that the costs listed are obtained from the literature that are

published in different years.

Table 2: Estimated capital cost for carious energy storage systems. [1]

9
1.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages

Table 3: advantages and disadvantages of various energy storages. [1]

1.3. Energy Storage Value Streams

Energy storage brings values associated with traditional generation along with some

additional services either not provided by traditional generation, or else provided in a

more limited way by traditional generation. Energy arbitrage is the clearest example of

the former. Realizing the arbitrage value means operating storage such that it consumes

energy at times when market prices are low and releases the energy when market prices

are higher. Energy storage can provide a host of services that have been identified as

being in increasing demand due to the advent of variable renewable energy resources. For

example, accommodating variable generation into power systems can require additional

fast-ramping generation or load capability to maintain system stability. Energy storage

technologies can provide both generation and load to meet those requirements.

10
1.4 Power Quality

Power quality refers to the extent to which provision of power:

• Is reliable (i.e., does not suffer outages).

• Maintains nominal voltage levels.

• Maintains unity power factor (voltage and current are in phase with one another).

• Maintains nominal frequency levels (e.g., 60 Hz).

• Maintains a purely sinusoidal waveform (zero harmonics, no transients).

Power quality can be affected by a number of power system conditions. For example,

certain types of loads can have the effect of reducing the power factor. Equipment

malfunctions and switching equipment can cause transient spikes in power. Power quality

affects the efficiency of power system components and poor power quality can increase

system maintenance costs and cause failures of power system components, including

energy consuming equipment such as motors. Poor power quality can result from rapid

variations in generator output that can, for example, occur with some solar energy

installations on partly cloudy days. Energy storage can provide system support in ways

that improve power quality, providing voltage support and aiding in reliable service.

benefit out of energy storage on the customer side of the meter.

11
1.5. Demand for Energy Storage

The electric power system is undergoing significant changes as more variable energy

resources (VER) such as wind and solar are added to the generation mix. These VER are

being implemented primarily to satisfy requirements of state renewable-energy mandates.

The West Coast states each has a goal for total renewable energy between 15% and 33%

of electricity demand. Many neighboring states in the Western Electricity Coordinating

Council (WECC) region have similar goals. To give an indication of the magnitude of

VER growth, one can look at studies done in California in anticipation of meeting the

33% goal. The total renewable energy expected in the system varies depending on

forward-looking assumptions about load growth and assumptions that apply to all

generating resources including cost, time to construct and environmental constraints.

12
 CHAPTER 2: WIND POWER

The complexity and requirements of wind turbine models depend on specific studies.

There are two main types of studies:

1) Steady state simulations: This type of studies commonly require simpler models

of wind turbine than dynamic simulations.

2) Dynamic simulations: These studies require more complex WT models. The

modeling must include far more details of WT characteristics in order to

accurately represent its dynamic behavior. For example, the model must include

differential equations to describe the dynamics of the wind turbine shaft and

induction generator.

2.1 Basic Configuration of Wind Turbine

The model of a fixed speed wind turbine is composed of 3 primary components, and they

are: Aerodynamic block (the wind rotor), mechanical block (shaft and gearbox unit), and

electrical block (electric generator), see Figures 2.1 and 2.2.

Figure 4: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram.

13
 Figure 5: MATLAB Simulink model a fixed speed wind turbine.

2.2 Aerodynamic block of Wind Turbine

Figure 6: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Aerodynamic block highlighted).

The aerodynamic block consists of five modules: Wind speed, Tip-speed ratio

calculation, Pitch-angle determination, Rotor power coefficient (or CP calculation), and

Aerodynamic torque, see Figure 2.3. MATLAB Simulink model of the aerodynamic

block is shown in Figure 2.4, in which gets data input from the wind speed, pitch angle,

and rotor speed and outputs the power coefficient Cp and the aerodynamic torque Tt

(Nm).

14
 Figure 7: MATLAB Simulink model of the aerodynamic block.

2.2.1 Wind speed

Wind speed varies according to the local heating and atmospheric conditions. Therefore,

a wind speed module is needed to provide an input signal representing a desired or actual

wind speed. For this project, a fixed wind speed is going to be used. Test runs were

conducted at different wind speeds. Wind speed of 15 m/s was proved to generate the

greatest real power as shown in Table 4 and Figure 2.5. The Real power slowly increases

as wind speed increases until it reaches 15 m/s which is the rated wind speed of this

particular wind turbine model, reaching max power P of 1.5 MW. After wind speed of 15

m/s, the power P starts to deviate and drop beyond the rated wind speed because this

model did not have a pitch control.

15
Table 4: Real and Reactive power production of the wind turbine model at different wind
speeds.

16
 Figure 8: Power curve for 1.5 MW wind turbine vs the wind speed range of 5-25 m/s.

2.2.2 Tip-speed ratio calculation

The tip-speed ratio λ, is the ratio of the blade-tip linear speed to the wind speed. The tip-

speed ratio together with the blade pitch angle B, determines the efficiency of the rotor,

CP. It can be calculated as follows:

Where,

ωT = wind rotor angular speed [rad/s]

RT = wind rotor radius [m]

vwind = wind speed [m/s]

17
2.2.3 Pitch-angle determination

The rotor power coefficient CP varies with the tip-speed ratio λ for a given wind speed.

CP is maximum for a particular tip-speed ratio λ. Thus, to keep CP maximum for all wind

speeds, the angular speed of the rotor must be adjusted such that its corresponding λ

yields a maximum CP.

The rotor speed can be adjusted by varying the blade pitch angle B and for a fixed-speed

stall-regulated wind turbine, the pitch angle is fixed.

2.2.4 Rotor power coefficient (or CP calculation)

The rotor power coefficient CP is a function of the tip speed ratio, λ, and the blade pitch

angle, B. To obtain the optimal CP curve for a particular wind turbine, constant λ must be

maintained at all times for all wind speeds.

For a fixed-speed wind turbine, the electrical generator speed is fixed by the grid. In turn,

the rotor speed is also fixed since it is directly connected to the generator via a gearbox.

This means that the blade tip speed is practically unchanged. Therefore, as the wind

18
speed increases, the CP of a fixed-speed wind turbine will increase at first, then decreases

after the rated power is reached.

The rotor power coefficient CP can be estimated using the following polynomial

functions for pitch angle of 00, 30, 50, and 70 in the stated order.

In this modeling, CP is reproduced using actual data or by polynomials which are derived

via a fitting method based on actual data. The plot of CP for selected B is shown in

Figure 2.6.

Figure 9: Blade tip-speed ratio vs Cp curve at different B (beta) values.

19
2.2.5 Aerodynamic torque

The aerodynamic torque Tt produced by the wind rotor blades is given by:

where P is the standard air density (1.225 kg/m3).

2.3 Mechanical block if wind turbine

Figure 10: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Mechanical block highlighted).

The mechanical block, or the wind turbine rotor-generator drive train, consists of the

wind turbine shaft, generator shaft and a gearbox, see Figures 2.7 and 2.8. The wind

turbine generator shaft and the gearbox are modelled using a two-mass inertia

representation.

20
 Figure 11: Wind turbine diagram. [18]

For computer simulation, speeds and torques of the turbine rotor and the generator are

determined for each simulation time step by solving the two equations below using a

state-space approach. MATLAB Simulink model is shown in Figure 2.9.

Note that the electromagnetic torque is positive when the induction generator speed is

less than the synchronous speed (i.e., in motor mode) and is negative when the generator

speed is greater than the synchronous speed (i.e., in generator mode).

21
 Figure 12: MATLAB Simulink model of the mechanical model of the wind turbine.

2.4 Electrical block of wind turbine

Figure 13: Fixed speed wind turbine block diagram (Aerodynamic block highlighted).

The main component of the electrical block is an induction generator, see Figure 2.10.

For modelling a fixed speed WT, a squirrel cage induction machine is sufficient, as

shown in Figure 2.11.

22
Figure 14: MATLAB Simulink model of the electrical block.

23
 CHAPTER 3: SOLAR POWER

Sunlight is the most abundant source of potential energy on the planet. If harnessed

properly, sunlight could easily exceed current and future electricity demand. Earth

receives around 23,000 TW (23 x10^15 Watts) of power from the sun each year,

thousands of times greater than the Earth maximum power demand. According to the

Department of Energy, every hour, enough energy from the sun reaches Earth to meet the

world’s energy usage for an entire year.

“There is so much solar energy hitting the earth’s surface that even a single year of

sunshine exceeds all known energy reserves of oil, coal, natural gas and uranium put

together, see Figure 3.1. The energy from the sun dwarfs every other kind of renewable

energy, in large part because wind, hydro, biomass, and waves are the direct result of the

sun’s light and heat.” [19]

24
 Figure 15: Energy amount comparisons. [19]

3.1 Solar Irradiance

Radiation is the energy that emits from a source in the form of waves or particles. Solar

irradiance is the power of solar radiation per unit of area, measured in Watts per square

meter (W/m2). “The Earth’s solar irradiance constant is approximately 1,366 W/m2

(nominally 1,000 W/m2). Solar irradiation, or solar energy, is the solar power

accumulated over time. The unit of measure is Watt-hours per square meter (Wh/m2)”

[20]. The greater the solar irradiance for a given location, the more energy is generated.

There are 2 major types of radiation:

1) Direct radiation: Solar radiation directly from the sun that reaches Earth surface

without scattering.

25
 2) Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere and clouds.

o Scattering causes radiation to be dispersed in many directions.

o A point on Earth may receive diffuse radiation from many directions at

once, in addition to direct radiation.

o Varies from about 10%-20% of total global radiation for clear skies, up to

100% for overcast skies.

3.1.1 Air mass (AM)

Air mass is the representation of the relative thickness of atmosphere that solar radiation

must pass through to reach a point on Earth’s surface, see Figure 3.2. Air mass is equals

to 1.0 when the sun is directly overhead at sea level, designated as AM1.0. Greater values

of AM indicate greater attenuating effects of the atmosphere. It is calculated using the

following equation:

Where, AM = Air mass

Plocal = local atmospheric pressure (in mbar)

1013 = atmospheric pressure at sea level (in mbar)

θZ = zenith angle

26
 Figure 16: Air mass and Zenith angle.

3.1.2 Zenith angle

Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location and Zenith angle is

the angle between the sun and the zenith, see Figure 3.2.

As the zenith angle increases, the sun rays must pass through a greater amount of

atmosphere to reach Earth surface. The sun zenith angle for air mass calculations can be

determined by using a vertical ruler of known height and measuring the length of shadow

cast. The ruler, shadow, and rays of the sun form a triangle, see Figure 3.3.

Figure 17: Zenith angle calculation

27
The zenith angle is used to calculate the air mass and is given by:

3.2 Azimuth and altitude angles

The two angles most important to PV designers are the azimuth and altitude angle, as

they directly impact the design and energy yield, see Figure 3.4. “A PV module (i.e.,

panel) receives the maximum amount of energy when the direct component of solar

radiation is exactly perpendicular to the module surface. Most locations in the U.S. will

have a steeper tilt in the winter months to align with the lower winter sun and a flatter tilt

in the summer for the high summer sun” [20].

Figure 18: Azimuth and altitude angles. [21]

28
3.2.1 Azimuth angle

Solar azimuth angle is the horizontal angle between a reference direction (due south in

the Northern Hemisphere) and the sun. This angle varies between –180° and +180°. Sun

position to the east of reference direction is positive and to the west is negative azimuth

angle.

Optimal azimuth angle for total energy gain is due south (or due north in the Southern

Hemisphere) for fixed PV arrays. Tilt surfaces with azimuth orientations of ± 45° from

due south will receive at least 95% of the annual solar energy received on true south-

facing surfaces (Most middle and southern U.S. latitudes).

3.2.2 Altitude angle

Solar altitude angle is the vertical angle between the sun and the horizon. During

daytime, this angle varies between 00 and 90° and complements the zenith angle (sum of

the two equals 90°).

3.3 Photovoltaic cell, module, and array

“Photovoltaics is a solar technology that uses the electrical properties of various types of

semiconductor materials to directly convert sunlight into electric power. The resulting

29
electricity is direct current (non-sinusoidal)” [20]. Photovoltaic cells are the basic

building blocks of a PV module and are typically made of crystalline silicon material.

A PV module is a PV device consisting of a number of individual cells connected

electrically, laminated, encapsulated, and packaged into a frame. A PV array is a

complete PV power generating unit consisting of a number of integrated modules with

structural supports, trackers, or other components.

PV cells are connected to form modules and modules are connected to form arrays. PV

devices are generally first connected in series to achieve a desired voltage, forming a

string. These series strings are then connected in parallel to build current and power. The

same principles are used to build larger systems.

The efficiency of a PV module is given by:

Where,

r = n = efficiency

Pmp = maximum power (in W)

H = solar irradiance (in W/m^2)

A = area (in m^2)

Another way to calculate PV modular efficiency is:

30
 r = Peak power (in kWp) / panel area (in m^2)

The energy generated by a PV system (actual energy output ) is estimated as:

Where,

The performance Ratio (PR) is A very important value to evaluate the quality of a PV

installation because it gives the performance of the installation independently of the

orientation, inclination of the panel. PR includes all losses and quantifies the overall

effect of losses on the PV system rated output. It is given by:

31
3.4 Inverter

If an array of solar panels is the body of a solar system, then the inverter is its brain.

Apart from its core function i.e., converting the direct current into an appliance/grid-

friendly current, these inverters also function as a modest computing device and perform

voltage tracking, grid communication and emergency shutoff.

Utility- interactive inverters can be classified as string inverters, central inverters, utility-

scale inverters, multimode inverters, or module-level inverters.

• String inverters are commonly used in residential and small commercial PV

systems, with AC power ratings of 1 kW - 12 kW.

• Central inverters have higher power ratings and are suited for arrays with identical

modules that are aligned alike, with AC power ratings of 30 kW - 500 kW.

• Utility-scale inverters are very large systems that output about 500 kW to 1 MW

and higher to the grid at voltages up to 35 kV. These inverters are used in PV

power plant installations.

• Module-level or Micro-inverters are small utility-interactive inverters that are

supplied by a single PV module, with AC power ratings of 200 W to 300 W,

which is consistent with standard individual PV module sizes.

PV system inverters specifications: Power rating, voltage rating, temperature limitations,

operating limits, installation requirements, safety, and maintenance, and other

performance data.

32
Multimode inverters can operate in either interactive or standalone mode.

Maximum Power Point Trackers (MPPT): A MPPT device continuously adjusts the load

on a PV device under changing temperature and irradiance conditions to keep it operating

at its maximum power point. But as shown in Figure 3.5, the range for MPPT operation is

usually smaller, compared with the wide range of input voltage that most inverters

operate from. As ambient temperature increases, the DC voltage decreases as shown on

the I-V curves in green, blue, and yellow.

Figure 19: DC input voltage range of an inverter.

Since they are connected directly to the array, all interactive inverters include MPPT

circuits. Stand-alone inverters usually do not have MPPT.

3.5 Efficiency

Most interactive PV inverters are rated 90-95% efficient, while quality stand-alone

inverters have peak of around 90%. High-frequency and high-voltage inverters are

generally more efficient than lower-voltage inverters operating at low frequency.

33
3.6 PV system circuit design

PV systems that are connected to the grid are generally composed of PV panels, an

inverter that will convert DC power to AC power, a LC filter that filters the harmonic

components produced by the DC/AC inverter and non-linear load, a current controller

that blocks reverse current and prevents batteries from overcharging, a Maximum Power

Point Trackers (MPPT), a Grid parameter detection in order to know electrical grid status

and operate the grid connected inverter properly, see Figure 3.6.

Figure 20: PV system circuit design. [17]

• Majority of the regulations governing electrical installations, including PV

systems, are found in National Electrical Code (NEC).

• NEC is a nationally recognized standard on safe electrical installation practice and

is used as the governing electrical code in most jurisdictions in the U.S.

• Many articles in the NEC are applicable to the electrical integration of a PV

system, particularly Article 690.

34
3.6.1 Max DC voltage

The maximum DC voltage of a PV source circuit or output circuit is determined by the

sum of the rated Voc of the series connected modules corrected for the lowest expected

ambient temperature.

• This voltage dictates the minimum voltage ratings, which must be less than the

maximum voltage limits of all components on the DC side of the system (PV

modules, inverter, charge controller, disconnects, and conductors).

• For one- and two- family dwellings, the maximum voltage for PV source and

output circuits cannot be greater than 600V.

• Systems over 600 V are allowed for commercial or utility-scale PV systems,

which must follow different requirements, particularly those in NEC Article 490.

3.6.2 Max PV output current

The maximum PV source-circuit or output-circuit voltage is calculated as:

Where,

Vmax = Voc * n m * CT

Vmax = maximum PV system voltage

Voc = module rated open-circuit voltage at 25°C

nm = number of series-connected modules

35
 CT = low-temperature voltage correction factor

3.6.3 Maximum PV circuit current

For PV source circuits, the maximum current is 125% of the sum of the short-circuit

current ratings of parallel-connected modules. For a single series string of modules, the

maximum current is simply 125% of the module short-circuit current.

For PV output circuits, the maximum current is the sum of the maximum currents of the

parallel-connected source circuits.

3.6.4 Maximum inverter input current

For an interactive inverter with the PV output circuit connected directly to the inverter

input, the inverter input circuit is the same as the PV output circuit and, therefore, has the

same maximum current.

For stand-alone systems with batteries, the inverter input current depends on battery

voltage. The maximum current is calculated as:

36
3.6.5 Maximum inverter output current

Since inverters are limited-power devices, their AC output circuits are sized based on the

maximum inverter output rather than load calculations. The maximum current for the

inverter output circuit is equal to the inverter maximum continuous output current rating.

3.7 Protection of PV circuits

For overcurrent protection, fuses and/or circuit breakers are used. Each PV source circuit

usually requires overcurrent protection. All ungrounded array conductors must include

overcurrent protection. The conductors in each branch circuit (AC or DC) must be

protected from overcurrent.

3.7.1 Disconnect

A disconnect must be installed on the AC side of a PV system to isolate the system if

required. It must be used for each power source when a system includes multiple power

sources, such as a PV array, battery bank, engine generator, wind turbine, or utility

power.

3.7.2 Ground fault

A ground fault is the condition where current flowing through the grounding conductor.

Ground faults are typically caused by damage to the protective insulation of normally

current-carrying conductors, which may energize metallic equipment such as enclosures,

conduit, structures, and bare grounding conductors.

37
Some inverters include fuses as array ground-fault protection in their DC input circuits.

Grounding provides a path for fault currents and lightning-induced surges to dissipate

safely, protecting people and equipment from hazards or damage.

The DC and AC grounding systems must be connected together with a bonding

conductor. The array may also require a separate grounding electrode system.

38
 CHAPTER 4: IEEE 9 BUS SYSTEM

To show case how the wind and solar power farm will behave or how will they affect the

grid, an IEEE 9 bus system, based on the single line diagram shown in Figure 4.1, was

modeled using a simulation software. It is composed of 3 power sources: a generator, a

wind power farm, and a solar power farm. Other components are also connected to it

such as transformers and loads.

Figure 21: Single line diagram of an IEEE 9 bus system. [15]

4.1. Tools and Technologies Used

MATLAB Simulink was used to model the wind turbine and the solar farm. Data such as

the max real and reactive power output was then collected and used to build the IEEE 9

bus system model in Power World Simulator. Power World Simulator is ideally suited

39
for power systems operations and analysis and for performing research. The Simulator

software was built as a tool for teaching power systems and presenting power systems

analysis results to technical and non-technical audiences alike. Concepts are presented

simply, yet the software has sufficient detail.

The IEEE 9 bus system model was built using Power World Simulator instead of

MATLAB Simulink because of its user-friendly graphical interface. People will be able

to easily see what is going on with the model, see the direction and value of the load at

each node or Bus.

4.2 Simulation

4.2.1 Scenario A

In scenario A, as shown in Figure 4.2, the generator at Bus 1 is the source providing

power to all 3 loads. The switch connected to the wind power farm at Bus 2 and the

switch connected to the solar power farm at Bus 3 are both open.

40
 Figure 22: Power World simulation scenario A.

4.2.2 Scenario B

In scenario B, as shown in Figure 4.3, the generator at Bus 1 and the wind power farm at

Bus 2 are providing power to all 3 loads. The switch connected to the solar power farm at

Bus 3 is open.

Figure 23: Power World simulation scenario B.

41
4.2.3 Scenario C

In scenario C, as shown in Figure 4.4, the generator at Bus 1 and the solar power farm at

Bus 3 are providing power to all 3 loads. The switch connected to the wind power farm at

Bus 2 is open.

Figure 24: Power World simulation scenario C.

4.2.4 Scenario D

In scenario D, as shown in Figure 4.5, all switches are closed. The generator at Bus 1, the

wind power farm at Bus 2, and the solar power farm at Bus 3 are all providing power to

the loads

42
 Figure 25: Power World simulation scenario D.

4.2.5 Scenario E

In scenario E, as shown in Figure 4.6, the switch connected to the generator at Bus 1 is

open. Only wind and solar power farms at Bus 2 and 3 are providing power to the loads.

Since the total real power load (12.5 + 10 + 9 = 31.5 MW) is higher than the rated real

power of the wind power farm (15MW) and solar power farm (10MW) combined

(25MW), there is an overload on the wind power farm at Bus 2. “Running a generator

beyond its capacity can cause components to burn on. It can shorten the life of the

generator significantly and output intermittent power, which will damage appliances”

[16].

43
Figure 26: Power World simulation scenario E.

44
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

An equivalent fixed-speed wind turbine was modeled in MATLAB Simulink. The

software was run at different wind speeds and was found that when the wind speed was at

15m/s the real power output was at the highest. Obtained results from the wind turbined

were used when modeling the IEEE 9 bus system using Power World Simulator to

perform the load flow analysis.

The IEEE 9 bus system model was run in different scenarios and results were as

predicted. All scenarios ran without any issues with all loads satisfied when the generator

at Bus 1 was running. The wind power farm at Bus 2 overloaded when the generator at

Bus 1 stopped running. This happened because the wind and solar power farms alone

were not enough to satisfy all the load demand. Increasing the power output of the wind

power farm by increasing the number of wind turbines could help avoid this.

45
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47