it the

which were sovereignty of laws. Aristotle held that

of law becausefundamental to the life of law had
the state.
law represents the application He believed in the
have been determined of a bodyof rules
from the influence beyond the passions of man. Law is,
therefore,
Law is stable and of human passion. Law represents the rule of reason
of a state. Law, inintroduces the element of stability in the
so far as it represents the practical
experience of the past, is essential wisdom
proper working of governmental for the proper living of man and forth
laws have no authority, there ismachinery.Aristotle holds that "where
supreme over all and the ruler shouldno constitution.The law ought to b
judge of particulars."
Classification of Government
Aristotle classifies the different forms of
basis i.e. (l) according to the number of government on a twofold
sovereign power and (2) accordingto the persons who hold or share the
ends the governmentshave in
view. This basis enables us to distinguish
corrupt forms of government. This is becausebetween the pure and the
the perfection of its members and the degree ofthe true end of the state is
devotion to this end is the
criterion to judge whether a governmentis pure or corrupt.
Judged
according to the twofold basis given above, there are six kinds
government as under:— of

Pure fornt Corruptform

(1) Monarchy—-with supreme (1) Tyranny—representing force,
virtue as its guiding principle. deceit and selfishness.
(2) Aristocracy—representing a (2) Oligarchy—representingthe
mixture of virtue and wealth. greed of wealth.
(3) Polity—representing martial (3) Democracy—representing the
and medium virtues, power principle of equality with
resting with the middle-class power in the hands of the
people, poor.

In the table given above, monarchy represents the rule of one manfor
commongood with tyranny as its perversion.Monarchyis the idealor
pure form, but is impossible of realization or at least perpetuation,for'
even if we can find an individual who possesses all the necessary
qualifications and virtues fully, we cannot expect him to pass on his
virtues, in all their fulness to his successor. So a monarchy gets perverted
into a tyranny which is the rule of one, not for commongood but for selfish
purposes. In all, Aristotle recognises five kinds of monarchy i.e. the
Spartan type, oriental hereditary despotism, old heroic kingship, elective
perpetual dictatorship, and the philosopher- guardian. Aristocracyis the
rule of the few for the common good. Aristocracy, too, is difficultOf
realization and gets perverted into an oligarchywhich means the ruleof
the few for selfish purposes and not for commongood. Polity meansthe
 POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHY
OF GREECE
government Ofall for
IQ more numerous than the good Ofall, but,
ot to Aristotle, means the rich, polity gets because the
the perverted alwaysbe
suggests that out ofthe rule of all for the good into democracywhich5,7
really practical ofthe Pooronly.
formsofgovernment, Aristotle
th Economic Basis of Polity,based
Government
Aristotle, with his
rule by more than One native shrewdness, points
Ought:
you have an man, the real out that in the case
always be theoligarchy—aristocracy
distinguishing factoris wealth,forof
rule of the rich degenerates into oligarchy—it if
degenerates into
democracy—it
and if you have will
Thus we have an economic will always represent democracy—polity
Aristotle observes that basis of the classificationthe rule ofthe poor.
of
viz. (1) Birth, (2) Virtue,in a state four elements always governmenttoo.
(3) Wealth and (4) struggle power
re Best Constitution Liberty.
Plato portrayed an ideal
endiperfectibility of state becausehe believed
human in the unlimited
t.Jl perfectible within limits. nature. To Aristotle, human nature was
He,
kiliAristotle refuses, to return a therefore, visualises the bestpossiblestate.
direct
poses himself, namely, what is theand positive answer to the questionhe
out that in a polity there is the happybest constitutionor state? He points
liberty and wealth; in tyranny there is combination
the
of the elementsof
oligarchy the element of wealth and in democracy elementof birth alone;in
ingfralone. He adds that one must considernot only the elementofliberty
what is the best form
s,
ideally or absolutely but also what is the best attainable in practiceand
what is best under a particular set of conditionsand circumstances.
ideal state, there must be the rule of ideal virtue
In an
i.e.the government must
be in the hands of the best. If one man is super-excellentin virtue, the
tin/ form of government should be monarchy; otherwise pure aristocracy.But
i it is not possible to maintain such a governmentfor a longtime, both
monarchy and aristocracy having a tendencyto degenerate,after some
time, into tyranny and oligarchy respectively.
To Aristotle, that constitution is best which is best attainable under
the circumstances. He realises the necessityof moderationand stability
in the constitution, follows the rule of the Incan and points out that polity
is the best attainable constitution, ordinarily. He rules out other forms of
govermnent as representing extremes. For instance, oligarchicwealth
promotes arrogance and lack of will to obey and democracybreeds
egalitarian license, etc. That form of governmentis best in which the
element desiring stability is the strongest. Ordinarily, polity in which the
middle class is the strongest is the best attainable form of government.
It may be said that Aristotle's own economicposition was responsible
for his middle-class liberalism and his advocacyof the supremacyof the
 determination of who is and
who is not a
slavery according to which some men are, natural slave.His
and others to obey them without reasoningby nature, born to of
men in this machine age to the position wouldreduce isle ordenrs
of thedeknition
majority
with little initiative of his own, is very slaves. An industrial If
i.e. a slave according like Aristotle's worker,
action' to his description. 'instrumentof
that some men are born to rule and others Aristotle'sassertion
the society into two parts arbitrarily. The born to obeywouldreduce
are countless gradations with respect fact is that, in society,
there
endowments which would point to, not to moral and intellectual
system of subordination and authority. slavery, but a very complex
reduce domestic servants and even women Aristotle's definitionwould
in backwardcountriesto
the position of slaves.
Aristotle gives undue importance to heredity
by
are slaves by nature. He admits that a slave is not asaying that somepeople
mere bodyand, unlike
animals,he can comprehend reason. Can not a man whocan
comprehend
another man's reason develop his own rational potentialitiesif given
proper
facilities and environment? The slave being a man is essentially incompatible
with his being a Inere instrument of action. Aristotle conceivesof a slave as an
animate instrument of action and yet he admits that 'slaveshave sometimes
the bodies of freemen, sometimes the souls'. Aristotle's justification of slavery
goes against his teleology according to which the end of a man is to be a moral
being with a free and rational will. He shows a certain amount of racial bias
in his treatment of slavery. He is against the enslavement of Greeks but not of
barbarians.
Aristotleon Citizenship
Book Ill of the Politics brings us to its most fundamental question i.e.
Aristotle'sidea of the citizen and the state. What is a state? begins
Aristotle,and says that, viewed objectively,the state is an assemblageof
citizens.Neither residence in the state, right of suing or being sued,
franchise, nor yet descent from a citizen, represents the essence of
citizenship. Aristotle analyses the conception of citizenship into its
essential and non-essential attributes. The essential attribute of
possess is neither
citizenship which a citizen must and a citizen alone can not
residence, descent nor legal privilge but nerformance of civic function,who
for a limited but for an indefinite period. To Aristotle, a citizen is one a
Participates in the administration of justice and in legislating as
 HISTORY OF EUROPEAN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

rnetnber of the governing body, either or both, these two b

essential features of sovereignty.Aristotle's citizen, therefore eing
who partook of the active sovereign in the state, taking part ,was
deliberations of the state assemblies and in the juries of the state in thQ
essence, therefore, of citizenship lay in the enjoyment of politicalrig
and duties. It must be kept in mind, says Aristotle, that the definitionhts
citizenship, given above, applies to a democracy,not to all the vario
kinds of states and governments.In oligarchies,for instance,not
citizens but a few, holding certain definite offices,legislate or serve
jurors. Aristotle holds that the virtues ofa goodcitizen are not necessarily
the same as those of a good man nor are the virtues of citizenship
different forms of state of the same type. Excellence of citizenshipin
democracydemands virtues difTerentfrom those in the oligarchy.
Qualifications of Citizenship
To Aristotle, the essence of citizenship is that a citizen must be
functioning member of a city-state, not a mere adherent nor a mere meansa
to its existence. The prime qualification for citizenship is the capacityto
rule and be ruled in turn. This rules mechanics and labourersoutof
consideration because these working people are too dependent on thelead
of others to be able to develop the capacity to rule. Besides, freedomfrom
economicworries is essential för proper discharge of duties of citizenship.
An essential qualification for citizenship, therefore, was the holdingof
property which alone could ensure leisure necessary for participationin
civic duties. Manual work, to Aristotle, deliberalises the soul and renders
it unfit for political speculation and discharge of civic duties. Working
classes, therefore, have neither the ability nor capacity for citizenship,
This is like cutting the society with a hatchet into two parts whichwas
Aristotle'schief point of criticism against Plato's ideal state. Aristotle
discards the Platonic view that the capacity to rule is the exclusive
possession of a few individuals. But the equality of opportunity to rulehe
restricts to the citizens only. And yet Aristotle's citizen-body is practically
co-extensivewith Plato's guardian-classes. Aristotle is more reactionary
than Plato for whereas the latter makes the producing class an organic
part of the state, the former relegates them to the position of instruments
and not members of the state.
Criticism
Aristotle's conception of citizenship is extremely aristocratic and
illiberal för modern application. He was conceiving of citizenship in terms
of a small city-state with direct democracy whereas modern
country-states have indirect democracy. Aristotle's citizen is a juror anda
legislator. But there may be systems of government which do not provide
for a jury system. In a modern nation-state, citizen cannotbe
legislator. He can, at best, control every
legislation through his elected
g
representative. Aristotle fhiled to realise possibilities Of
representative government. Nor is the
applicable to Aristotle's idea of citizenshiP
colonies. By excluding all leisureless working classes
 POLITICAL
11LOSOPHY
OF GREECE
citizenship Aristotle denies
privileges attached to them the
citizenship. He educative value of
eti mere means of existence reduces them to political
th body-politic. Aristotle's for the state, not the positionof a
definition of an active part the
disenfranchised and discontented citizenship creates a oflarge
te of the state. It is the duty of class which goes
the against the solidarity
state to secure social
for its humblest members. and politicalrights
take into consideration the Aristotle's definitionof citizenshipdoes not
Citizenq' members of the society. complex gradation of capacity
and leisure of
ip If the end of the state is
archy to
number, it must be able to utilise serve the greatestgoodof the greatest
people as well as their the experienceof the largest number of
differences. Again, if citizenship is to be reserved
only for a class of people who
2n are rich enough not to have to work for their
must living, we might well be certain that the
merern
governingbody,based on rich
citizenship, would first and last think of passinglegislation ensure the
le Capac, stability of the rule of its own class and would,therefore,toidentify the
)urers interests of its own class with the public interests ofthe state. Laws would
it on the be passed to preserve for the ruling class their large incomesand
•reedom
properties.
f citizen It must, however, be admitted, in justification of Aristotle's limited
le holdir citizenship, that citizenship in his days connotedsomething much more
ticipati
thali citizenship nowadays does and did require leisure which the working
class people did not enjoy.Aristotle realised this, and, like a realist that
and refi he was, preferred the practical to the ideally perfect. Like a realist again,
he held that a good citizen in a democracyhad virtues different from those
citizen. of a good citizen in an oligarchy.
which
Aristotle on Law and Justice
Aris
Aristotle holds that law, though created like the state by man, is not
tee

Cönventional,but natural because it is moral. Law is 'dispassionate

flijt
It has the character
reason' and its content is the same as that of morality.
to
'general principles of
Of the universal. To Aristotle as to all Greeks, natural laws. Canons of
conduct which are ascertained by reason' arebindingand their sanction
right and justice are eternal and universally
Laws represent social experience
comes from their essential rationality.
people. The principles of natural law
and ripened collective wisdom of a legislator.A citizen had no right of
Wereto be implemented only by the Aristotle believed in 'natural law' but
Withholdinghis obedience to law. laws were relative to the constitution
not 'natural rights'. He agreed that
meant bad laws. The absenceof law in a
Ofthe state. A bad constitution Law was superior to the
constitution.
"ate meant lack of a...v government
s Irregularities. Rule by law was be
 their 1 mute
lose power
Laws the philosopher-rulers ofcommunism Ofwomen and property
favour of laws. Plato's dropping
of philosophers and his respect for laws wereto
of the unlimited rule Plato's polity Of the Laws acceptabl
liking of Aristotle and made
Aristotle. constitution, based on the principl
is for a mixed
Plato, in the Laws, Best state is based on the principle
of balance of power.Aristotle's
advocates a state-owned and State-organ is
balance of power. Plato does Aristotle in the ed
in the Laws. So Politicswhile
system of education
Plato's state of the Laws is a small state. S
portraying his Best state. ois
the Best state of Aristotle.
Aristotle on Revolutions
governments of the city-state in Greece,due
Frequent changesin the in political life, gave food for serious
to deterioration and decadence
his views on Revolutions and their
thought to Aristotle who formulated shows amazing power of
causes. In BookV of the Politics he dealing with
sifting
historicalmaterial and of masterly analysis in wisdom the causesof
the revolutions and displays ripe political in SUggesting
preventivesfor them. Because of his masterly treatment of revolutions
and their preventives, the generally unfinished nature of the treatise with
its constant digressionsand the fact that his ideal state remains
unfinished,it has been opined that "The Pollitics of Aristotle is morea
bookon the art of government than a systematic exposition of political
philosophy".
Varying Degrees
Aristotle points out that there are varying degrees of revolution. A
revolutionmay take the form of a change of constitution of a state or the
revolutionariesmay try to grasp political power without changingthe
constitution.Again a revolution may make an oligarchy or democracy
more or less oligarchic or democratic respectively. A revolution, lastly,
may be directed against, not the entire system of government. but a
particular institution or set of persons in the state. A revolution maybe
completeor imcomplete,armed or peaceful and personal or impersonal.
GeneralCausesof Revolutions
In order to diagnose a revolution we must consider (1) the temper Of
the revolutionariesand their (2) motives and
occasionsof the revolution. Revolutions are
(3) the causes and (4)
generally traceable to the
onesidedand perverted notions of
The most general cause of justice of revolution-minded people'
equality has diiTerentmeaningrevolutions is men's desire for equality. But
masses want absolute for different people. The democratic
equality of all, whereas the oligarchic few favour
proportionalequality—-based
on considerations of wealth, ability and
 POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHY OF
GREECE
worth. Other causes of revolutions
governmental authority, absence ofare inequality of possessions,
balancing factor and clash of extremea middle-class abuseof
as a stabilising
revolution are gain, honour and ideologies. The and
equality.
cause of revolution is the discrepancy objects
The most important of a
and the actual political power held by betweenthe actual general
differentclasses politicalability
revolutions are ultimately due to the innate of citizens.All
equality of opportunities and rights. A state desirein citizensto have
revolutions in proportion to will be stable i.e.
the satisfaction of not given to
mixed form of government, containing this cravingforequality.A
,ltics both
elements, is the best from the point of view oligarchic and democratic
State. of avoidingrevolutions.
S Particular Causes
Particular causes of revolutions to be
distinguishedfromoccasionsof
revolutions, as state by Aristotle are love of gain,
love ofhonour,insolence,
reece,
fear, undue prominence of individuals in public life, proportionate
or increase in some part of the state, electionintrigues, carelessness
granting offices to disloyal persons, neglect of small changes and in
and th
dissimilarity of elements in the state.
of siftiq
e
Causesin Particular Kinds of States
causes(

suggesti(
Aristotle also examines causes of revolutionsin particularkindsof
'evolutior
states. In democracies, revolutions break out due to the excessesof
demagogues making the rich oligarchs to combine against them.
eatisel\il
Oligarchies are overthrown due to the oppressiverule ofthe oligarchsor
e remaif due to rivalry between the oligarchs themselves.In aristocracies,
is morel to
revolutions are due to jealousy created by restrictinghonoursofstate
revolutionsin a state.
of politici a small circle. Foreign influence, too, produces
theoryofrevolutions,
It is pertinent to point out that, in Aristotle's
and decisivepart. To him,
economic motives do not play importantrevolutionsthan inequalityof
of
inequality of honour is more conducive viewson the subject.
toluti011.
possession. This goes against the Marxian
state orth
Preventionof Revolutions for revolutions.
anging
of useful preventives
democrac Aristotle suggests a number inculcate the spirit of obedienceto law,
last} The most essential thing is to watch the beginningsof changein the
tion, to
especially in small matters and should to deceive
not be placed on devices
constitution. Too much reliance allowed to concentratein the
Ill,qy not be the state
lion the people. Too much power shouldmen and various classesinshould feel
hands of one man or one class of No man or class of men shouldbe
ersoß.

should be treated with consideration. offices

Great political
that he or it cannot hold politicalstrangers and aliens. gratification,etc.,
outsidethe reach of unknown gain, by briberyand financial
should not be able to make private machinery, particularly
ses administrative Offices and honours
out of their offices. The
open to public scrutiny. justice and no class
administration, should be of distributive The citizens should
should be awarded on considerations political power.
of
of citizens should have a monopoly
 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
62 HISTORY OF EUROPEAN

• higest officesin the

be educated in the spirit of the constitution The
loyalty to the
state
Of
should be given only on considerationscharacter, but each constitution
administrative capacity and integrity Ofshould keep before the citizen
have his due. The government of the day publicth
revolution. A revolution,
danger of foreign attack in case Ofinternal
than a legal change. It hadthto
Aristotle, constituted more a political
and economic standards.
effect of reversing ethical, social
Aristotle on Tyrants
with revolutions Aristotle paid some attention to th
While dealing These vices were common to all tyrants
tyrants and their peculiar vices.
greek or barbarian. The tyrants, according to Aristotle
whether by:—1.The employment of a large
maintained themselves in power system of espionage is most essential ina
number of spies. An efficient
military aggression abroad.
tyranny. 2. Pursuit of a policyof tyrant to divert attention of A foreign
a the
war is the best means adopted by and the ugliness of the domesticpeople
from the irregularities of home life policy
distrust and of a spirit of hostility
of the government.3. Promotion of community and
between different classes of the maintenance of
self-confidence.4. An attempt to destroy the intellectual life of the citizens
because, otherwise, some would indulge in political speculation whichis
dangerousto a tyrant. Death of intellectual life in the communityis one
of the most characteristic signs of a tyranny. 5. The most efficacious ofall
the methodsof a tyrant is his successful disguise of the reality ofhis
tyranny by a semblance of beneficent rule. A tyrant shows concern forthe
people,respects art and religion and avoids display of regal magnificence.
Aristotle on Dentocracy
Aristotle holds that two principles characterize democracyi.e.
freedomand majority-rule. Democrats, says Aristotle, hanker after
equality.But equality of what? Aristotle condemns the belief of the
democratsthat freedomand equality mean doing as one likes. Peopledo
not want to be ruled or, else, they want to rule and be ruled in turn.
Aristotle was not opposed to democracy in the same measure as Plato was.
Tohim, democracy is a form of government in
which supreme power is in
the hands of freemen. Aristotle believed
abilityof the mass of the people that the aggregate virtue and
a part of the population.If was greater than the virtue and abilityOf
the
technicalitiesof administration, mass of people do not understand the
appointingright administratorsthey have the sound commonsenseOf
misbehaviouron the part of and legislators and of checkingany
of a vague sort of the latter. Aristotle was, therefore, in favour
democracy. He would vest
the mass of citizens, ultimate sovereign powerin
actualgoverning though only the best citizens would represent the
authority and machinery.
aristo-democracy of Aristotle's democracy means
alienscan have no free-citizens, because the large body of slaves an
direct democracy share in the government
is of the day. This means that
representative possible only in a
democracy,to small city-state. Modern
Aristotle, would mean not democracybut