Chapter 2.

Minerals, Rocks, and Geological Structures and Their

Influence on Engineering Works

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 2.1 Minerals
2.1.1 Definition of minerals and its properties
A) Definitions of minerals
❖ For Geologist Mineral is

1. Minerals are natural - they form without any human intervention.

2. Minerals are inorganic – they are not derived from living organisms.
3. Minerals are pure – they have a definite chemical composition.
4. Minerals are solid - they are firm; don't droop, melt or evaporate under normal conditions.
5. Minerals are crystalline – their atoms are arranged in distinct patterns (crystalline structure).

❖ To others “a mineral is a valuable natural material obtained from the earth”.

A few exceptions to the mineral definition are
(1) precious gemstones like diamond can be synthetically produced under controlled laboratory condition.
(2) Coal, petroleum etc. are typical organic substances that are considered as minerals
(3) Asphalt, mercury, petroleum natural gas are semisolids, liquids and gas respectively, but they are considered as
minerals.
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 B) Composition and formation of minerals
Formation of Minerals: it can be formed:
Elements:
▪ Basic building blocks of ✓From the solidification (crystallization) of silicate melts
minerals
▪ Over 100 are known (92 on cooling (when temperature lowers below the melting
naturally occurring)
point)
Atoms:
▪ Smallest particles of ✓By the precipitation of crystals from water solution
matter
▪ Retains all the ✓By sublimation from vapor phase
characteristics of an
element ✓From re-crystallization of other solids during alteration
and metamorphic processes

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 C) Identification of minerals Physical properties of minerals: Determined
by observation or performing a simple test.
❖ We can distinguish minerals by various Several physical properties are used to identify
physical, chemical and/ or optical hand samples of minerals.
characteristics. ✓ Color
❖ Since chemistry is not important in the ✓ Streak (color at its powdered form)
field, most minerals are identified in ✓ Hardness (resistance to being scratched)
the field by their physical properties. ✓ Crystal form (internal geometric
arrangement of the atoms that make
up the crystal structure)
✓ Cleavage (tendency of the minerals to
break along weak zones)
✓ Fracture (irregular broken surface)
✓ Luster (surface shininess – a bright
and shiny condition)
✓ Density (m/v) Specific gravity etc.
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(a) Color:
▪ Generally unreliable for mineral Quartz
identification (SiO2)
▪ Often highly variable due to slight exhibits
changes in mineral chemistry
a variety
▪ Exotic colorations of certain
minerals produce gemstones
of colors

(b) Streak: Color of a mineral in its powdered form

Streak is obtained on an unglazed porcelain plate

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(c) Hardness:
❖ Resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching
❖ All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the
Mohs scale of hardness
❖ Moh’s scale relates the hardness of minerals with some
common objects, such as fingernails, copper pennies, a steel
knife blade, and glass.

(d) Crystal form:

✓ External expression of a mineral’s internal structure
✓ Often interrupted due to competition for space and
rapid loss of heat

Cubic crystals
of pyrite

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(e) Cleavage:
▪ Tendency to break along planes of weak bonding
▪ Produces flat, shiny surfaces
▪ Described by resulting geometric shapes:
(i) number of planes, and
(ii) angles between adjacent planes

Fluorite, halite, and calcite all exhibit perfect cleavage

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(f) Fracture:
Conchoidal
Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken
fracture
(g) Luster:
▪ Appearance of a mineral in reflected light
▪ Two basic categories:
- Metallic
- Nonmetallic (h) Specific Gravity:
▪ Other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy ▪ Weight of a mineral/weight of an equal
volume of water
▪ Average value = 2.7
(i) Other properties:
▪ Magnetism
▪ Reaction to hydrochloric acid
▪ Malleability
▪ Double refraction
▪ Taste
▪ Smell
Galena (PbS) displays metallic luster
▪ Elasticity
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 2.1.2 Types of Minerals B). Based on their origins/genesis (processes of
Nearly 4000 minerals have been named
formation):
➢ Minerals can be classified into various categories based on
various parameters: i). Primary minerals (those formed directly from cooling of
A) Based on their Economic Importance magma, for example olivine) and
B) Based on their origins/genesis (processes of
formation): ii). Secondary minerals ( those that are formed from
C) Based on their importance to the naming of rocks: secondary processes such as sedimentation and metamorphism,
D) Based on their chemical compositions: for example Malachite).
C). Based on their importance to the naming of rocks:
A. Based on their Economic Importance: i). Essential minerals ( those whose presence or absence
Economic minerals (those explored for their economic affects the naming of a rock, for example Quartz in Granite
importance, for example Au, Ag, Cu, Fe etc) rocks that is to be a granite rock it must have quartz, feldspar,

Rock forming minerals (those minerals which are mica as essential minerals) and

constituents of rocks, for example the silicate minerals). ii). Accessory minerals (those whose presence or absence do
not affect the naming of the rock, for example Zircon in
granite).
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D). Based on their chemical compositions:
Minerals are classified according to their chemical
& mineralogical composition in to
✓ Native elements ,
✓ Sulphates , Elemental abundances in continental crust
✓ Oxides,
✓ Carbonates,
✓ Halides (NaCl),
✓ Sulphides,
✓ Phosphates,
✓ Arsenides and
✓ Silicates.
Rock-forming minerals:
✓ Common minerals that make up most of the rocks of
Earth’s crust
✓ Only a few dozen members
✓ Composed mainly of the 8 elements that make up over
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 2.1.3 Mineral Groups
I. Silicates:
✓ Most important mineral group (ii) Nonsilicate minerals
✓ Comprise most rock-forming minerals ✓Typically divided into classes based on anions
✓Comprise only 8% of Earth’s crust
✓ Very abundant due to large % of silicon and
oxygen in Earth’s crust ✓Often occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks
✓ Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
✓ Fundamental building block
✓ Four oxygen ions surrounding a much smaller
silicon ion
Reading assignment: What are the different types
of silicate groups?

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 2 .2 Rocks
2.2.1 Definition of Rocks And Rock Cycle
Rock: solid mixture of two or more minerals.

The way one kind of rock (sedimentary,

igneous, or metamorphic) can turn into
another kind of rock.

2.2.2 Types of Rocks

1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic rock
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1. Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock is defined as any rock that has cooled from molten rock.

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Magma - Liquid rock under the ground. Magma evolves as the hotter minerals
crystallize and settle to the bottom of
Lava - Liquid rock above the ground. the magma chamber
Intrusive Igneous Rocks - Rocks that cool
from a melt below the ground.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks –Rocks that cool

from a melt above the ground.

The nature of magma: consists three

components:
✓ Liquid portion = melt
✓ Solids, if any, are silicate minerals
✓ Volatiles = dissolved gases in the melt, Crystallization of magma:
including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide ❖ Cooling of magma results in the systematic arrangement of ions into
(CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). orderly patterns.
❖ The silicate minerals resulting from crystallization form in a
predictable order (texture, size and arrangement of mineral grains).

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A). Igneous textures Types of igneous textures
(a) Aphanitic (fine-grained) texture:
Texture is used to describe the overall ✓ Rapid rate of cooling
appearance of a rock based on the size, ✓ Microscopic crystals
shape, and arrangement of interlocking ✓ May contain vesicles (holes from gas bubbles)
minerals. (b) Phaneritic (coarse-grained) texture:
Factors affecting crystal size: ✓ Slow cooling
✓ Large, visible crystals
(i) Rate of cooling:
(c) Porphyritic texture:
▪ Slow rate = fewer but larger crystals
✓ Minerals form at different temperatures
▪ Fast rate = many small crystals
✓ Large crystals (phenocrysts) are embedded in a matrix of
▪ Very fast rate forms glass smaller crystals (groundmass)
(ii) % of silica (SiO2) present (d) Glassy texture:
✓ Very rapid cooling of lava
(iii)Dissolved gases
✓ Resulting rock is called obsidian
(e) Pyroclastic texture:
(f) Pegmatitic texture:
✓ Fragmental appearance produced by violent volcanic eruption.
▪ Exceptionally coarse grained
✓ Often appear more similar to sedimentary rocks
▪ Form in late stages of crystallization of
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Aphanitic texture Phaneritic texture Porphyritic texture

Glassy texture

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 B). Igneous Compositions
Granitic versus basaltic
Igneous rocks are composed primarily of compositions
silicate minerals: (i) Granitic composition:
(a) Dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates ▪ Light-colored silicates
➢ Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica ▪ Termed felsic (feldspar and silica) in
(b) Light (or nonferrous magnesian) silicates composition
➢ Quartz, muscovite mica, and feldspars ▪ High amounts of silica (SiO2)
▪ Major constituent of continental crust

Other compositional groups (ii) Basaltic composition:

(iii) Intermediate (or andesitic) composition ▪ Dark silicates and calcium-rich feldspar
▪ Contain 25% or more dark silicate minerals ▪ Termed mafic (magnesium and iron) in
▪ Associated with explosive volcanic activity composition
▪ Higher density than granitic rocks
(iv) Ultramafic composition ▪ Comprise the ocean floor and many
▪ Rare composition that is high in magnesium and iron volcanic islands
▪ Composed entirely of ferromagnesian silicates
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 Silica content
✓ as an indicator of composition
✓ Exhibits a considerable range in
the crust from 45% to 70%

Silica content influences magma

behavior:
✓ Granitic magmas = high
silica content and viscous
✓ Basaltic magmas = much
lower silica content and
more fluid-like behavior

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Bowen’s reaction series

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C) Naming of Igneous Rocks
(a) Granite: (b) Rhyolite:
✓ Phaneritic ✓ Extrusive equivalent of granite
✓ Over 25% quartz, about 65% or more feldspar ✓ May contain glass fragments and vesicles
✓ Very abundant - often associated with mountain building
✓ Aphanitic texture
✓ The term granite includes a wide range of mineral compositions
✓ Less common and less voluminous than granite
Note: a to d are acidic rocks.

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(c) Obsidian
✓ Dark colored
✓ Glassy texture

(d) Pumice
✓ Volcanic
✓ Glassy texture
✓ Frothy appearance with numerous voids
✓ Pumice is very glassy and sharp, with
countless vesicles.

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(e) Andesite (f) Diorite
✓ Volcanic origin ✓ Plutonic equivalent of andesite
✓ Aphanitic texture ✓ Coarse grained

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 (g) Basalt (h) Gabbro
✓ Volcanic origin ✓ Intrusive equivalent of basalt
✓ Aphanitic texture
✓ Phaneritic texture consisting of pyroxene and
✓ Composed mainly of pyroxene and calcium-rich calcium-rich plagioclase
plagioclase feldspar
✓ Significant % of the oceanic crust
✓ Most common extrusive igneous rock
Note: Basalt is basic in composition

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(i) pyroclastic rocks
▪ Composed of fragments ejected during a volcanic eruption
▪ Varieties:
• Tuff = ash-sized fragments
• Volcanic breccia = particles larger than ash

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 D). Engineering considerations of igneous rocks
1. The use of igneous rocks as aggregate in Portland cement concrete can cause
problems.

✓ In some instances fine - grained siliceous materials have caused volume expansion.
✓ The alkali-silica reaction problem can be alleviated by using low- alkali cements or non-reactive aggregates,
or by adding pozzolans to the concrete mix.
✓ The reactive igneous rocks include those that contain volcanic glass with a composition ranging from
Rhyolite through Andesite (Acidic volcanic rocks).
✓ Basaltic glass contains too little silica to be reactive.
✓ Pyroclastic rocks containing glass with a high silica composition also can be reactive (Eg. Tuff, Volcanic
breccia, Obsidian, and Pumice).

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2. Very coarse grained igneous rocks are undesirable for use as aggregates for construction.
▪ With increasing grain size, abrasion resistance is reduced, and the rock is less suitable for
use as a base course (road base), concrete aggregate, or source of riprap (large stone used
for slope protection along rivers and sea coasts).
3.The presence of certain minerals in igneous rocks makes the rock undesirable for some engineering
uses.
▪ Zeolite minerals are undesirable in aggregates that will be exposed to the weathering process.

4. In foundations for engineering structures such as dams, bridge piers, and underground installations,
weathered igneous rock and/or any other rock is to be avoided.
▪ Excavation must extend through this material into sound rock.

5. Dimension stone includes rock used for tombstones and monuments plus facing stone for buildings.
▪ Igneous rocks are commonly used for this purpose because of their resistance to weathering,
and spalling of the surface must be avoided when selecting the proper building
stone.
▪ Strong, fresh and unaltered igneous rocks yield the most suitable materials.
▪ Common, unweathered and unaltered course grained varieties are selected for building stone:
these range from Granite to Gabbro.
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2. Sedimentary Rocks

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 A). Introduction
Formed by compaction of clasts, a chemical ➢Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposit of materials/
precipitate, or and evaporative residue. sediments (“sedo” meaning to settle or sit down) and
✓ Clast – A particle of a rock.
distinguished from other rock types by the layering or
✓ Chemical precipitate – a fine powder that comes
out of solution. stratification characteristic.
✓ Evaporative residue – a fine powder left over when
water with minerals dissolved in it evaporates. ➢Sedimentary rocks are formed by consolidation and
cementation of sediments deposited under water.

➢Sedimentary rocks also include the rocks formed by

accumulation of chemically precipitated or organically
derived material.

✓ Sedimentary rocks contain information about what

earth surface environments were like in the past.
➢Sedimentary rocks are important for economic
considerations because they may contain important fossil
fuels (Coal Petroleum and natural gas), Sources of iron,
aluminum, and manganese

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 c). Lithification and Diagenesis:
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks Lithification:
✓is a process by which soft and loose sediments are converted
The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place in three into hard and firm rocks.
stages: ➢During this process many physical and chemical changes take place
a) Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks, within the sediments. Such changes are called the diagenetic changes
b) Sedimentation, and and the process is described is diagenesis.
c) Lithification and diagenesis. Diagenesis = chemical, physical, and biological changes that take place
after sediments are deposited, occurs within the upper few kilometers of
Earth’s crust.
a). Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks:
The diagenesis includes three processes:
✓ During weathering and erosion, the pre-existing rocks and (i) compaction,
their constituent minerals are broken down. (ii) cementation, and
✓ The material thus produced is called the “sediment”. The (iii) recrystallization.
sediments are usually transported and deposited in areas of (i) Compaction:
accumulation by the action of water or less frequently by ✓compaction occurs when the weight of overlying layers compresses
glacial or wind action. the sediments below. As the grains of sediments are pressed closer and
✓ During transportation, the sediments are roughly sorted closer together, there is considerable reduction in pore space and
volume.
and deposited according to size.
✓Fine grained sediments, such as clays are consolidated more
b) Sedimentation: The process of accumulation of sediments effectively by this process.
at a site of deposition is called “sedimentation”. The material (ii) Cementation: when water circulates through the pores of coarse
carried in solution precipitates and accumulates. It is the grained sediment, dissolved mineral matter is precipitated b/n the grains
intermediate stage in the formation of sedimentary rocks. which causes cementation.
The most common cementing materials are silica, calcium carbonate,
iron oxides and clay minerals.
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 (iii) Recrystallization:
Recrystallization is the development of more stable
minerals from less stable ones.
➢although most sedimentary rocks are lithified by
compaction, cementation or a combination of both, some
are consolidated chiefly by the recrystallization of their
constituents.

➢Chemically formed rocks, such as limestones, dolomites,

salt and gypsum are the examples of the rocks consolidated
by recrystallization.

Figure 1.1. Lithification of sand grains to become sandstone.

(A) Loose sand grains are deposited with open pore space between
the grains.
(B) The weight of overburden compacts the sand into a tighter
arrangement, reducing pore space.
(C) Precipitation of cement in the pores by ground water binds the
sand into the rock sandstone, which has a clastic texture.
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 B). Types of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of
their mode of formation (source of the material). a) Detrital sedimentary rocks
These are: The chief constituents of detrital rocks include:
a. Clastic (detrital) rocks:- transported sediment as
solid particles or Sedimentary rocks formed from ▪ Clay minerals
compacted clasts (particles of rock). ▪ Quartz
b. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks or chemical rocks – ▪ Feldspars
sediment that was once in solution or Sedimentary
rocks formed from compacted precipitates or ▪ Micas
evaporate residues. Particle size is used to distinguish among the various
rock types

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Depending upon the size of constituent grains, the clastic Types of detrital sedimentary rocks
rocks are classified into three groups:

1). Rudaceous (Coarse Grain Clastic) Rocks: Common detrital sedimentary rocks:
(i) Shale
✓These rocks are formed by accumulation of bigger rocks
fragments such as gravels , pebbles and boulders. ✓ Mud-sized particles in thin layers that are
✓ If the grains are rounded, the rock is called conglomerate and commonly referred to as laminea
if the are angular, the rock is termed as breccia. ✓ Most common sedimentary rock
2). Arenaceous (Medium Texture Clastic) Rocks:

✓These rocks are composed almost entirely of sand grains.

✓When individual grains are rounded, the rock is called
sandstone, and grit if the grains are angular.
3). Argillaceous (Fine Texture Clastic) Rocks:

✓These rocks are made up of very fine grained sediments.

✓Shale and mudstone are typical argillaceous rocks which are
composed of clay-sized sediments.

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 (ii) Sandstone (iii) Conglomerate and breccia
✓ Composed of sand-sized particles ✓ Both are composed of particles greater than 2mm in
✓ Forms in a variety of environments diameter
✓ Quartz is the predominant mineral
✓ Conglomerate consists largely of rounded gravels; often
has a similar appearance to “concrete”
✓ Breccia is composed mainly of large angular particles and
fragments, which have not been rounded

Quartz sandstone
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Conglomerate Breccia
 b) Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks or chemical
➢ Non-clastic rocks include those sedimentary rocks which are formed by I. Carbonate Rocks:
chemical precipitation of minerals from water or by accumulation of remains
✓ Limestones and dolomites are the most abundant carbonate rocks.
of animals and plants
✓ They are formed by the chemical precipitation of calcium
➢ They are classified into two groups:
carbonate from sea water.
1. Chemically formed rocks and
(a) Limestone
2. Organically formed rocks.
Most abundant chemical rock
1) Chemically Formed Rocks:
Composed chiefly of the mineral calcite
✓ These rocks are formed when mineral matter in solution is precipitated from limestone includes, fossiliferous limestone, micritic
limestone, oolitic limestone and travertine
water, usually because of changes in water temperature or in the chemical
b) Dolostone:- Typically formed secondarily from limestone
content of water.

✓ On the basis of composition, the chemically formed rocks are classified as

follows.

a. Carbonate rock,

b. Evaporite rock,

c. Ferruginous Rocks and

d. Siliceous Deposits:

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(ii) Evaporite rock: (iii) Ferruginous Rocks:
✓Evaporation is the major process involved in the deposition of ✓This group includes those rocks which are formed by the
chemical precipitation of iron oxides.
chemical precipitates. ✓ Such rocks contain a high proportion of iron-bearing minerals
✓ The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline lakes are such as siderite, hematite, chamosite and pyrite.
✓ Iron-stone is an example of ferruginous rocks.
called the evaporites. (iv) Siliceous Deposits:
✓The principal minerals of these deposits are chlorides and ✓Siliceous rocks are formed when silica is precipitated from
water.
sulfates of Na, K, Mg and Ca. ✓ Examples of such deposits are flint, chert, jespar and agate.
✓Rock-salt, gypsum (used for drywall, aspirin, Vitamin C Chert:Composed of microcrystalline quartz
Varieties include flint and jasper (banded form is called
tablets; ), anhydrite and potash (used for fertilizer) are by far agate)
the most abundant minerals of evaporites.

Agate is a form of
banded chert
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(2) Organically Formed Rocks:
✓ These rocks are composed mainly of remains of animals or plants.
✓ Rocks containing organic matter belong to this group.
✓ These rocks also called the carbonaceous rocks. E.g., coal
Coal:- Different from other rocks because it is composed of organic material.
• Stages in coal formation (in order): Plant material, Peat, Lignite, Bituminous and Anthracite.

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Summarized classification of sedimentary rocks

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 C). Engineering considerations of sedimentary Rocks

1. Certain sedimentary rocks can be involved in the alkali- 4. Sedimentary rocks used as dimension stone for the
facing of buildings should be non-staining and resistant
silica reaction problem in Portland cement concrete.
to weathering effects.
Eg. Chert. ▪ High - purity, clastic limestones have proven
durable; clayey carbonates and quartz
2. Limestone and dolomite provide the best sedimentary
sandstones may be subject to spalling.
aggregates for construction materials. ▪ Quartz sandstones are used for flagstone walls.
▪ Siltstone, shale, quartz sandstone, and
5. Limestones, dolomites, and evaporite deposits can
conglomerate are generally not acceptable. exhibit an irregular soil - rock interface in their
weathering profiles.
3. Coarse - grained limestones abrade too severely to be
▪ Pinnacles (of rock) and pipes (of soil) are
used for aggregates for construction. common.
▪ Care must be taken to ensure that heavy
▪ Such rock participles lose gradation owing to a
structures are founded completely on solid rock.
reduction in particle size.

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6. Sinkholes and underground conduits in
limestones and dolomites must be recognized 8. Conglomerates are basically weak sedimentary rocks
because they are poorly cemented and highly porous.
and properly dealt with when founding
▪ Water movement through this rock removes the
buildings in these terrains.
cement and increases permeability.
▪ Changes in the existing ground surface or of
▪ When encountered in dam abutment and
sub-surface drainage by construction should be
foundations, conglomerates require special
evaluated with great care.
treatment to increase their strength and reduce
permeability.
7. When water is impounded behind a dam, if
limestone lies at the rim or within the reservior 9. Sedimentary rocks containing anhydrite are problematic to
area, careful consideration is required. engineering structures such as dams, highways, and tunnels
▪ The presence of solution channels in the because the mineral will alter to gypsum in the presence of
limestone that extend to another surface water, yielding an increase in volume and considerable stress
on the structure adjacent to it.
drainage area will lead to leakage unless the
▪ The presence of anhydrite must be recognized
channels are filled by grouting or other
and steps taken to reduce its effect.
techniques.

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Engineering importance of some sedimentary rocks
Conglomerates:
✓Are undesirable at the site of foundation of major civil engineering and hydraulic structures.
✓This is because of their incomplete cementation, Compositional heterogeneity of grains and roundness of
the grains.

Sandstone:
✓ Siliceous sandstone: It is best to be used as building stone, site of foundation, road stone, railway ballast,
and for tunneling.
✓ This is because, the grains are angular and quartz in composition, and well cemented.
Argillaceous sandstone:
✓ It is not desirable because clayey matter on contact with water forms weak and lubricating matter
that causes a slippery base.
Shale:
✓Is unsuitable as construction material.
✓This is because of their fine-grained nature and incompetent nature.

Limestone:
✓ massive ones used as building stone and as railway ballast. Limestone also used as foundation rock if there is
no karstific feature or cavernous structures.

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3. Metamorphic Rocks

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A) Definitions: B). Metamorphic Settings
Metamorphic rocks:-
❖ Contact or thermal metamorphism – driven by a rise in
➢ Are rocks that have been formed by temperature within the host rock.
metamorphism of pre-existing igneous, ❖ Hydrothermal metamorphism – chemical alterations
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, by from hot, ion-rich water.

heat and pressure without melting. ❖ Regional metamorphism:

➢Orthometamorphic rocks that have been ✓ Occurs during mountain building

originated from igneous , Example : Gneiss ✓ Produces the greatest volume of

metamorphic rock
➢Para metamorphic rocks that have been
✓ Rocks usually display zones of contact
originated from sedimentary rocks,
and/or hydrothermal metamorphism
Examples Quartzite, Marble

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Two principal types of contact metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs when rocks are squeezed between

converging plates during mountain building.

Hydrothermal metamorphism
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❖Progressive regional metamorphism: from low grade (slate); to high grade (gneiss)
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 C). Agents of Metamorphism
(a) Heat (b) Pressure and differential stress
✓ Most important agent. ▪ Increases with depth.
✓ Recrystallization results in new, stable minerals. ▪ Confining pressure applies forces equally in all directions.
✓ Two sources of heat: ▪ Rocks may also be subjected to differential stress which is
unequal in different directions.
✓ Contact metamorphism – heat from magma.
✓ An increase in temperature with depth due to the
geothermal gradient.

Regional metamorphism caused by differential stress

associated with mountain building
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Elongated Pebbles
▪ Differential stress causes mechanical rotation and elongation of constituent
minerals and clasts.

(c) Chemically active fluids

▪ Mainly water with other volatile components.
▪ Enhances migration of ions.
▪ Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals.
Sources of fluids:
- Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks.
- Fractures in igneous rocks.
- Hydrated minerals such as clays and micas.
(d) Parent rock (the importance of parent rock):
▪ Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall
chemical composition as the parent rock from which
they formed.
▪ Mineral makeup determines, to a large extent, the
degree to which each metamorphic agent will cause
change.
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 D). Metamorphic Textures
▪ Texture refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains.
▪ Foliation – any planar arrangement of mineral
grains or structural features within a rock.
▪ Examples of foliation:
➢ Parallel alignment of flattened mineral grains
and pebbles.
➢ Compositional banding.
➢ Slaty cleavage where rocks can be easily split
into thin, tabular sheets.

Foliation can form in various ways including:

▪ Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals.
▪ Recrystallization of minerals in the direction Foliation resulting from directed stress
of preferred orientation.
▪ Changing the shape of equidimensional
grains into elongated shapes that are
aligned. 48
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Types of foliated textures: (b) Schistosity
(a) Slaty cleavage ✓ Platy minerals are discernible with the unaided eye and exhibit a
planar or layered structure.
✓ Closely spaced planar surfaces along which rocks
split ✓ Rocks having this texture are referred to as schist.

✓ Can develop in a number of ways depending on

metamorphic conditions and parent rock

Garnet-mica schist

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 (c) Gneissic
➢ During higher grades of metamorphism, ion migration
results in the segregation of minerals.
➢ Gneissic rocks exhibit a distinctive banded appearance.
c) Non foliated Rocks
✓ Those metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are referred to as
non foliated.
✓ Develop in environments where deformation is minimal
✓ Typically composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional
crystals.

(d) Porphyro-blastic textures:

Large grains, called porphyro-blasts, surrounded by a fine-grained
matrix of other minerals.

Gneissic texture created by banding of dark

biotite flakes and lighter colored silicate minerals,
giving the rock a banded, or layered appearance.
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 E). Common metamorphic rocks
Slate (left) and phyllite (right), which is more
(i) Foliated rocks
wavy and shiny)
(a) Slate
✓ Very fine-grained
✓ Excellent rock cleavage
✓ Most often generated from low-grade
metamorphism of shale, mudstone, or
siltstone
(b) Phyllite
✓ Gradation in the degree of metamorphism
between slate and schist.
✓ Platy minerals not large enough to be identified
with the unaided eye.
✓ Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces.
✓ Exhibits rock cleavage.
✓ Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite
and/or chlorite.

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 (c) Schist (d) Gneiss
✓ Medium- to coarse-grained ✓ Medium- to coarse-grained
✓ Platy minerals (mainly micas) predominate ✓ Banded appearance
✓ The term schist describes the texture ✓ High-grade metamorphism
✓ To indicate composition, mineral names are ✓ Often composed of white or light-colored feldspar-rich
used (such as mica schist) layers with bands of dark ferromagnesian minerals

Garnet mica schist is a high grade metamorphic

rock where individual plates of shiny mica are
easily visible. The dark red garnet crystals are
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called almandine. 52
 (ii) Nonfoliated rocks
(a) Marble
(b) Quartzite
✓ Coarse, crystalline
✓ Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich
✓ Parent rock was limestone or dolostone sandstone
✓ Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite crystals ✓ Quartz grains are fused together
✓ Used as a decorative and monument stone
✓ Exhibits a variety of colors

Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock formed

Marble is a crystalline rock from quartz sandstone. It is very hard and resistant,
formed by the metamorphosis and can be taxing on construction equipment.
of limestone 53
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 F). Classifying metamorphic rocks

Remarks:
✓ Any rock can become an igneous rock
if it is melted to a liquid and then is
cooled back into a solid.
✓ Any rock can become a metamorphic
rock if it is changed by heat and
pressure but not melted.
✓ Any rock can become a sedimentary
rock if it is weathered into clasts
(particles) and then the clasts are
compacted.
✓ Any rock can become a non-clastic
sedimentary rock if it is dissolved
in water.
✓ Then the dissolved minerals
could come out of the water by
evaporation or as a precipitate.
✓ And finally the evaporate residue or
precipitate is compacted into rock.

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 G). Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks commonly yields rock 4. Slate, schist, and phyllite are subject to rock over
pieces with elongated shapes when crushed. break during blasting of rock cuts or tunnels because
✓ These rocks could cause mixing problems in of their pronounced rock cleavage.
fresh concrete and directional properties in ✓ High stress concentrations in tunnels may
occur for the same reason.
hardened concrete.
5. The stability of rock slopes is greatly affected by
2. Foliated rocks posses prominent directional
the orientation (attitude) of foliation with respect to
properties. the rock slope direction.
✓ Strength and permeability are affected by the ✓ When foliation dips steeply into an opening,
direction of foliation. rockslides commonly occur. Rock
✓ Care should be taken that loads (from bridges, bolts or tendons may be needed to
dams, buildings, and foundations) are not prevent such failures.
transferred to foliated rock masses in a 6. Marble is subject to the same problems as
direction closely parallel to the foliation. limestone.
3. Metamorphic rocks may be deeply weathered and ✓ Solution cavities and channels may develop,
resulting in similar problems of
the depth to bedrock is quite variable.
leakage of reservoir and collapse of newly
✓ Care must be taken to found heavy structures, or
formed sinkholes.
to located tunnel alignments, in sound
rock whenever possible. 55
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 2.3 Geologic Structures
Geologic structure is a geometric feature in rock whose shape, form, and distribution can be described.
1)Primary geologic structures a) Primary Sedimentary Structures
(non-tectonic structures) : ✓ Bedding
✓ Geometric features developed during ✓ Cross bedding
formation of a rock body.
✓ Graded bedding
✓ Formed in sedimentary or igneous rocks.
✓ Ripple marks
✓ Mud cracks
✓ Unconformities, etc.

b) Primary igneous structures

✓ stratification
✓ vesicles
2) Secondary geological structures ✓ columnar Jointing
(deformation structures): ✓ pillow lavas

✓produced by tectonic forces and ✓ lava tube

other stresses in crust develop
after formation of the rock body. 56
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a) Primary Sedimentary Structures
i. Bedding:- Bedding planes separate sedimentary layers ii). Cross bedding
with contrasting properties ✓ Sets of beds that are inclined relative to one
✓strength, porosity, permeability, resistance to erosion, another.
composition, color, and texture etc ✓ The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind
✓different source, sedimentary processes, and
or water was moving at the time of deposition.
environments of deposition

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iii) Graded bedding :
The finest grain at the top and the coarsest grain at the bottom by gradual increase in grain size down
to the bottom of the bed

Fin
e
Fine
Suspends

Coarse
Settle @ bottom

Coarse
 b) Primary igneous structures ii) Pillow structure:
Although igneous rocks are exhibiting different types of structures, the These are structures in which volcanic igneous body
followings are common: appears as pillow shaped structure that are attributed
1. Flow structure to the extrusion of lava under water or subaqueous
2. Pillow structure extrusion.
3. Columnar structure The pillows are generally interconnected and have
4. Sheet structure vesicular and glassy tops. It is typical structure of
i) Flow structure: Sometimes an igneous rock shows parallel bands or basaltic lavas that are comparatively mobile having
streaks, which are caused by the flow of lava or magma during cooling commonly up to 1m diameter.
and crystallization. It is common in Rhyolite and Trachyte.

59
iii) Columnar structure: In this structure the volcanic igneous iv) Sheet structure: In this structure the rocks appear to be
rock appear to be made up numerous parallel polygonal made of a number of sheets. This is because of the
prismatic columns bundled together. This is the result of the development of nearly horizontal cracks or joints as a result
contraction of lava during cooling. Example: columnar jointing of release of pressure upon erosion overlying rocks.
in basalts Example: sheet jointing in granite.

Generally structures and textures are primary in nature that is they occur along
with the formation of rocks and are important because:
a. Serves they contribute to the strength or weakness of rocks
b. They are distinguishing features of the rock groups
c. They reveal the mode of origin of rocks

60
2.3.2) Secondary geological structures (deformation structures)

61
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1 Fractures in rock (i) Joints
How many sets of joints do we have in this rock exposure?
(i) Joints: break in rock along which no movement
has taken place.
(ii) Faults: break in rock along which movement has
taken place.
(iii) Shear zones: are fractures in rock along which
some movement has occurred but not a great amount
(up to 1m movement).

✓ Joint densities and individual joint lengths are

infinitely variable.
✓ Groups of sub-parallel joints form joint systems.
✓ All joints are structural weakness, whose density,
extent, and orientation are major influences on rock
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mass strength. Compiled by Belachew Moges
(ii) Faults
Fault types are recognized by relationship of down throw to dip of the
fault plane.
▪ Normal faults form under tension; down throw is on down dip side.
▪ Reverse faults form under compression; down throw side is opposite
to dip.

Foot wall

Hanging Wall

Features of faults:
▪Faults commonly create zones of
broken/weaker ground and are less stable than
the adjacent rock.
▪Fault breccia: coarse angular broken debris in
zone (0.1-100m wide) along faults; commonly
a zone of groundwater flow.
▪Fault gauge: finely ground rock in thin zone
along fault plane. 63
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iii. Shear zones 2) Fold
are typically weak, ground-up areas of rock ▪ Compressive forces slowly deform the rock but
and soil-like material. after removal of this load by uplift and erosion,
the rock still remains the folded shape.
▪ Commonly, folds are caused by compressional
forces, which buckle rock units.
▪ The trough or downward portion of the fold is
called a syncline and the crest portion of the fold
is called an anticline.
▪ The limb of a fold is the sloping portion that
connects the crests and troughs.
▪ Axial plane is an imaginary plane used to divide
the fold into two equal or nearly equal portions.
▪ The dip is the angle in degrees below the
horizontal.
▪ Strike is direction of horizontal line on a dipping
surface.
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2. Folds:
Bends or wave-like features in layered rock.

65
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 2.3.3 Engineering significance of geologic structures

Geological structures are:

✓Zones of weakness.

✓Characterized by higher permeability than rocks with no geological structures unless

filled by fine materials.

✓Zones of higher susceptibility to weathering.

✓Zones of higher deformability and instability.

66
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67