Unit-III

DC and AC Transient
Analysis

Dr. Bhavnesh Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Instrumentation & Control Engineering
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 Introduction

• In this unit we will examine three types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and
capacitor (RC) , a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor (RL), and a circuit comprising a
resistor, an inductor and capacitor (RLC).
• The analysis of RC, RL and RLC circuits is carried out by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, same as
resistive circuits.
• Only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic
equations, while applying the Kirchhoff’s laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
equations, which are more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.
• The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the first order.
Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits, whereas for RLC circuits
second-order differential equations are obtained.
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation, whereas second-
order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation .
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• There are two ways to excite these circuits:
• By initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits
• In these so-called source free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored
in the capacitive or inductive element. The energy causes current to flow in the
circuit and gradually dissipated in the resistors.
• Although source-free circuits are free of independent sources, they may have
dependent sources.
• By independent sources
• DC sources
• Sinusoidal Sources
• Exponential Sources

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 Source- Free RC Circuit
• A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly
disconnected. The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to
the resistors.

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 Source- Free RC Circuit
Voltage Response of RC circuit:
• The natural response of a circuit refers to
the behavior of the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.
• It depends on the nature of the circuit alone,
with no external sources. In fact, the circuit
has a response only because of the energy
initially stored in the capacitor.
• At ,t = 0, we have the correct initial condition
as in Eq. (7.1). As t increases, the voltage
decreases toward zero.
• The rapidity with which the voltage decreases
is expressed in terms of the time constant,
denoted by τ.

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 The time constant of a circuit is the time required
for the response to decay to a factor of 1∕e or 36.8
percent of its initial value.

•From Table 7.1 that the voltage v(t) is less than 1

percent of V0 after 5τ (five time constants). Thus, it is
customary to assume that the capacitor is fully
discharged (or charged) after five time constants.
Evident from Eq. (7.8) that the smaller the time constant, the
more rapidly the voltage decreases, that is, the faster the •Every time interval of τ, the voltage is reduced by 36.8
response. percent of its previous value.

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 Source- Free RC Circuit

• A circuit with a small time constant gives a fast

response in that it reaches the steady state quickly due
to quick dissipation of energy stored.
• A circuit with a large time constant gives a slow
response because it takes longer to reach steady state.
• At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large,
the circuit reaches steady state in five time constants.

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Problem 1

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9
 Source- Free RL Circuit
• In RL circuit objective is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be
the current i(t) through the inductor. We select the inductor current as the response.
• In order to take advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot change
instantaneously. At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0,

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11
Source- Free RL Circuit

Important Points:
• When a circuit has a single inductor and several
resistors and dependent sources, the Thevenin
equivalent can be found at the terminals of the
inductor to form a simple RL circuit. Also, one can use
Thevenin’s theorem when several inductors can be
combined to form a single equivalent inductor.
• The smaller the time constant τ of a circuit, the faster
the rate of decay of the response. The larger the time
constant, the slower the rate of decay of the response.
At any rate, the response decays to less than 1 percent
of its initial value (i.e., reaches steady state) after 5τ.

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Problem 2

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14
 Singularity Functions

• Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives.
• Singularity functions or switching functions are very useful in circuit analysis.
• Good approximations to the switching.
• Helpful in compact description of some circuit phenomena, especially the step response of RC or
RL circuits.
• Some commonly used singularity functions in the circuit analysis are:
• Unit Step
• Unit Impulse
• Unit Ramp

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Unit Step Function:

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Singularity Functions
Unit Impulse Function:
• The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is
the unit impulse function δ(t).
• The unit impulse function δ(t) is zero
everywhere except at t = 0, where it is
undefined.

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Singularity Functions

Unit Ramp Function:

• Integrating the unit step function u(t) results
in the unit ramp function r(t).
• The unit ramp function is zero for negative
values of t and has a unit slope for positive
values of t.

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 Problem 4 :Ramp Function
Q. Express the voltage pulse in Fig. 7.31 in terms of the unit step. Calculate its derivative ,sketch it.

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 Problem 4 :Ramp Function
Q. Express the sawtooth function shown in Fig. 7.35 in terms of singularity functions.

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 Problem 5 :Ramp Function
Q. Express the sawtooth function shown in Fig. 7.35 in terms of singularity functions.

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Problem 6 :Step and Ramp Function

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Problem 7 :Impulse Function

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 Step Response of RC Circuit
• Step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a
current source.

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 Response of RC Circuit With Initially Charged Capacitor
• Complete response of the RC circuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor is
initially charged. The reason for the term “complete” will become evident a little later.
• Assuming that Vs > V0, a plot of v(t) is shown below:

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 Response of RC Circuit With Initially Charged Capacitor
• In Figure 7.42 the plots of capacitor voltage
v(t) and capacitor current i(t) are shown.
a)Natural response and a forced response :
• For finding the step response of an RC or RL
circuit
• Let us take Eq. (7.45), It is evident that v(t) has
two components.
• Decomposing this into-
a)Natural response and a forced response
b)Transient response and a steady-state response.
• Under certain conditions, the natural response
and transient response are the same.

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 Response of RC Circuit With Initially Charged Capacitor
• The transient response is the circuit’s b)Transient response and a steady-state response.:
temporary response that will die out with time.
• The steady-state response is the behavior of the
circuit a long time after an external excitation
is applied.
• Decomposing complete response into-
a) In terms of the source of the responses
b) In terms of the permanency of the responses.
• Under certain conditions the forced response
and steady-state response

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 To Find the Step Response of RC Circuit
Three Things are required:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
3. The time constant τ.
• We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from the circuit for t > 0.
• Once these items are determined, we obtain the response using Eq. (7.53).
• If the switch changes position at time t = t0 instead of at t = 0, there is a time delay in the response so that Eq.
(7.53) becomes,
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(t0) − v(∞)] e −(t − t0)∕τ
where v(t0) is the initial value at t = t0 +

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 Problem 8
Q. The switch in Fig. 7.43 has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t)
for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 and 4s?

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 Problem 9
Q. In Fig. 7.45, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v for all time.?

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 To Find the Step Response of RC Circuit
Three Things are required:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0.
2. The final inductor current i(∞).
3. The time constant τ.
• We obtain item 1 from the given
circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3
from the circuit for t > 0.
• Once these items are determined,
we obtain the response using Eq.
(7.61). Keep in mind that this
technique applies only for step
responses.

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 Step Response of RL Circuit
• Consider the RL circuit in Fig. 7.48(a), which may be replaced by the circuit in Fig. 7.48(b).
• Objective is to find the inductor current i as the circuit response, use the simple technique in Eqs. (7.50) through (7.53).
• Let the response be the sum of the transient response and the steady-state response.

The i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i,
respectively. 32
 To Find the Step Response of RL Circuit
Three Things are required:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
3. The time constant τ.
• We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from the circuit for t > 0.
• Once these items are determined, we obtain the response using Eq. (7.53).
• If the switch changes position at time t = t0 instead of at t = 0, there is a time delay in the response so that Eq.
(7.53) becomes,
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(t0) − v(∞)] e −(t − t0)∕τ
where v(t0) is the initial value at t = t0 +

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 Problem 10
Q. Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 7.51 for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a long time?

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 First-Order Op Amp Circuits

Op Amp: An op amp circuit containing a storage element will exhibit first-order behavior.
• For practical reasons, inductors are hardly ever used in op amp circuits; therefore, the op amp circuits we consider here are
of the RC type.
• Analyze op amp circuits using nodal analysis, Thevenin equivalent circuit is used to reduce the op amp circuit to one that
we can easily handle.
• The Next three examples illustrate the concepts by using all possible RC types of op amp circuits, depending on the
location of the capacitor with respect to the op amp; that is, the capacitor can be located in the input, the output, or the
feedback loop.
A) The first one deals with a source-free op amp circuit,
B) It Involve step responses.
C) It also involve step response

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 Problem 11
Q. For the op amp circuit in Fig. 7.55(a), find vo for t > 0, in given figure, v(0) = 3 V. Let Rf = 80 kΩ, R1 = 20
kΩ, and C = 5 μF.?

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 Transient Analysis with PSpice

Transient Response: is the temporary response of the circuit that soon disappears. PSpice can be used to obtain
the transient response of a circuit with storage elements.
• If necessary, dc PSpice analysis is first carried out to determine the initial conditions. Then the initial conditions are used
in the transient PSpice analysis to obtain the transient responses.
• It is recommended but not necessary that during this dc analysis, all capacitors should be open circuited while all inductors
should be short-circuited.

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 Problem 12
Q. Use PSpice to find the response i(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 7.63.

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Second Order Circuit

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 Second Order Circuit

• Second-order circuit is characterized by a

second-order differential equation. It consists of
resistors and the equivalent of two energy
storage elements.
• Consider circuits containing two storage
elements which are known as second-order
circuits because their responses are described by
differential equations that contain second
derivatives.
• Examples of such circuits are shown in Fig.
8.1(a) ,(b),(c) and (d).

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 Initial and Final Values

• Initial Values: is characterized by two ways

➢ Polarity of voltage v(t) across the capacitor and the direction of the current i(t)
through the inductor.
➢ The capacitor voltage is always continuous so that:
v(0+) = v(0−) (8.1a)
The inductor current is always continuous so that
i(0+) = i(0−) (8.1b)
where t = 0− denotes the time just before a switching event and t = 0+ is
the time just after the switching event, assuming that the switching event
takes place at t = 0.
• Thus, in finding initial conditions, we first focus on those variables that cannot change
abruptly, capacitor voltage and inductor current.

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 Problem 1 :Initial Value
Q. The switch in Fig. 8.2 has been closed for a long time. It is open at t = 0. from figure 8.1 Find: (a) i(0+),
v(0+), (b) di(0+)∕dt, dv(0+)∕dt, (c) i(∞), v(∞).

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Source- Free Series RLC Circuit

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Source- Free Series RLC Circuit

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 Source- Free Series RLC Circuit: Different Cases
•Overdamped when the roots of the circuit’s
characteristic equation are unequal and real
& If α > ω0.
• Critically damped when the roots are
equal and real & If α = ω0.
•Underdamped when the roots are complex
& If α < ω0.

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Source- Free Series RLC Circuit: Different Cases

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 Properties of RLC network

1. The damping effect is due to the presence of resistance R. The neper frequency α determines the rate at
which the response is damped. If R = 0, then α = 0, and we have an LC circuit with 1∕ √LC as the
undamped natural frequency.
2. Since α < ω0 in this case, the response is not only undamped but also oscillatory, by adjusting the value
of R, the response may be made undamped, overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped.
3. Oscillatory response is possible due to the presence of the two types of storage elements. Having
both L and C allows the flow of energy back and forth between the two.
4. The critically damped case is the borderline between the underdamped and overdamped cases and it
decays the fastest. With the same initial conditions, the overdamped case has the longest settling
time, because it takes the longest time to dissipate the initial stored energy.

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 Source- Free Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown in
Fig. 8.13. Assume initial inductor current I0
and initial capacitor voltage V0.

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 Source- Free Series RLC Circuit: Different Cases

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Note: Voltage waveforms are similar as shown in slide number 7.
 Problem 1
Q. In the parallel circuit of Fig. 8.13, find v(t) for t > 0, assuming v(0) = 5 V, i(0) = 0, L = 1 H, and C = 10 mF. Consider these cases: R
= 1.923 Ω, R = 5 Ω, and R = 6.25 Ω ?

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 Problem 1
Q. In the parallel circuit of Fig. 8.13, find v(t) for t > 0, assuming v(0) = 5 V, i(0) = 0, L = 1 H, and C = 10 mF. Consider these cases: R
= 1.923 Ω, R = 5 Ω, and R = 6.25 Ω ?

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 Step Response of a Series RLC Circuit
The step response is obtained by the sudden application of a dc source. Consider the series RLC circuit
shown in Fig. 8.18. Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0,.

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 Problem 2
Q. For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0. Consider these cases: R = 5 Ω, R = 4 Ω, and R = 1 Ω.?

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 Problem 2
Q. For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0. Consider these cases: R = 5 Ω, R = 4 Ω, and R = 1 Ω.?

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 Problem 2
Q. For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0. Consider these cases: R = 5 Ω, R = 4 Ω, and R = 1 Ω.?

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 Problem 2
Q. For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0. Consider these cases: R = 5 Ω, R = 4 Ω, and R = 1 Ω.?

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 Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
The step response is obtained by the sudden application of a dc source. Consider the series RLC circuit
shown in Fig. 8.18. Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0,.

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 Problem 3
Q. In the circuit of Fig. 8.23, find i(t) and iR(t) for t > 0.?

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 Problem 3
Q. In the circuit of Fig. 8.23, find i(t) and iR(t) for t > 0.?

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 Thankyou
For more details refer following book

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