The Continuity Equation
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase
of mass in the control volume per unit time
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the
control volume, so:
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
The Continuity Equation
Euler’s equation
The forces tending to accelerate the cylindrical fluid system are
The component of weight
Differential mass being accelerated by the
action of these differential forces
Euler’s equation
Applying Newton‟s second law
dF=dm x a, the acceleration is resolved using chain rule
using chain rule
a = (dv/ds)(ds/dt) + (dv/dt)(dt/dt)
and ds/dt = v and at steady state dv/dt=0
a = vdv/ds
Euler’s equation
Dividing by ρdA produces the one dimensional Euler equation
Energy Conservation (Bernoulli’s Equation)
dp
Recall Euler’s equation: + VdV + gdz = 0
The viscous forces were neglected, i.e. flow is invisicd
If one integrates Euler’s eqn. along a streamline, between two points , &
2 dp 2 2
We get :
1
+ VdV + gdz = 0
1 1
Which gives us the Bernoulli’s Equation
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz 2 = Constant
2 2
Flow work + kinetic energy + potential energy = constant
Bernoulli’s Equation (Continued)
Flow Work (p/) :
It is the work required to move fluid across the control volume boundaries.
Consider a fluid element of cross-sectional area A with Dx
p
pressure P acting on the control surface as shown.
A
Due to the fluid pressure, the fluid element moves a distance Dx within time Dt.
Hence, the work done per unit time DW/Dt (flow power) is:
DW pADx p Dx p
= = A = AV ,
Dt Dt Dt
p 1 DW Flow work or Power
=
AV Dt
Flow work per unit mass
1/mass flow rate
p
= pv Flow work is often also referred to as flow energy
Bernoulli’s Equation (Cont)
Very Important: Bernoulli’s equation is only valid for :
incompressible fluids, steady flow along a streamline, no energy loss due
to friction, no heat transfer.
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 , where = g (energy per unit weigh t)
2g 2g
Application of Bernoulli’s equation - Example 1:
Determine the velocity and mass flow rate of efflux from the circular
hole (0.1 m dia.) at the bottom of the water tank (at this instant). The
tank is open to the atmosphere and H=4 m
p1 = p2, V1=0
1
V2 = 2 g ( z1 − z2 ) = 2 gH
H
= 2 * 9.8 * 4 = 8.85 (m / s)
m = AV = 1000 * (0.1) 2 (8.85)
4
2 = 69.5 (kg / s)
Energy exchange (conservation) in a thermal system
Energy added, hA
(ex. pump, compressor)2
p1V
2 p2 V2
+ 1 + z1 + + z2
2g 2g
Energy extracted, hE Energy lost, hL
(ex. turbine, windmill) (ex. friction, valve, expansion)
hL
loss through
heat exchanger
valves hE
hA
pump turbine
hL, friction loss
hL
through pipes
condenser loss through
elbows
Energy conservation(cont.)
If energy is added, removed or lost via pumps turbines, friction, etc.then we use
Extended Bernoulli’s Equation
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
+ + z1 + hA − hE − hL = + + z2
2g 2g
Frictional losses in piping system
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
Extended Bernoulli' s equation, + + z1 + hA − hE − hL = + + z2
2g 2g
p1 − p2 Dp
= = hL = frictional head loss
P1 P2
Internal flow in ducts
Circular and non-circular ducts
Circular pipe Rectangular duct
• Circular pipe can withstand large pressure differences
between the inside and the outside without undergoing any
significant distortion
• Non-circular pipes cannot.
Average velocity
The value of the average velocity Vavg at some streamwise cross-section is
determined from the requirement that the conservation of mass principle be
satisfied
Laminar and turbulent flows
Reynolds number
• At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are proportional to the
fluid density and the square of the fluid velocity, are large relative to the
viscous forces.
• Thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of
the fluid.
• At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, however, the viscous forces are large
enough to suppress these fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in line.
• Thus the flow is turbulent in the first case and laminar in the second.
Laminar and turbulent flows
Reynolds number
Flow regime
Laminar, transition, and turbulent flows
Hydraulic diameter
Hydraulic diameter is the "characteristic length" used to calculate the
dimensionless Reynolds Number to determine if a flow is turbulent or
laminar
𝟒𝑨
𝑫𝑯 =
𝒑
A=Area
p=
Perimeter
Pressure drop and head loss in a fully
developed region
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow
is the pressure drop ΔP since it is directly related
to the power requirements of the fan or pump to
maintain flow.
We note that dP/dx = constant, and integrating
from x = x1
where the pressure is P1 to x =x1 + L where the
pressure is P2 gives
Pressure drop and head loss in a fully
developed region
where ρV2avg/2 is the dynamic pressure and f is the
Darcy friction factor,
named after the Frenchman Henry Darcy (1803–
1858) and the German Julius Weisbach (1806–
1871),
Fanning friction factor, named after the American engineer John Fanning (1837–1911)],
Pressure drop and head loss in a fully
developed region
The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be
raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe. The
head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear stress.
Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required pumping
power to overcome the pressure loss is determined from
This equation is known as Poiseuille’s law, and this flow is called Hagen–
Poiseuille flow in honor of the works of G. Hagen (1797–1884) and J. Poiseuille
(1799–1869) on the subject.
Energy Equation
The pressure drop P equals the pressure loss P in the case of a horizontal
L
pipe, but this is not the case for inclined pipes or pipes with variable cross-
sectional area. This can be demonstrated by writing the energy
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
The steady-flow energy equation
reduces to
Then the kinetic-energy correction factor "α 1 = α2, and since V1 = V2
