UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

[Link] SCIENCE
(I SEMESTER)

CORE COURSE : POL1C04

THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

(2019 ADMISSION)

190454

1
THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

STUDY MATERIAL

Semester I

CORE COURSE : POL1C04

[Link] SCIENCE
(2019 ADMISSION)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Calicut University- PO, Malappuram,
Kerala, India - 673 635

2
 UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL FIRST SEMESTER

[Link] SCIENCE
(2019 ADMISSION)

CORE COURSE : POL1C04

THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

Prepared by:
MODULES I , II & V : MR. RAMAKRISHNAN.T.K
Assistant Professor and HOD
PG and Research Department of Political Science, Sree Kerala Varma
College, Thrissur-680011.

MODULE III & IV : DR. RAIMOL RAVI.K,

Assistant Professor
PG and Research Department of Political Science, Sree Kerala Varma
College, Thrissur-680011.

3
Module Title Page No.
I Nature of Public Administration
a) Nature ,scope and importance
of Public Administration
b) Evolution of public Administration
c) Public Administration as an Art and as
a Science
d) New trends in Public Administration 5-35

II Approaches to public administration

a) Evolution of administrative theory
b) Traditional approaches: Philosophical ,
Historical, comparative
c) Modern approaches: Marxist, ecological
Behavioural,Developmental, Decision
making, Structural- functional
d) Contemporary approaches: Contingency
approach, rational choice approach,
Public choice approach 36-53
III Perspectives in Public Administration
a) Administration Reforms Movement (1870-1926)
b) Scientific Management
c) Human Relation Movement - Human
element in Public Administration
d) MinnowbrookI : New Public
Administration
e) MinnowbrookII : Variations in foundations
f) New Public Management 54-71
IV Bureaucratic Theory
a) Nature, Scope and Importance and
Classification of Bureaucracy
b) Features of Liberal Bureaucracy
c) Bureaucracy and Development
d) Models and Bureaucracy: Neutral, Committed
e) Merits and Demerits of Bureaucracy.
f) Challenges of Bureaucracy. 72-85

V Comparative Public Administration

a) Nature, Scope and Importance of
Comparative Public administration
b) Challenges to Comparative Public
Administration 86-95

4
 MODULE-1

NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Dear students, before discussing about the Public Adminis-

tration, first of all we want to understand the meaning of the term
'Administration'. The lives of the people are closely connected
with the administration of their government. It is a complex pro-
cess involves different things and a lot of activities. Human be-
ings are living in accordance with the policies and activities done
by the administrators. Administration, as an activity, is as old as
the society itself.
Administration is a part and parcel of our daily life. The
food we eat, the cloths we wear, the goods we buy, the streets
and highways on which we travel, the automobiles in which we
ride and the many services we enjoy-education, medical care,
housing and many others - are made possible by administration .
Thus administration is everywhere with us from 'womb to tomb'.
Meaning of Administration
The term 'Administration' has been derived from theLatin
word 'ad'and'ministare' which means 'to serve'. In simple words
it means 'care for' or to 'look after' people, to 'manage affairs'.
Administration may be defined as"group activity which involves
cooperation and coordination for the purpose of achieving
desired goals or objectives." Any cooperative human effort
towards achieving some common goals is also known as admin-
istration. Thus every group activity involves some kind of admin-
istration whether it is in a family, factory, hospital, company, uni-
versity or in agovernment department. Thus Administration per-
meates all organised human activities. Definitions of Administra-
tion Pfiffner and Presthus define administration as"organization
and direction of human and material resources to achieve de-
sired ends."
According to L D White , Administration is "the
direction,coordination and control of many persons to achieve
5
some purpose or objective. Herbert a Simon said "in its broad-
est sense, administration can be defined as the activities of
groups cooperating to accomplish common goals".
[Link] defined "Administration is a long and slightly
pompous word, but it has a humble meaning, for it means to care
for or look after people, to manage affairs……is determined
action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose".
According to Brooks Adams " Administration is the ca-
pacity of coordinating many, and often conflicting , social ener-
gies in a single organism, so adroitly that they shall operate as a
unity". Felix A Nigro defined "Administration is the organisation
and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose".
Luther Gulick pointed out that "Administration has to
do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of
defined objectives".
F.M Marx said Administration is determined action taken
in persuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of
affairs and the calculated use of resources, aiming at making
those things happen which one wants to happen and foretelling
everything to the country".
A brief analysis of the above definitions reveals that the
administration comprises two essentials, namely (1)cooperative
effort,and (2) pursuit of common objectives. Thus adminis-
tration is a common process ,common to all group effort; public
or private ,civil or military ,largescale or small-scale.
Broadlyspeaking, the term 'administration' appears to bear
at leastfour different meanings or different senses depending upon
the context in which it is used. They are:-
1. As a Discipline: The name of a branch of a learning or intel-
lectual discipline as taught and studied in colleges and uni-
versities.
2. As a Vocation: Type of work/trade or profession/
occupation,especially one that involves knowledge and
training in a branch of advance learning
3. As a Process: The sum total of activities undertaken to imple-
6
 ment public policy or policies to produce someservices or
goods.
4. As a Synonym for word Executive or Government: Such
other body of person in supreme charge of affairs; for
exampleNagendra Modi Administration, Donald Trump Ad-
ministration etc.
What is Public Administration?
Now let us discuss what Public administration is. Public
Administration is an activity as old as our ancient civilisation.
But as an independent discipline or a branch of study
public administration cannot claim for a long [Link] ad-
ministration gained immenseimportance since the emergence
of administrative state. The former American President and
the political scientist, Woodrow Wilson published an article in
political science journal in 1887titled as 'the study of administra-
tion' is considered as the first article mentioning of Public Ad-
ministration. Public Administration is government in action.
Definitions of Public Administration
According to Woodrow Wilson, the father of public ad-
ministration; "PubicAdministration is the detailed and systematic
application of [Link] particular application of law is an act of
administration."
Encyclopaedia Britannica defines public administration as
"the application of a policy of a state through its government".
Therefore, public administration refers to that part of adminis-
tration, which pertains to the administrative activities of the gov-
ernment.
L.D. White said "Public Administration consists of all those
operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or the enforce-
ment of public policy". It includes militaryas well as civil affairs,
much of the works of the court,and all the special fields of gov-
ernment activity-police, education, health,construction of public
works, conservation, social security and many others.
Luther Gulick defined, "Public Administration is that part of

7
the science of administration, which has to do with the govern-
ment and, thus, concerns itself primarily with the executive
branch, where the work of the government is done;though there
are obviouslyadministrative problems also in connectionwith the
legislative and judicial branches.
To Wright Waldo "Public Administration is the art and sci-
ence of management as applied to the affairs of State."
M.E. Dimock opined, "Public administration is concerned
with 'what' and 'how' of the [Link] 'what' is the subject
matter,the technical knowledge of a field,which enables the ad-
ministrator to perform his tasks. The 'how' is the technique
of management,the principles according to which co-operative
programmes are carried through to success. Each is indispens-
able; together they form the synthesis called administration".
According to J.M Priffiner,"Administration consists of get-
ting the work of government done by coordinating the efforts of
people so that they can work together to accomplish their set
tasks".
M. Ruthanaswami defined it as, "when administration has
to do with the affairs of a st ateor minor political institution like
the municipal or country council(district board), it is called pub-
lic administration. All the acts of the officials of the
government,from the person in a remote office to the head of a
state in the capital, constitute public administration".
Corson and Harries defined, "Public administration……is
the action part of the government, the means by which the pur-
poses and goals of the government are realised".
According to Nicholas Henry, "Public administration
is a broad-ranging and amorphous combination of theory
and practice; its purpose is to promote a superior under-
standing of government and its relationship with the society, it
governs, as well as to encourage public policies more respon-
sive to social needs and to institute managerial practices at-
tuned to effectiveness, efficiency and the deeper human requi-
sites of the citizenry".
8
 The traditional definitions of the public administration
reflect the view that the public administration is only involved
in carrying out the policies and programmes of government. It
reflect that it has no role in policy makingand also locates the
administration only in the executive branchbut today the term
public administrationis used in abroader sense that it is not only
involved incarrying out the programmes of the government, but
it also play an important role in policy formulation and covers
the three branches of the government. In this context, it may
reflect on the definition offered by F.A. Nigro and [Link].
According to Nigro and Nigro Public administration:
" -is co-operative group effort in public setting:
" -covers all the three branches-executive ,legislature and
judicial and their inter-relations
" -has an important role in the formulation of public policyand
thus is a part of the policy process;
" -is different in significant ways from private administration,
and
" -is closely associated with the numerous private groups
and individuals in providing service to the community.
NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
There are two views regarding the nature of Public Admin-
istration, that is
1. Integral view and 2. Managerial view
According to the integral view, 'administration' is the
sum total of all the activities- manual, clerical, managerial,
technical etc., which are undertaken to realize the objectives of
organization. In this view, all the acts of officials of the
government from the Attendant to Secretaries to the govern-
ment and Head of the State constitute Public Administration. Thus
the activities of the errand boy, the foreman, the gatekeeper
, the sweeper , as well as the IT professionals, the secretary
to the government and the managers in an enterprise constitute
administration. It count the work of all persons from the lowest

9
to the highest positions working in an organization as part of
administration.
Henry Fayol and L.D. White are the supporters of this
[Link] to [Link] Public Administration "consists
of all those operations having for their purpose he fulfilment
or the enforcement of public policy". Thisdefinition cover a mul-
titude of particular operations in many fields- the delivery of a
letter,, the sale of public land, the negotiation of a treaty, the
award of compensation to an injured workman, the quarantine
of a sick child, the removal of litter from apark,manufacturing
plutonium and licensing the use of atomic energy". Thus it is a
broader view of administration.
On the other hand the managerial view considers the ad-
ministration in a narrower sense. According to this view of ad-
ministration, the managerial activities of people who are involved
in planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and control-
ling constitute public administration. It considers only the work
of those personsengaged in performing managerial [Link]
view regards things are getting done and not doing
[Link] view excludes Public Administration from
non-managerial activities such as manual, clerical, and technical
activities.
Luther Gulick, Herbert Simon, Smithburg, and Thompson
are the supporters of this [Link] Gulick writes, "Adminis-
tration has do with getting things done , with the accomplish-
ment of defined objectives". Simon ,Smithburg and Thomson
observe ,"the term 'administration' is also used in a narrower
sense to refer to those patternsof behaviours that are common to
manykind of cooperating groups; and that do not depend upon
either the specific goals towards which they are cooperating or
the specific technological methods used to reach these goals".
The two views differ from each other in many ways. Ac-
cording to Professor M. P. Sharma the difference between the
two views is fundamental. Integral view includes the activities of
all the persons engaged in administration whereas the managerial

10
view restricts itself only to the activities of the few persons at the
top. The integral view depicts all type of activities from manual
to managerial, from non-technical to technical whereas the mana-
gerial view takes into account only the managerial activities in an
organization. Furthermore, administration according to integral
view would differ from one sphere to another depending upon
the subject matter, but whereas that will not be the case accord-
ing to the managerial point of view because the managerial view
is identified with the managerial techniques common to all the
fields of administration.
The difference between the two views relates to the differ-
ence between management and operation or we may say be-
tween getting things done and doing things. The correct meaning
of the term administration would however, depend upon the con-
text in which it is used.
Dimock, Dimock and Koening sum up in the following
words:
" As a study public Administration examines every aspect
of Government's effort to discharge the laws and to give effect to
the public policy; as a process, it is all the step taken between
the time and enforcement agency assumes jurisdiction and the
last break is placed (but includes also that agency's participa-
tion, if any, in the formulation of the programme in the first place);
and as a vocation, it is organizing and directing the activities of
others in a public agency."
SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
As we have seen earlier, Public administration has a border
view and a narrower view. In the modern developing age we
have to make public administration as a scientific, growing
discipline. For this our approach to the study of public adminis-
tration has to be broader, modern and [Link] the broader
terms mutual dependence and the intensive interaction between
the three branches of the government isessential for good ad-
ministration. Thus, the scope of public administration is wide

11
[Link] the scope of Public Administration, we mean the major
concerns of public administration as an activity and as a disci-
pline.
SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS AN AC-
TIVITY
Broadly speaking, Public Administration embraces all
the activities of the government. Hence, as an activity the scope
of public administration is no less than the scope of state activity.
In the modern welfare state people, expect many things- a wide
variety of services and protection from the government. In this
context, public administration provides a number of welfare
and social security services to the people. Besides, it has to man-
age government owned industries and regulate private industries.
Public administration covers every area and activity within the
ambit public policy. Thus the scope of public administration is
very wide in modern state.
SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCI-
PLINE
Writers have defined the scope of public administration in-
different terms. The scope of public administration as a disci-
pline, that is subject of studies, broadlycomprises of two views.
They are:
1. POSDCORB view
2. The Subject Matter view
POSDCORB view of Public Administration
This is a narrow view of public administrationand takes
into account only the executive branch of the government. In
other words this view corresponds with the managerial view.
Hendry fayol ,[Link], Fercey M. Queen qnd Luther Gulickare
the main supporters of this view.
According to Henri Fayol the main categories of adminis-
tration are:Planning, Organization, Command, Coordination and
control. L. Urwick fully support Fayol's view . F.M. Queen says
that the study of administration deals with 'Men, Materials and
Methods'.
12
 Luther Gulick's view on the scope of public administration
is very important because he has explained that in detail. He
sums up these techniques in the word POSCORB, each letter of
which describe one technique. These letters stands for:
P= Planning,
O= Organisation, S=Staffing, D=Directing,
CO= Co-ordination
R=Reporting
B= Budgeting.
Let us see the real meaning of these terms:-
Planning means the working out in broad outline the things
to be done, the methods to be adopted to accomplish the pur-
pose.
Organization means the establishment of the formal struc-
ture of authority through which the work is sub-divided, arranged,
defined, and coordinated.
Staffing means the recruitment and training of the personal
and their conditions of work. Directing means making decisions
and issuing orders and instructions Co-ordination means the in-
terrelating the work of various divisions, sections, and other parts
of the organizations.
Reporting means informing the superiors within the agency
to whom the executive is responsible about what is going on.
Budgeting means fiscal planning, controlling, and account-
ing.
According to Gulick the POSDCORB activities are com-
mon to all organizations. They are the common problems of the
management, which are found in different agencies regardless of
the nature of work they do.
POSDCORB gives unity, certainty, and definiteness and
makes the study more systematic. The critics pointed out that
the POSDCORB activities were neither the whole of adminis-
tration nor even the most important part of it. The POSDCORB
view overlooks the fact that different agencies are faced with

13
different administrative problems, which are peculiar to the na-
ture of the services, they render, and the functions they performed.
The POSDCORB view takes into consideration only the com-
mon techniques of the administration and ignores the study of the
'Subject Matter' with which the agency is concerned. A major
defect is that the POSDCORB view does not contain any refer-
ence to the formulation and implementation of the policy. There-
fore the scope of administration is defined very narrowly, being
too inward looking and to conscious of the top management.
The Subject Matter View of Public Administration
This function comprises line functions or services meant
for people. We all know that public administration deals not
only with the processes but also with the substantive matters of
administration ,such as Defence, Law and Order, Education
,Public Heath ,Agriculture, Public works,Social Security, Jus-
tice , Welfare, etc... These services require not only POSDCORB
techniques but also have important specialised techniques of
thereon which are not covered by
POSDCORB techniques. For example, if you take Police
Administration it has its own techniques in crime detection, main-
tenance of Law and Order, etc., which are much and more vital
to efficient police work ,than the formal principles of organisation,
personnel management, coordination or finance and it is the
same with other services too. Therefore the study of Public Ad-
ministration should deal with both the processes (that is
POSDCORB techniques and substantive concerns).so empha-
sis on the subject-matter cannot be neglected. We
conclude the scope of public administration with the state-
ment of Lewis Meriam: "Public administration is an instrument
with two blades like a pair of scissors. One blade may be
knowledge of the field covered by POSDCORB; the other
blade is knowledge of the subject matter in which these tech-
niques are applied. Both blades must be good to make an effec-
tive tool".
Thus the activities of the Public administration will be wide

14
in [Link]. White supports this view; "in their broader con-
text the ends of administration are the ultimate objects of the
state itself , the maintenance of peace and order, the progressive
achievement of justice, the instruction of the young, protection
againstdecease,and insecurity, the adjustment and compro-
mise of conflicting groups and interests in short , the attainment
of good life". Thus, it is obvious that though public administration
studies the administrative branch of the executive organ, yet its
scope is very wide and it varies with people's connection of good
life.
We may conclude the discussion with the observation of
Herbert Simon who says that Public administration has two
important aspects, namely deciding and doing things. The
first provides the basis for the second. One cannot conceive
of any discipline without thinking or deciding. Thus Public ad-
ministration is a broad- ranging and amorphous combination of
theory and practice.
IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The importance of the role of the public administration in
the modern society is very clear from the fact that it affects the
whole life of the [Link] importance and role has been steadily
increasing with the expansion of the state activity in the modern
states. Public administration is now on all-encompassing factor
of the daily life of the individual as well as the community, an
integral part of the society, which has seen the emergence of
what has aptly been called the
'Administrative State'.In the modern world one cannot think
of a state without administration. The importance of administra-
tion can be seen as stabilising force in society; instrument of
social change, essential for preserving civilization, essential for
social harmony; essential for successful planning; its importance
in a welfare state etc.
The importance of public administration can be studied in
two ways. One is its importance as a specialised subject of study
and another is its importance as an activity
15
a) IMPORTANCE AS A SUBJECT OF STUDY
The study of administration assumed significance, ac-
cording to Woodrow Wilson, as a consequence to the increas-
ing complexities of society, growing functions of state and growth
of governments on democratic lines. This exhaustive list of func-
tions made to think as to 'how' and in what 'directions' these
functions should be effectively performed. To this Wilson sug-
gested that there was a need to reform the government in the
administrative field. As per Wilson, the object of administrative
study is to discover what government can properly and success-
fully does and how it can do these things with utmost efficiency
and the least possible cost either of money or of energy.
Wilson observed," There should be a science of adminis-
tration which shall seeks to strengthen the paths of government
, to make its business less business like , to strengthen and
purify its organization and to crown its duties with dutifulness."
The importance of public administration as a specialized
subject can be attributed to the following reasons:
1. The first and foremost objective of public administra-
tion is to efficiently deliver public services. In this con-
text, Wilsonian definition of the subject as efficiency pro-
moting and pragmatic field was the first explicitly articu-
lated statement on the importance of a separate discipline
of public administration.
2. Administration is looked at, in the social science perspec-
tive, as a cooperative and social activity. Hence the con-
cern of academic inquiry would be to understand the im-
pact of government policies and operations on society.
What kind of society do the policies envisage? To
what extent administrative action is non - discriminatory?
How is public administration functioning and what are the
immediate and long term effects of governmental action on
the social structure, the economy and polity? etc.. Are ques-
tions requiring careful analysis? From the social science
perspective, public administration, as a discipline, has to
16
 draw on a variety of sister disciplines such as History, Soci-
ology, Economics, Geography, Philosophy, Psychology,
etc… with the objective to explain and not just to prescribe.
3. Public administration has a special status in the devel-
oping countries. Many of these countries, after indepen-
dence from the colonial rule have stressed upon speedy
socio economic development .Obviously, these countries
have to relay on government for speedy development. The
latter requires a public administration to be organized
and effectively operated for increasing productivity quickly.
Likewise, social welfare activities have to be effectively
executed. These aspects have given birth to the new
sub-disciplines of development administration. The emer-
gence of development administration is indicative of a felt
need for a body of knowledge about how to study the third
world administration and at the same time to bring about
speedy socio- economic development with government's
intervention. Development administration has therefore,
emerged as a sub-discipline to serve the cause of develop-
ment.
4. Public administration, as witnessed holds a place if signifi-
cance in the lives of people. It touches them every step.
For most of their needs, the citizens depend upon
public administration. In view of the important role of pub-
lic administration in the lives of people, the citizens of a coun-
try cannot ignore it. Therefore, its teaching should become
a part of the curriculum of educational institutions. People
must get to know about the structure of government, the
activities undertake and the manners in which these are ac-
tually performed.
The study of public administration will contribute to the
realization of the values of citizenship.
5. In a democracy the importance of public administration is
great. The ideals of democracy, progress, prosperity and
protection of the man can be obtained only through a

17
 impartial, honest and efficient administration. An adminis-
trator should be neutral in politics and serve faithfullyin any
political party which comes in to power. Modern democ-
racy has brought in the concept of a welfare state. It has
increase the scope of public administration immensely. White
said, "Administration is a moral act and administrator is a
moral agent".
6. Public administration hold a very importance place in the
lives of the people. In view of the important role of public
administration in the life of the people, its study cannot be
ignored by the people of a country. Therefore its teaching
should be a part of the curriculum of educational institu-
tions.
b) IMPORTANCE AS AN ACTIVITY
The contemporary age, which has witnessed the emer-
gence of 'Administrative State', public administration has be-
come an essential part of society and a dominant factor. The
functions it is called upon to perform, have expanded in scope
and nature, and what is more, are continually increasing. Many
of them are more positive in nature because they care for
the essential requirements of human life, be it health, education,
recreation, sanitation, social security or others. It is, therefore, a
creative factor, with its motto being 'public welfare'. These func-
tions are over and above its regulatory functions. The view-
points of eminent scholars, as referred to below, amply reflect
the significance of public administration.
Leonard White: In their broader context, the ends of ad-
ministration are the ultimate objective of the state itself-
themaintenance of peace and order, the progressive achieve-
ment of justice, the instruction of the young, protection against
desease and insecurity , the adjustment and compromise of
conflicting groups and interests-in short,the attainment of the good
life."
Woodrow Wilson: "Administration is the most obvious part
of government; it is government in action, it is the executive, the
18
operative and the most visible side of the government".
Brooke Adams: "Administration is an important human fac-
ulty because its chief function is to facilitate social change and to
cushion the stock of social revolution".
W. B. Donham, "If our civilization fails, it will be
mainly because of breakdown of administration".
Paul H. Appleby: "Administration is the basis of govern-
ment. No government can exist without administration. Without
administration government would be a discussion club, if indeed,
it could exist at all".
The role of public administration in various facets is noted
below:-
" Basis of the government: a government can exist without a
legislature or an independent judiciary. But no government
can exist without administration.
" An instrument for providing services: public administration
is mainly concerned with the performance of various activi-
ties performed by government in the public interest. Felix
A.
Nigro aptly remarks, "The real core of administration
is the basic service which is performed for the public".
" An instrument for implementing policies: modern gov-
ernments go a long way in formulating and adopting
sound policies laws and regulations. It should not be for-
gotten that such policies, laws, etc... Are not merely printed
papers. Such paper declarations of intent are translated in
to reality by public administration thus converting words in
to action and form into substance.
" A stabilizing force in society: public administration is a ma-
jor force for bringing stability in society. It has been ob-
served that though government often changes, but violent
change is seldom experienced by administration. An ele-
ment of continuity between the old and the new orders is
provided by public administration. It does not hold true only

19
 of constitutional changes of government in democratic coun-
tries, but is also reflected when there are revolutionary
changes in the form and character of government.
" An instrument of social change and economic development:
public administrations role as a change agent is particularly
crucial in developing nations. It is expected of the states at
present to work for accelerating socio-economic change
and not to be a passive agency to maintain the status quo.
" Technical character: the present day government is expected
to provide various services to its population. The increases
in the number of functions undertaken by the government
require highly specialized, profession\al and technical ser-
vices. Modern public administration usually represents a
galaxy of all of a nations occupations
According Gerald Caiden public administration has as-
sumed the following crucial roles in contemporary modern
society:
" Preservation of polity
" Maintenance of stability and order
" Institutionalization of socio-economic changes
" Management of large scale commercial services
" Ensuring growth and economic development
" Protection of the weaker sections of society
" Formation of public opinion and
" Influencing of public policies
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PRIVATE ADMIN-
ISTRATION
Public and private administration is often compared and
contrasted .There is much in common between public and
private administration and the difference between the two is only
of degree, not of kind. It may be asserted that there is greater
difference between small and large organizations than there is
between public and private administrations.
First of all let us see the similarity between public and pri-

20
vate administration. Both public and private administrations mani-
fest common features at several points. Many of the managerial
and administrative tactics are common to both. The activities
like account keeping, filing etc. are in same uniformity. Both
mutually taking some practices in administration. The emer-
gence of public corporation - a halfway house between its com-
mercial prototype and the traditional governmental department-
is a pointer to this trend. Thus, there is a good deal of
similarity between public and private administration.
Despite these similarities, both function in different environ-
ment and performing different functions. The environment in which
public administration functions fosters protective attitude of mind
in the officials, and produces certain structural and procedural
characteristics with a view to securing public accountability, im-
partiality and standardisation. In the words of Paul [Link],
"Government administration differ from all other administrative
works to a degree not even faintly realised outside, by virtue of
its public nature , the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny
and outcry. An administrator coming into government is struck at
once, and continually thereafter, by the press and public interests
in every detail of his life, personality and conduct. The detail
often runs to details of administrative action that in private busi-
ness would never be of concern other than inside the
organization".According to him three aspects differentiate gov-
ernment f rom private administration; they are [Link] of
scope, impact and consideration, 2. Public accountability,
3. Political character.
Followings are the main differences between public and
private administration
1. Public administration serves the public and its aim is the
general welfare and the public satisfaction. In contrast to
this private or businessadministration, always orient to
make more profit out of it.
2. Public Administration has to operate strictly according to
law, rules and regulations. On the contrary private adminis-
21
 tration is free from such constrains of law and regulations.
There are of course general laws regulatingbusiness
but individual business firms have considerable flexibil-
ity to adapt their operations to changing situations.
3. The actions of the public administration are much more en-
closed to the public gaze. An achievement rarely gets pub-
licity, but a little fault hits the newspaper headline. This wide
publicity is not to be found in private administration, nor it is
so very closely watched by the public and media.
4. Public administration keeping impartiality in its dealings with
the public. It observes the principle of consistency of
[Link] in private administration discrimination
are freely practiced due to competitive demands.
5. Public administration is much complex. There are many pulls
and political pressures. Many minds have to meet and
discuss before decisions are taken. By contrast
private administration is more well-knit and single minded
in operation
6. In the organizational level also public administration is more
complex compared to private organization.
7. Public Administration has many responsibilities in terms of
nation building and shaping the future of the society. It is
therefore much more value oriented.
8. There is inevitably more of redtape(thus delay) in public
administration than private administration
9. Activities of public administration are mandated by
constitutional,statutory or executive authority. Private ad-
ministration enjoys a much larger measure of freedom of
action and behaviour
10. Public administration is slow to adapt itself to quick changes
in the environment because of the operation of checks
and balances within itself as well as the complexity of
environmental factors. Private administration is quicker to
change.
11. Public administration is subject to external financial control.
22
EVOLUTION & DEVELOPMENTOF PUBLIC ADMIN-
ISTRATION
The term' public Administration' stands for two implications.
Firstly it refers to the activity of administrating the affairs of the
[Link] enforcement of law and order. Secondly, it
refers to a branch of study like political science, sociology etc.
Public administration as a discipline is not a very old one. In fact
it was originated in 1887, when the former American president
Woodrow Wilson wrote an article entitled 'the study of
Administration' in 'political science quarterly' however public
administration as a practice , is as old as our civilization.
Evolution refers to a gradual unfolding of development of
things in the course of time. When the past, present and future
are considered in terms of a continuum, the study of the past or
of history becomes all the more significant. The past not only
foreshadows the present but also serves as its matrixes.
Public Administration as a separate subject of study origi-
nated and developed in the USA. The scientific management
movement advocated by F.W.. Taylor, in the 19th century, in-
dustrialization which gave rise to large scale organizations, the
emergence of the concept of welfare state and the movement
for government reform due to negative consequence of spoils-
systemare allhave contributed to the growth of Public Adminis-
tration.
Yet Public Administration has passed through several phase
of development. One can broadly divide the Public Administra-
tion into the following six periods.
1. First Stage :Public Administration Dichotomy 1887-1926
2. Second Stage :Principles of Administration 1927-1937
3. Third Stage :Era of Challenge 1938-1948
4. Fourth Stage :Crisis of Identity 1948-1970.
5. Fifth Stage :Public Policy Perspective 1971- 1991.
6. Sixth Stage :Rowing to Steering 1991- continuing.

23
Period I: 1887-1926
Public Administration as a discipline was born in the United
States, and that country continues to enrich it even today.
Woodrow Wilson, who was teaching Political Science at the
Princeton University, and who later became the president of
U.S.A., is regarded as the father of the discipline of Public Ad-
ministration. In an article entitled, The Study of Administration,
published in 1887, Wilson emphasized the need for a separate
study of Public Administration. He made a distinction between
politics and administration, and argued : "it is getting to be harder
to run a constitution than to frame one". Wilson's name is associ-
ated with two notable features. No notable event took place
until 1900 when Frank J. Goodnow published his Politics and
Administration. in it Goodnow developed the Wilosnian theme
further and with greater courage and conviction. He argued that
Politics and Administration were two distinct functions of a gov-
ernment. According to him, politics "has to do with policies or
expression of the state will, while administration has to do with
the execution of these policies". In short, Goodnow posited the
politics-administration dichotomy.
In the early part of the twentieth century many American
university begun to take active interest in the reform movement
in government, and thus scholars got attracted to the field of
public-administration. In 1914, the American political sci-
ence association published a report, which delineated the ob-
jectives of the teaching political science. One of the objectives
proclaimed was to "prepares specialist for governmental posi-
tions". Thus, public-administration was recognized as an im-
portant sub-area of political science and its study was increased
in the universities of America.
In 1926 appeared the first textbook on the subject. This
was leonard D. White's introduction to the study of public-
administration. This book faithfully reflects the dominant theme
of the contemporary period: it premises are that politics and ad-
ministration are to be kept separate; and efficiency and economy
are the watchwords of public-administration.
24
Period II: 1927-1937
The second period in the history of Public Administration
has as its central theme the Principles of Administration. The
central belief of this period was that there are certain 'principle'
of administration, and it is the task of the scholars to
discover them and to promote their application.
This period opened with the publication of W.F.
Willoughby's Principles of Public Administration (1927). The title
of the book is very suggestive, and indicates, very correctively,
the new thrust of the discipline. This period saw the publication
of a number of works, the more important among them being
Mary Parker Follet's Creative Experience, Henry Fayol's In-
dustrial and General Management, Mooney and Reiley's Prin-
ciples of Organisation. This period reached its climax in 1937
when Luther H. Gulick andLyndalUrwick's Papers on the Sci-
ence of Administration appeared. The use of the word 'science'
is significant, for Gulick and Urwick implied that Administration
was science. Gullick and Urwick coined that acronym
POSDCORB- to promote seven principles of administration.
In short, the years 1927-1937 were the golden years of
principles in the history of public administration. This was also a
period when public administration commanded a high degree of
respectability and it products were in great demand both in gov-
ernment and business.
Period III: 1938-1947
The advocates of the principles of administration began soon
to be challenged, and the period from 1938 to 1947 was, in-
deed, one of continuous and mounding challenge and question-
ing. In 1938, Chester I. Barnard's The Function of the Executive
was published. The book discusses the broader issues of ad-
ministration such as formal and informal functions, functional
overlay, organizational environment, equilibrium among organi-
zational units and inducement contributions. Chester Barnard does
not in the least uphold the stand taken by the writers of the sec-
ond period like Willoughby, Gullick, Urwicketc….Herbert A
25
Simon wrote an article entitled, 'The Proverbs of Administra-
tion' in 1946, and its argument was further developed in his
Administrative Behaviour which was published in 1947 and on
which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year
1978. The principal thesis of Simon is that there is no such
thing as principles of administration; what are paraded as 'prin-
ciples' are in truth no better than proverbs. Herbert Simon de-
veloped a rationalistic theory of administration along with
'bounded rationality'. The claim the \at public administration is a
science was challenged by Robert Dahl in 1947, and he argued
that the quest for principles of administration was obstructed
by three factors. This were values permeating administration
while science is value-free. Besides, human personalities and differ
and so do the social frameworks within which organizations have
inevitably to operate. As a result of criticisms, Public Adminis-
tration found itself in a deflated position, and the morale of the
discipline was low. It was on this note that Public Administration
entered the fourth phase in its history.
Period IV: 1948-1970
This period has been one of crisis for public administration.
The brave new world promised by the thinkers of the 'principles
era stood shattered and the future of the discipline appeared to
be a little uncertain. Public Administration was facing a
crisis of identity. Many public administrations responded to
this crisis of identity by returning to the fold of the mother sci-
ence, namely political science. But they discovered that they were
not very much welcome to the home of their youth. Many politi-
cal scientists began to argue that the true objective of teaching in
the field was intellectualized understanding of the executive, thus,
reversing the objective laid down in
1914, namely, and preparing specialist for governmental
positions. There was also a talk of continued dominion of
political science over public administration. The process of de-
emphasis of public administration in the larger discipline of politi-
cal science got, if anything, accelerated in the

26
 1960s. In short, this period witnessed the spectacle of po-
litical science, not only not letting public administration separate
itself from it, but also not fostering and encouraging its growth
and development within its own field.
Public administration, naturally, was in search of an alter-
native and the alternative was available in the form of adminis-
trative science. Here too, public administration had to lose its
distinctiveness and separate identity and merge with a larger field.
Period V 1971-1991
Despite the uncertainty and turmoil of the preceding pe-
riod, public administration during period 1971-91 registered
progress and entered the seventies with an enriched vision. Pub-
lic administration attracted within its fold scholars from various
disciplines and thus was becoming truly interdisciplinary in its
nature. Indeed, of all the social sciences, it is public ad which is
most inter disciplinary, it is also drawing heavily on the manage-
ment science. Public administration has come closer to policy
science and related areas and has been showing ample concern
for issues in the field.
Phase VI: 1991-continuing
The seeds of the period, which began in the year 1991,
were sown in the proceeding one. The public bureaucracy was
viewed as the society's favorite solution to the problems con-
fronting. The solution failed to feeling disillusioned with bu-
reaucracy leading at to search for its alternatives. The alter-
natives discovered are the market and the non-government
organizations. New public management and the civil society are
the emerging new paradigms.
As an academic field, public administration evolution may
thus be viewed as a succession of five over-lapping paradigms.
Nicholas Hentry includes the politics administration dichotomy
(1900-1926), the principles of administration (1927-1937),
public administration as a part of political science (1950-
1970), public administration as administrative science (1956-

27
1970). Public administration as public administration (1970-1991)
and public administration as new public administration.
Many other branches also emerged like development ad-
ministration, comparative public administration, international
administration etc. The emerging focus of public administration
is organization theory and management science, its focus is the
public interest and public affairs. . USA continues to be the
single most important source of literature in thefield of
public administration.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: ART OR SCIENCE
Public Administration has two dimensions - as a practice
and as a study. As a practice it stands for a process or activity
administering governmental affairs. As a study it stands for an
area of intellectual enquiry. As a practice, public administra-
tion is an art, but as a study of governmental affairs, it is
surely a science. It is clear that social sciences which study the
complex human behaviour are not exact sciences like physical
sciences. But social sciences are trying to become more and
more scientific by using scientific methods of study.
Woodraw Wilson, the pioneer of Public administration, as
a subject of study called it as the 'Science of Public Administra-
tion as early as 1887. He laid emphasis on the study of Public
Administration "to rescue executive methods from the confusion
and costliness of empirical experiment and set them on the
foundations laid deep in principle". W.F. Willoughby,
LutherGullick and L. Urwicketc are contributors who laid
emphasis on the Science of Administration. Willoughby
asserted that " inadministration there are certain fundamental
principles of general application analogous to those characterising
any science." In 1939, Charles Austin Beard spoke of "Philoso-
phy, Science and Art of Public administration".
The question raised is whether Public Administration is a
true science? The most important features of science are ab-
sence of normative (or ethical) value, predictability of behaviour
and finally universal application. All these three factors are not
28
fully present in public administration. Values cannot be fully elimi-
nated from public administration. Public Administration is ulti-
mately a politics and normative values cannot be completely sac-
rificed. On the other hand science is value- free or has no ethical
content.
Yet another issue is that public administration, like any other
social science, studies human behaviour. As Robert Dahl re-
marked, the concern with human behaviour limits the immedi-
ate potentialities of a science of Public administration. To Dahl,
no science of Public administration is possible unless: (1) the
place of normative values is made clear, (2) the nature of man is
the area of public administration is better understood and his
conduct is more predictable and (3) there is a body of compara-
tive studies from which it may be possible to discover principles
and generalities that transcend national boundaries and peculiar
historical experiences".
Moreover, public administration has had its growth in the
cultural framework of the West. As such its findings and prin-
ciples may not be valid in other parts of the world, where differ-
ent cultures prevail. Public administration is culture bound. In
short, public administration can be entitled to be called a sci-
ence only after its principles are directly derived from studies
and investigations made in the different societies of the world-in
Asian, Latin, American and African countries.
Public Administration is not an exact science like Physics.
But part of which has already become mechanized can be clas-
sified as science. The impact of computer and the statistical and
Mathematical techniques like operations research, linear pro-
gramming etc is gradually making increasing part of public ad-
ministration scientific.
To conclude the different arguments, Public Administration
cannot be called a science until the following three conditions
are fulfilled. 1. The place of normative value should be clearly
identified and made clear. [Link] understanding should be
gained of human nature in the field of public administration . [Link]

29
should be developed a body of cross-cultural studies from which
should be derived the principles of administration not suffering
from 'culture bound'.
NEW TRENDS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
As an academic discipline, Public administration is grow-
ing and developing gradually. Always it has tried to respond to
the constantly emerging social needs. Some of the significant
contemporary development in this discipline is the New Public
Administration, New Public Management, theory and practice
of management, feminist and environmental perspectives on
public policy and administration, and corporate governance.
Public Administration also developed and created new
branches of study like development administration, comparative
administration and international administration etc.
A) New Public Administration
New Public Administration (NPA) can be defined as a
new and qualitatively different phase in the growth of public
administration, infused with political values like equity, social
justice, change and commitment. This new phase is often equated
with the 'crisis of identity' of public administration as a
separatediscipline. NPA can be regarded as the first serious at-
tempt on the part of the practitioners of public administration to
give it a stable identity by re-emphasizing its core commitments
towards the society.
The origin of NPA can be traced back to a path-breaking
conference in 1968 at the Minnobrook conference I held at
Syracuse University. It was attended by a host of young
intellectuals drawn from different branches of social sciences.
This conference was truly a wake- up call for all theorists and
practitioners, to make the discipline socially relevant and account-
able. It was held in the backdrop of a turbulent time which was
marked by a series of social upheavals in the form of ethnic clashes,
campus clashes, Vietnam war and its repercussions in American
society and the like. The New Public Administration was the
result of the above developments and a deep sense of dissatis-
30
faction with the existing state of affairs. This new "counter-cul-
ture", as Mohit Bhattacharya puts, has called for the 'primacy'
of 'politics' in administration.
The Minobrook conference site at Syrauseuniversity has
a unique distinction of hosting three consecutive conferences
pertaining to the development of public administration. In an ex-
act interval of twenty years (1968, 1988 and 2008) the
centre has organized three conferences respectively known as
Minnobrook conference I, II and III. The first conference was
famous for bringing about a new era in public administration in-
formed with relevance, equity, change and social justice. Public
interest formed the core of the deliberations. Social equity has
been added to efficiency and economy as the rationale or justifi-
cation for policy positions. Ethics, honesty and responsibility in
governance have returned again to public administration. Change,
not growth has come to be understood as the more article theo-
retical issue. Effective public administration has come to be de-
fined in the context of an active and participative citizenry.
In addition to advancing these themes, the participants
were influential in the primary professional association, the
American Society for Public Administration (ASPA). It has now
open elections, sections for minorities and women, and a
record of women and minorities in the leadership positions. It
has developed a code of ethics and takes position on the signifi-
cant public policy issues of the day.
NPA is not free from criticisms. It is often held responsible
for the propagation of an illusion of "paradigm shift or paradigm
revolution within the field". The argument goes that NPA instead
of contributing to a paradigm shift, has fostered intellectual
confusion, methodological issues and institutionalization of un-
disciplined mediocrity in the field with a definite political
intention of re-enforcingstatuesque. However, NPA is a kind of
soul-searching exercise, which sought to bring back relevance
in public administration by integrating theory and practice in a
coherent whole.

31
Goals of New Public Administration
The scholars have pointed out the five goals for the
NEW Public administration. They are relevance, values, so-
cial equity,change and client orientation.
1. Relevance:Traditionally efficiency and economy have been
the key concern s of public administration. theMinnobrook
conference felt , the discipline need to be relevant to
the contemporary issues and problems . The scholars de-
sired radical changes in the curriculum of the discipline to
make it more relevant to the realities of public life
2. Values: The conference made a plea for a greater concern
with values, issues of justice , equity and human [Link]
was held that the commitment to values would enable
the discipline to promote the cause of the disadvantaged
sections in society.
3. Social Equity: The then prevailing social unrest in the soci-
ety ,strengthen the belief that socialequity needs to the
primary aspect of administration. The conference made
a plea for distributive justice and equity to be the basic
concerns of public administration
4. Change: The conference attempted to make this disci-
pline more relevant through change. Administrator was
considered an agent og change
5. Clint Orientation: It was the first Minnobrook confer-
ence that have taken the lead in identifying client or
people orientation a key goal of public administration.
Dwight Waldo identified three features of new public ad-
ministration namely;
1. Client -oriented bureaucracy
2. Representative bureaucracy
3. People's participation in administration
B) New Public Management
The impact of Globalization on publicadministrationhas
been significant, emphasising change, reinventing public ad-

32
ministration with a managing orientation. From the early 1980's
serious have been posed to administration to reduce reliance on
[Link] New Public Management has become a
prescription for the ailing public sector across the [Link] ori-
gin of NPM can be traces back to administrative reform mea-
sures in the west, to be more specific I the organization for eco-
nomic cooperation and development group of countries from
late 1970's. Cristopher Hood has shown the emergence of NPM
was coincided with four administrative mega trends. They are:
1. Attempts to slowdown or reverse government growth in
terms of overt public spending and staffing;
2. the shift towards privatization and quasi-privatization and
away from core government institutions with renewed em-
phasis on subsidy in service provision;
3. the development of automation ,particularly in IT and in the
production and distribution f public services; and
4. the development of amore international agenda , increas-
ingly focused on general issues of public management ,policy
design,decision styles, and intergovernmental coopera-
tion, on top of the older tradition of individual country
specialism's in public administration
The core characteristics of NPM perspectives include:
1. Productivity: gaining more services from lesserrevenues
2. Marketization: replacing traditional bureaucratic structures,
mechanisms and processes with market strategies
3. Service orientation; keeping the needs of customers as a
Priority
4. Decentralisation: transferringservice delivery responsibilities
to lower levels
5. Policy-administration dichotomy: making a distinction be-
tween policy and execution.
C) Theory and practice of governance
In the contemporarily social science discourses, the word
governance got more [Link] does not simply

33
mean 'rule' or 'administration; it has a specific meaning in the
context of globalization. Broadly speaking governance is the
manner in which power is exercised. Governance generally
means 'the act or process of governing ,specially authoritative
direction and control'.To be more precise ,governance can be
further defined as 'the political directionand control exercised
over the actions of the members, citizens or inhabitancy of
communities, societies and states".
The World Bank defined good governance as follows:-
Good governance is epitomized by predictable, open
and enlightened policy-making a bureaucracy imbued with a
professional ethos acting in furtherance of the public good, the
rule of law ,transparent processes and a strong civil society par-
ticipating in public affairs.
Here we can see there are four key elements. a) public
sector management, b) accountability c) legal framework for
development d) information and transparency.
D) Digital/E Governance
In theera of globalisation, the concepts of 'e-governance'
or 'digital governance 'is very [Link] derived from the
Information and Communication Technology. The aim of e-
governance is to open up government process and enable
greater public access to information. Both digital and e-gover-
nance are of recent origin and there is hardly any universally ac-
ceptable definition. Digital/e-governance refers to the use of the
emerging ICT like the internet, webpage andmobile phones to
deliver information and services to [Link] can include
publication of information's about government services on
websites and citizens can download the application forms for
these services. It can also deliver services such as filling of a tax
form, renewal of licence and processing on-line payments as well.
According to Jagdish C Kapoor,the purpose of digital govern-
ment is to create 'super counters in (government depart-
ments) and climate the endless maze citizens have to nego-
tiation going from door to door, floor to floor, to obtain
34
service'. Appropriate use of various technics of ICT will
usher in a new era in public administration by seeking to
make the governmental functioning and processes more trans-
parent and accessible.
Conclusion:
In this module ,we have discussed the meaning , scope,
nature, importance; the differents between public and private
administration,evolution and the new trends in the public
administration etc. . An analysis of the study shows that the
public administration is inevitatble because, contemporary civi-
lization cannot progress without a sound administrative system.
The importance of the public administration as adiscipline
has been closely associate with the increasing activity role of
government everywhere. Public administration is a branch of
study which has been developing in different level to meet the
administrative problems of the society. It adopts new concepts
from the management system and also became a growing
field of knowledge and practice , to meet the emerging
challenges which occurring in the field of government.

Assignment:-
1. Explain the meaning, nature and importance of public ad-
ministration.
2. Describe the various states of development of public ad-
ministration.
3. Bring out the new trends developed in the area of public
administration.

35
 MODULE II

APPROACHES TO PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

Evolution of administrative theory

Public administration is an integral part of the society. Its

importance is pivotalin both developed and developing coun-
tries . Public administration as a specialised academic field deals
essentially with the machinery and procedure of government
as these are usedin the effective performance of government
activities. In simple public administration is a combination of theory
and Practice.
Theory is a body of principles dealing systematically with a
subject . Theory is a concise presentation of facts and a logical
set up of assumptions from which empirical laws or principles
can be derives, Its task is to tie significant knowledge together to
give a [Link] of a theory should be in conso-
nance with adoption of scientific approach to analyse and un-
derstand a particular phenomenon.
Public Administration is the action part of government for
the fulfilment of the objectives of the political system. The ma-
chineries' of government and their functioning have attracted the
attention of scholarssince the time of recorded history.
Koudilya'sArtasastra, Aristotles politics, and the Machiavelli's
prince are importance contributions to both political and
administrative issues and [Link] theory will help
the administrator to conceive proper reasoning and sound argu-
ments .Administrative theory educates the administrators scien-
tifically, as theory is the conceptualisation of experience.
Administrative theory is a highly contested terrain of public
administration. Theory is a body odgeneralization, which at-
tempts to make sense of the world. Broadly speaking, validity of

36
any theoretical construct depends on its ability to describe,
explain and predict. According to Stephen Bailey's , "the ob-
jectives of public administration theory are to draw together the
insights of the humanities and validated propositions of the social
and behavioural sciences and apply to these insights and propo-
sitions to the task of improving the process of government
aimed at achieving politically legitimized goals by constitution-
ally mandated means".
Administrative theories have been developed in United
states of America. In 1914 the American political science as-
sociation published a report which delineated the objectives of
the teaching of political science . One of the objectives stated
was to "preparespecialists for governmental positions". Thus
public administration was recognised as a subarea of politi-
cal science. American universities gave more importance and
recognition to this [Link] the development of the subject
we indebted to the USA.
A) Traditional approaches
Public Administration is a generalized human activity con-
cerned with the ordering of men and materials required to achieve
collective social ends. Since its birth, the study of Public Admin-
istration has been growing in different directions and today it
involves complex concerns and functions. There have been nu-
merous attempts by different scholars to explain the different
aspects of public administration. The result is that public ad-
ministration consists of relatively distinct approaches that grow
out of the different perspectives that shape its structures and
functions. Each approach gives a particular point of view of ad-
ministrative activity. In a broad sense, one can divide the ap-
proaches into normative approach and empirical approach.
The normative approach concentrates on what public adminis-
tration should be, while the empirical approach analyses the
actual administrative situations. The traditional approaches in-
clude philosophical approach, historical approach, institutional
approach, legal approach and comparative approach.

37
1. Philosophical approach
Like all other social sciences, philosophical approach is
perhaps the oldest approach in the study of public
[Link] of [Link]'s republic
Hobbesleviathan, Locke's treaties on government are ex-
amples of the approach This approach takes within its
perview all aspects of administrative activities. Further it
enunciates the principles or ideals underlying those activities.
Essentially its range is very comprehensive.
2. Historical approach
The historical approach seeks to recreate achapter of
history as it attempt to study the public administration of the
past within particular timespan and interpret the organization
and information in chronological order. A society having arich
past caters to this approach as the uniqueness of its administra-
tive system is thus identified .in fact quite a sizable number of
administrative institutions can be comprehended in the light of
their past by adopting this approach
3. Comparative Approach
Woodrow Wilson has examined the methods best suited
for the study of administration. Herejected the philosophical
method and emphasized the historical and comparative
[Link] to him, nowhere else in the whole field of
politics, one can use these methods moresafely than in the prov-
ince of administration. Without comparative studies in govern-
ment, wecannot rid ourselves of the misconception that admin-
istration stands upon different bases in democratic and other
states. A comparative approach to public administration struc-
tures of differentiations with different cultural settings. The Com-
parative Administrative Group (CAG) has definedit as the public
administration applied to diverse cultures and national setting and
the body offactual data by which it can be examined and tested.
The purpose of such comparisons is to find outthe universal el-
ements in public administration and build a theory of public
administration. Asmentioned earlier, Woodrow Wilson was the
38
first who stressed the need for a comparative study ofpublic ad-
ministration. In 1947, Robert Dahl, in his essay, "The Science, of
Public Administration,"Three Problems" also emphasized the utility
of comparative public administration to develop ascience of public
administration. However, the comparative approach to public
administration became popular only after the II World War with
the emergence of new nations in Asia, Africa andLatin America.
These nations were facing the challenges of modernization and
technologicaldevelopment. It was hoped that a science of com-
parative public administration would provideinsights into such
problems and yield some useful hypotheses about adminis-
trative behaviour ingeneral. Two important figures in this field are
Ferrell Heady and Fred Riggs. The comparativeapproach to
public administration is not only useful to strengthen the theory
building process inpublic administration but also helps us to know
whether the administrative practices in a particular nation are
applicable to other nations or not. On the basis of this, the appli-
cability of theadministrative models can be judged and practiced
in other political systems
B) Modern Approaches
1. Marxist Approach
Karl Marx, the father of scientific socialism, never attempted
a full length discourse on public administration or bureaucracy.
His interests were largely peripheral in the sense that he dealt
with public administration only as complementary to capitalism.
Yet, as a keen observer of the European Public administrative
systems of his times, Marx could not ignore the significance of
bureaucracy in the society.
Unlike Weber, Marx did not write extensively on bureau-
cracy. But he made more than passing reference to bureau-
cracy in his critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right". In it he
had clearly expressed his views on the structure and behaviour
of bureaucracy and its relationship with State and Society. Marx's
usage of bureaucracy refers both to the system of administration
and to the men who implemented that system. He examined it as

39
a set of relationships that arise in a specific socio-economic
context. Therefore Marx's interpretation of bureaucracy
must be understood within the conflict, the crisis of capitalism
and the advent of communism.
Marx had no intention to present a systematic exposition
on bureaucracy. His theory of bureaucracy should be read in his
overall schematic framework of social change. He had identified
bureaucracy as an appendage of the ruling class, which had
worked in tandem with the state to perpetuate the existing rule.
Citing the example of French bureaucracy during the revolution
of 1789, he had shown how bureaucracy had facilitated the
ruling bourgeois class. In his view, bureaucracy is often acted
as a buffer which absorbs shocks that might hit the state. There-
fore, as a true, scientist of social change he had identified the
crucial importance of bureaucracy in sustaining the statuesque
and prescribed the simultaneous abolition of bureaucracy and
the state.
Even though Marx dealt with public administration only as
complementary to capitalism, his ideas are profound in two re-
spects (1) while elaborating his argument concerning the rise and
decline of capitalism, he was more and more engaged in the
real momentum of developed capitalism, as evidenced in the
struggle between those upholding capitalism and those who are
opposed to it. In this process, bureaucracy had no choice but to
act formally as an appendage to the system of production con-
tributing to the division of classes and (2) by identifying the insti-
tutional roots of bureaucracy. Marx provided a contextual ex-
planation of public administration contrary to the Weberian uni-
versal model of administration. Bureaucracy is 'rational' provided
it is conceptualized within a socio-economic format. Therefore,
there cannot be a meaningful universal design. This is where Marx
stands out as a creative theoretician of public administration, which
is not merely a structure, but is ideological in the sense of its
behaviour, specific to the socio- economic and political milieu
within which it is located.

40
2. Ecological Approach
Administration and its environment influence each
other and the understanding of thedynamics of this process is
necessary to understand administration. This approach is known
as ecological approach. The word 'ecology' is borrowed from
biology where it suggested theinterdependence between an ani-
mal species and its natural environment.
The Ecological approach to the study of public administra-
tion was initiated (in the order) by J.M. Gans (1947), Robert. A.
Dahl (1969), Roscoe Martin (1952) and FW. Riggs (1961).
Fred W . Riggs is currently the fore most exponent of the eco-
logical approach in public administration.
In 1961, F.W. Riggs in his book, "The Ecology of Public
Administration" explored from a comparative perspective the
interaction between public administration and the environ-
ment in which it develops. In analysing the administrative system
from the ecological point of view, Riggs mainly used the struc-
tural-functional approach. Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton,
Marion Levy, Gabriel Almond and David Apter are the other
thinkers who adopted this approach in their works.
The ecological approach views public bureaucracy as a
social institution which is continuously interacting with the eco-
nomic, political and socio-cultural sub systems of a society. Bu-
reaucracy is not only affected by these environmental systems
but also affects them in turn. Thus, this approach emphasizes the
necessary interdependence of public bureaucracy and its envi-
ronment. In the opinion of Riggs, administrative institutions are
shaped and affected by their social, economic, cultural and po-
litical environment. Therefore, he emphasizes that in order to
understand better the real nature, operations and behaviour of a
particular administrative system, one should identify and under-
stand deeply in various environmental factors influencing it. The
ecological approach determines how an administrative sys-
tem operates in practice. Thus it is useful to understand admin-
istrative realities.

41
3. Behavioural Approach
The growing dissatisfaction against the institutional struc-
tural approach crystallized into what has come to be called the
behavioural approach to the study of Public administration. This
approach, which dates back to the forties, focuses on the actual
behaviour of persons and groups in real organisations. This
approach argues that one cannot understand the actual
functioning of organizations without understanding why people
act as they do. Hence, the behaviourists have come to apply
the knowledge of social psychology, anthropology, psychol-
ogy and many other disciplines in an effort to secure a better
understanding of the actual human behaviour within organiza-
tion. The main aim of this approach is to establish a body of
knowledge that facilitates understanding, explaining and predic-
tion of human behaviour in administrative situations.
In contrast to the earlier approaches, the behavioural ap-
proach tends to focus quite strongly on methodological prob-
lems, the use of survey analysis to determine organizational real-
ity, and is concerned with human aspects of administration
and decision making. It attempts to build descriptive and
analytical generalizations about organizations and administrations.
One of its normative assumptions is that it is possible to build
an administrative science through careful research on
organisations and the behaviour of those who work in them.
Herbert Simon and Robert Dahl have been among the pioneers
of the approach to the study of public administration.
4. Developmental Approach
The term 'developmental administration' was first coined
by U.L. Goswami in 1955 and later popularized by scholars like
Riggs, Edward W. Weidner, Joseph La Palombara and Albert
Waterson. Weidner was the first to introduce the concept of
development administration. Edward Weidner defined develop-
ment administration as an "action-oriented, goal - oriented ad-
ministrative system". It is the process of guiding an organi-
zation towards the achievement ofprogressive political, eco-

42
nomic and social objectives that are authoritatively determined
in one manner or another.
The term development administration has been used in two
inter related senses. First, it refers to the administration of devel-
opment programmes, to the methods used by large scale
organisations, notably governments, to implement policies and
plans designed to meet their developmental objectives. Second,
it indirectly involves the strengthening of administrative capabili-
ties. These two aspects of development administration that is the
administration of development and development of administra-
tion are intertwined in most of the definitions. To Riggs, "devel-
opment administration" and 'administrative development' have
a chicken-and-egg kind of relationships. Today, development
administration is concerned with the formulation and implemen-
tation of four P's- plans, policies, programmes and projects.
Characteristics of development administration
1. Change-orientation- The distinctive feature of develop-
ment administration is its central concern with socio-eco-
nomic change. It is this special orientation which distin-
guishes it from traditional administration which is basi-
cally concerned with the maintenance of status-quo.
2. Result-Orientation:- Development administration has to
be result-oriented since changes have to be brought about
rapidly and within a definite time schedule.
3. Commitment to work - In development administration the
organizational role expectation involves commitment to
socio-economic change and concern for completing time
bound programmes. The bureaucracy is expected to be 'in-
volved' and emotionally attached to the jobs they are called
upon to perform.
4. Innovativeness: Development administration focuses
on replacing or improving the existing governing struc-
tures and norms with the ones that suit the changing political
and social environment. In other words, development ad-

43
 ministration is one that is dynamic and progressive in thought
and action.
5. Client orientation:- Development administration is positively
oriented towards meeting the needs of marginal farmers,
landless agricultural labourers and rural artisans in develop-
ing countries. The socio-cultural and politico-economic
progress of these sections forms the essential basis of the
performance appraisal of development administration.
6. Citizen-participative orientation:- Development administra-
tion accepts for its purposes the principle of associative and
participative system of administration. Here people are taken
as active participants in the formulation and execution of
developmental plans, policies and programmes.
7. Temporal dimension:- Since socio-economic changes have
to be brought about as quickly as possible, time assumes
considerable importance in development administration.
8. Effectiveness of co-ordination:- Since development im-
plies increasing specialization and professionalization, a
number of agencies and organsiations involved in develop-
ment tasks has considerably gone up. Co-ordination be-
tween various administrative units and activities is essential
for attaining the maximum benefit.
9. Ecological perspective:- Development administration
shapes the political, social and economic environment
and also gets affected by it in turn. It is not a closed system.
It receives feedback from the social system and responds
to the demands put on it by the system.
5. Decision Making Approach
Decision making approach is generally associated with the
pioneering contribution of Herbert Simon. The decision mak-
ing approach usually equates administration with decision
making. Decisions are made at every stage of the organization
and are considered as fundamental steps in the process of policy
formulation. However, decision making is not a single person's
task,it involves a series of steps including feed back and follow
44
up actions and obviously multiple actors. Herbert Simon gives
importance to rational decision making.
Decision making is a complex process involving several
steps. They can be sequenced the following manner:-
1. Identification of or locating the problem.
2. Getting related information and data and figuring out tenta-
tive options.
3. Weighing the tentative steps by seeking the opinion of the
subordinates.
4. Zeroing in on a particular option.
5. Evaluate the efficiency of the decision reached at.
6. Getting the feed back and make necessary modification if
situation so demands.
Hence decision making requires a total team work starting
right from the chief executive down to the personnel stationed at
the ground level. Then only the objective of the organization can
be achieved in a satisfactory manner.
Herbert Simon's rational decision-making theory
Decision making approach is popularly associated with
Herbert Simon, who has introduced the rational decision making
approach. Simon views organization as a structure concerned
with decision making. Decisions are made at every level of the
organization. With an objective of ensuring that decision mak-
ing is more effective and scientific, Simon tried to uncover
the complicated inner dynamic of a decision in order to see
how multiplicity of value premises determines the ultimate
decision making. Simon breaks up decision making process
into three phases namely, intelligence activity, design activity and
choice activity. By intelligence, Simon referred to those activities
by which one scans the environment and identifies occasions to
make a decision, by design, he referred to finding or developing
alternative options; and by choice, he referred to finding or de-
veloping alternative courses of action from those available op-
tions.

45
 To Simon decision making involves choice between alter-
native plan of actions, and the choice in turn, involves logical co-
ordination between fact and value propositions. Thus, Simon's
decision making approach has other criteriaie the 'rationality' cri-
teria. Simon views that total rationality in an administrative situa-
tion is almost impossible. Hence he has prescribed a moderate
level of rationality (bounded rationality) based on a practical level
of satisfaction.
Simon's contributions are undoubtedly a major break-
through in the evolution of administrative theory. His
model has greatly encouraged the need for the use of
various management techniques in public policy making and policy
science has received the initial impulse from his formulation.
6. Structural- Functional Approach
F.W. Riggs mainly used structural-functional approach in
analyzing the administrative systems. This approach envisages
that in every society certain important functions have to be
carried out by a number of structures with the application of
certain specified methods. To Riggs, in every society five impor-
tant types of functions are discharged, viz. economic, social,
communication, symbolic and political functions. The same set
of functional requisites applies to an administrative sub-system
in which various structures carry out a number of functions in a
specified manner. In the field of public administration, it was first
suggested by Dwight Waldo in
1955. Waldo's suggestion was first followed by F.W.
Riggs when he came out with his The structural functional
approach "agrarian-industria" (that is, agricultural and indus-
trial societies) typology in 1956. Thesemodels weredeveloped
keeping in view the societies of imperial China and the United
States. According to him, all societies transform from 'agraria' to
'industria' at a given point of time.
Later in 1957, he developed an intermediate model named
"transition" which represented the transforming societies and
possessed the characteristics of both "agrarian" and 'industria"
46
But the typology of 'agrarian-transitia - industria" was criticized
as having many limitations. Later, Riggs developed another set
of models to analyse the administrative systems in develop-
ing countries. It came to be known as the fused-prismatic-dif-
fracted model. The ideal models of Riggs analyse the adminis-
trative systems, in developing countries. It came to be known as
the fused- prismatic-diffracted model. The ideal models of Riggs
administrative systems - fused, prismatic and diffracted are
hypothetical assumptions aimed at analysing pre-historic
developing and developed societies.
Riggs created models on the basis of the structural - func-
tional approach. In his view, in a fused society, a single structure
carries out various functions. Contrary to this, in a diffracted
society separate structures are created to carry out specific func-
tions. But between the two, there exist a number of societies in
which the characteristics of both fused and diffracted societies
exist side by side. These are called prismatic societies.
The focus of Riggs's analyses is the study of certain key
elements of the social structures in a prismatic society and their
interaction with "sala", ie, the administrative sub-system in such
a society. His treatment of the fused and diffracted societies is
sketchy, and has relevance only to the extent that it aids the analysis
of prismatic societies. It is to explain the 'administrative ecology'
of prismatic societies that he has constructed the "Prismatic-sala"
model. He identified three features of prismatic-sala model:- (1)
Heterogencity(2) Formalism, 3) Overlapping.
Later on in his book "Prismatic Society Revisited " (1973),
Riggs revised his prismatic theory. He replaced the 'one di-
mensional approach' (differentiation) with "two dimensional
approach' (differentiation and integration). Thus, he
reconceptualised diffracted societies as, "co - diffracted", "Ortho
diffracted' and 'new diffracted' and prismatic societies as
'co-prismatic', 'ortho-prismatic' and 'neo prismatic'. His analy-
sis of the process of administrative development can provide
guidelines to the policy makers in different nations.

47
C) Contemporary Approaches
1. Contingency Approach
The contingency or situational approach attempts to bridge
the gap between management theory and management practice.
Mary Parker Follet used the phrase "Law of the situation" in
1919 to emphasise that different situations require dif-
ferent kinds of leadership. But the contingency approach
developed mainly during 1970's. After a review of leadership
studies, Ralph Stogdillconcluded that the traits and skills required
in leadership are determined by the situation in which an indi-
vidual is exercising leadership.
The basic premise of the contingency approach is
that managerial actions and organizational design must be
appropriate to the given situation and a particular action s valid
only under certain conditions. There is no one best ap-
proach for all situations. In other words, managerial action is
contingent upon external environment. Thus the contingency ap-
proach takes into account not only the given situations but the
influence of given situations on behavioural patterns of organi-
zation.
The contingency approach can be expressed as "if then"
relationship approach. 'If' denotes the independent variable en-
vironment while 'then' stands for dependent variable ie.
managementaction. This shows the contingent relationship
between environment variables and management variables.
In other words, for every environmental situation, an
appropriate management style may be identified for the most
effective attainment of desired goals. For example, participa-
tive leadership may be most effective in an organization employ-
ing professional personnel in a high technology operation in an
atmosphere of non- materialistic orientation and free expres-
sion. On the other hand, authoritarian leadership would be
more effective in an organization which employs unskilled per-
sonnel on routine tasks in social values oriented towards materi-
alism and obedience to authority.
48
 Contingency approach suggests that management is entirely
situational and there is nothing like universal principles of man-
agement. There is no one best way to organize and manage. This
approach highlights the multivariate nature of organisations
and explains how organisations operate under varying condi-
tions. With its help managers can design actions which are most
appropriate to their respective situations. Contingency ap-
proach suggests that managers should develop situational
sensitivity and practical selectivity. The contingency ap-
proach attempts to integrate the various schools of manage-
ment thought.
2. The Rational choice approach
The rational choice theory, also known as choice theory
or rational action theory, is a theory for understanding and often
modelling social and economic as well as individual behaviour. It
is the main paradigm in the currently-dominant micro economics
school of thought.
Becher (1976) recorded that "the rational choice theory
was early popularized by a 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize Laure-
ate in Economics Science, Gary Becker, who was one of the
first to apply rational actor models more widely". Elster
(1989) stated the essence of rational choice theory when he
said that "when faced with several courses of action, people usu-
ally do what they believe is likely to have the best overall out-
come". The "rationality" defined by the rational choice theory
adopts a more specific and narrower definition, which simply
means that "an individual acts as if balancing costs against benefit
to arrive at action that maximizes personal advantage" .
Rational Choice Theory is an approach that could be used
by social scientists to understand human behaviour. Green (2002)
identified that the spread of the rational choice approach beyond
conventional economic issues is discussed by Becker (1976),
Radnitzky and Bernholz (1987), Hogarth and Reder (1987),
Swedberg (1990) and Green and Shapiro (1996) among oth-
ers.

49
 Rational choice is argued to have developed as part of the
behavioural revolution in American political science of the 1950s
and 1960s which sought to investigate how individuals behaved,
using empirical methods. The approach has increasingly become
a growing approach to political science, especially in the United
States. Anthony Downs (1957) was the first to apply rational
choice theory to electoral behaviour and party competition.
His work, reviewed in Hinich and Munger (1997) went further
to revolutionize the studies of elections. Other directions in which
rational choice theory has gone away from the works of Downs
include areas of collective action, public choice, rent seeking,
among others.
Olson (1965) showed that individuals with self-interest
would not always take part in collective action to accomplish
a common goal, for instance, why would some of us refuse to
pay our tax despite the fact that the monies derived from taxes
are used to develop our society; improve basic amenities and
security. This has lead to the development of the collective
action theory, which can assist us to explain how collective ac-
tions failures can be grossly reduced if the decision makers in-
volved are small.
The subject of public choice posits that the intervention
of democratic governments to repair market failures have often
created more problems than it solved. In part because, the com-
bination of the self interest of bureaucrats in maximizing their
budgets and bureaucratic control over information on cost struc-
ture of state provisions of public goods result in their over provi-
sion, at the expense of the citizenry (Niskanen, 1971).
Post-war intellectual developments go back through
micro economics and welfare economics, nineteenth century
liberalism and utilitarianism, and the work of classical political
economist like Adams Smith, John Locke and Thomas Hobbes.
If rational choice theory owes intellectual debts to the liberal tra-
dition, it has made repayments by suggesting lines of analysis
and arguments within the field.

50
 Rational choice theory adopts a quite different ap-
proach to the study of social action, human agency , and social
systems and structures. There are many variants of rational
choice theory which tend to differ from other perspectives in the
following ways. The rational choice theory begins, firstly, from
the viewpoint of the individual, as opposed to viewing
several individuals interacting together, social situations, or
groups. The emphasis on the individual interest is always the
starting point of the theory. Although some theorists of rational
choice make different assumptions about the individual and pro-
ceed to larger social groups andsystems, each theorist begins
with the individual as the foundation unit of the theory. In the
words of Abell (2000), "it is only individuals who ultimately take
actions and social actions…. Individual actions and social ac-
tions are optimally chosen and "individuals" actions and social
actions are entirely concerned with their own welfare". These
basic assumptions portray the methodological individualism
of the theory - the individual as actor with an initial concern only
about him or herself, as well as his or her welfare. Upon the
foundation of individualism, the rational choice theory may go
further to portray how sharing, cooperation, or norms emerge,
and the role they play in the decision making process.
Another major differential aspects of the rational choice
theory is the fact that it is sociologically minimalist. It begins with
a few simple assumptions about the individual and the relation-
ship among individuals, and then builds models of social
action and interaction that describe and explain the complexi-
ties of larger groups, systems and whole societies. This approach
is very different from the systems and structural approaches of
Durkheim or Parsons, who make social norms and values at the
societal level an essential feature of their perspective. It also dif-
fers from the writers in the Marxian and Weberian traditions that
emphasize large scale, global, and historical social forces. The
rational choice theory also runs opposed to the symbolic inter-
action, interpretive and feminist approaches that adopts a dense

51
and complex view of social actors and social interaction. The
latter consider meaning, interpretation, emotions, experiences,
and a wide variety of aspects of human existence, none of which
can be reduced to the other, nor is capable of simple explana-
tion. Contrastingly, the theory adopts a relatively spare and simple
model of the individual, one that can be applied across time and
space, so that it is a universal model.
[Link] Choice Approach
A great landmark in the evolution of Public Administration
was the emergence of 'public choice' approach. Since the early
1960's the public choice school has been developed by a num-
ber of eminent scholars in a variety of ways. Essentially a
critique of the bureaucratic model of administration, the public
choice approach deals with the possibility of institutional plural-
ism in the provision of public goods and services. Plurality of
governments and public agencies is supported on the grounds
of consumer preferences.
Vincent Ostrom, the chief protagonist of the public choice
school, has developed a concept of "democratic administration'
alongside the conventional idea of bureaucratic administration.
The bureaucrats, in his view, prefer self-interest to public inter-
est. Ostrom says, bureaucratic structures are necessary but not
sufficient for a productive and responsive public service
economy". Ostrom'sdemocratic administration paradigm earned
popular acceptance because of its forceful emphasis on democ-
ratizing administration. He argued the need for diverse demo-
cratic decision making structures, popular participation in ad-
ministration and dispersed administrative authority. In
brief,Ostrom argues, perfection in the hierarchical ordering of a
professionally trained public service accountable to a single cen-
tre of power will reduce the capability of a larger administrative
system to respond to diverse preferences among citizens for
many different public goods and services and cope with
diverse environmental conditions. A variety of different
organisational arrangements can be used to different public goods

52
and services. Such organisations can be co- ordinated through
various multi-organizational arrangements.
To sum up, the public choice approach is an attempt to
construct a theory of organisations in tune with consumer inter-
est and individual preferences. The monocentric, hierarchical and
bureaucratic model of administration has been found to be in-
compatible with some of the basic norms of a humanist and lib-
eral democracy. The public choice school thus locates public
administration within the domain of politics and an appropriate
theory of political organization.
Conclusion:
The approaches to the study of public administration are
classified in to three categories. They are traditional approach,
Modern approach and contemporary approaches. Under
the traditional approach we examine the philosophical, his-
torical and comparative approaches. In Modern approach
we discussed the Marxist approach, Behavioural approach,
ecological approach, decision making approach, Structural-Func-
tional approach and developmental approach. Under the con-
temporary approaches we studied contingency approach,
the rational choice approach and the public choice approach.
The study of these approaches helps us to understand more about
the public administration.

Assignments:
1. Discuss the various models and approaches to the study of
public administration
2. Describe the main features of development administra-
tion. How far it is relevant in understanding the problems
of developing countries?
3. Discuss Herbert Simon's rational decision making model
with special reference to his concept of bounded rational-
ity

53
 MODULE III

PERSPECTIVES IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

Introduction
The significance of public administration is increasing day
by day as it has encompassed many new concepts within its
fold. The functions, which it performs have expanded in scale,
range and nature and is still increasing. It is necessary for not
only maintaining public order, social security, welfare and eco-
nomic infrastructure but also for the delivery of goods in terms of
services like safety, utilities and enforcement of contractual obli-
gations as also for ensuring the rule of law and treating all the
citizens equally. Its nature, contents and scope - all go to make it
the 'heart of the problem of modern governments' [Link]
Public Administration has laid down for itself numerous plans
and programmes of social and economic development. In
developing democracies like India, which is striving hard to
provide basic facilities to impoverished population, public ad-
ministration has not only become the instrument of change and
development but also a powerful agency for achieving
national integration. As an instrument of change and develop-
ment, especially in developing countries like India, public admin-
istration has successfully implemented various development
programmes like community development, poverty eradication,
employment guarantee schemes, housing schemes, rural connec-
tivity, rural electrification, health care schemes and so on.
Public administration is a great stabilizing force in a society.
Governments come and go but administration does not change.
In this way it provides continuity and linkages between the old
and new policies and programmes. In a diverse country like In-
dia, public administration becomes all the more important be-
cause it acts as a harmonizing and integrating force. It has cre-

54
ated an environment where people with varied backgrounds can
live together.
Administration Reforms Movement (1870-1926)
The discipline of Public Administration was born in 1887
when Woodrow Wilson's article entitled 'The study of Admin-
istration' was published in Political Science Quarterly. Pubic
Administration has passed through several phases of develop-
ment. The first phase was from 1887 to 1926 - a period of ad-
ministration reforms movement. Woodrow Wilson is regarded
as the father of the discipline of Public Administration, he em-
phasized the need for a separate study of Public Administration
and distinction between Politics and Administration and argued;
"it is getting to be harder to run a constitution than to frame one".
An essay by Woodrow Wilson (1887) is often taken as the
symbolic beginning of Public Administration as an academic dis-
cipline. Woodrow Wilson's article, 'The Study of Administra-
tion', published in the Political Science Quarterly, was written at
a time when there was a grave need to wipe out corruption,
improve efficiency and service delivery to protect public inter-
est.
Wilson argued that administration is the most obvious part
of the Government and the least discussions happen around it.
He further says that despite being the executive, the operative
and the most visible side of the Government and being as old as
the Government itself it has remain hidden from the scrutiny and
inspection of writer, authors and subject matter experts where it
should have been the centre of debates and researches. He shows
little appreciation towards the obsession regarding the consti-
tution of Government, the philosophical approach towards
the existence of State, the sovereignty or some greater meaning
lying at the heart of the Government.
Basically what he meant was the know-how of the actual
business of Governing people and how that can be made more
efficient.
In the context of the early 20th century USA and the world
55
in general, Woodrow Wilson and his ideas regarding administra-
tion made sense. Life had changed much since the good old daysof
farms and cattle and now there were complexities of trade and
commerce, stocks and bonds and financers and then the na-
tional debts, the ever increasing conflicts between the capitalist
class and the workers. In the light of these developments, ways
the Government can function also needed a change which unfor-
tunately was not assessed adequately resulting in inefficiency and
wastage of resources.
In addition to above aspects, the Government's sphere of
work was expanding, like the postal service in America and rail-
road lines in Europe. So, if the transition was happening at the
grass root level say for example to manage rail-road,
national commissioners were made in addition to older state
commissioners, the resulting extension of administrative function
became a matter which needed to be delicately handled and not
carried out in haste.
Woodrow Wilson propounded the idea of Politics - admin-
istration dichotomy which came to dominate the scene for quite
some time. It was Frank J Goodnow who developed it further
and with greater courage and conviction. He argued that Politics
and administration were two distinct functions of a government.
To him, "politics was to do with policies or expressio ns of the
state will" while administration "has to do with the execution of
these policies".
In the early part of the 20th century many American uni-
versities began to take active interest in the reform movement
in government and thus scholars got attracted to the field of pub-
lic administration. In 1914, the American Political Science
Association published a report which delineated the objectives
of the teaching of Political Science. One of the objectives pro-
claimed was to "prepare specialists for governmental positions".
Thus Public Administration was recognized as an important sub
area of Political Science. In 1926, the first text book on Public
Administration "Introduction to the study of Public Administra-

56
tion' by L.D. White, emphasized the need for separating
politics and administration and efficiency and economy became
the main themes of Public Administration.
Scientific Management
In 1927 [Link]'s book Principles of Public Ad-
ministration came as the second textbook in the field reflected
the new orientation of public administration. The new thought
was that there are some scientific principles of administration,
and administrators would be expert in their work if they learned
how to apply these principles. The work of Frederick Taylor
and the principles of scientific management had a significant ef-
fect on public administration for the period Taylor believed that
the scientific principles were universally applicable. He was keen
to apply them to public administration and supported attempts
by his disciples to employ scientific management techniques in
defence establishment.
At the time, there was complete absence of standard-
ization of methods of work. The conditions in the factories
were unplanned. The management were not concerned about
the efficiency of methods of work. It was against such a general
background of managerial unconcern for methods and tools of
work that scientific management emerged as a new philosophy
of management. F.W. Taylor is regarded as the father of Scien-
tific Management. Taylor pointed out, "Management is a true
Science, resting upon clearly fixed laws, rules and prin-
ciples, as a foundation". "The same principles can be applied
with equal force to all social activities; to the management of our
homes, the management of our farms, the management of the
business of our tradesmen, large and small, of our churches, our
philanthropic institutions, our universities and our governmental
departments".
Two assumptions made by Taylor are (1) the application
of the methods of science to organizational problems leads to
higher industrial efficiency, observation, measurement and ex-
perimental comparison are these methods, and (2) the incentive

57
of higher wages will promote the mutuality of interest between
workers and managers, which will lead to higher productivity.
There are other specific objectives embodies in Scientific
Management. It seeks standardization of working conditions like
best temperature and humidity, standardization of work meth-
ods, planning of daily task etc. Motion study, which is the obser-
vation of all the motions that compromise a particular job and
the determination of the best set of motions, is a technique of
standardization of work methods. Time study is the technique to
be employed for planning the daily task. Yet another objective
is to encourage the "high performer" to stay and the 'low
performer' to leave. This is secured through 'Differential Piece-
work plan". Under this plan those who produce above standard
receive higher wages than those who produce below standard.
In 1937 when Luther Gulick and Urwick coined seven
principles 'POSDCORB' (i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting) in their es-
say 'The Science of Administration'. This period reinforced
the concept of politics -administration dichotomy and to focus
on a value-free Science of administration. The central belief was
that there are some universal principles of administration, and it
is the task of scholars to discover them and promote their appli-
cation. Economy and efficiency was the main objective of the
administrative system. If Wilson is the pioneer of the discipline,
Max Weber is its first theoretician who provided the discipline
with a solid theoretical base. His 'ideal' type of bureaucracy con-
tinues to remain fundamental in any conceptualization of organi-
zation. Weber's formulation is characterized as 'value neutral,
having certain ubiquitous features. It can be analyzed from three
different points.
" First, bureaucracy can be understood in terms of purely
structural characteristics. In fact, the structural dimension
has attracted the most attention in the discussions on bu-
reaucracy. Division of work and hierarchy are important
aspects of structural features.

58
" Secondly; bureaucracy can be defined in terms of
behavioural features. Certain patterns of behaviour form an
inherent part of bureaucracy. According to Weber, The more
the bureaucracy is 'dehumanized' the more completely it
succeeds in eliminating from official business love, hatred,
and all purely personal, irrational and emotional elements
which escape calculation. This is the specific nature of bu-
reaucracy and its special virtue".
" Thirdly, bureaucracy can also be seen from the view point
of achievement of purpose. This is an instrumentalist view
of bureaucracy. As Peter Blau suggests, bureaucracy as an
"organization that maximizes efficiency in administration or
an institutionalized method of organized social conduct in
the interests of administrative efficiency".
What is distinctive in the Weberian formulation is the at-
tempt to formulate 'an ideal type' bureaucracy. The bureaucratic
model, according to Weber, is the most efficient organizational
structure for administrative system developed so far in the mod-
ern world. It is superior to any other form in realization of economy,
efficiency and stability.
In 1938, Chester I. Barnard in his book 'The Functions of
the Executive' questione d the significance of politics-adminis-
tration dichotomy debate. Dwight Waldo, a leading critic,
challenged the validity of 'principles' borrowed from the scien-
tific management movement and urged the development of a
philosophy of administration based upon broader comparative
study. He observed that Public administration cannot be fruitfully
studied without taking into account its political and social envi-
ronment.
The most significant dissection of principles appeared in
Herbert Simon's Administrative Behaviour: A study of decision-
making processes in administration organization (1947), a rich
intellectual work which facilitated Simon to receive the Nobel
Prize in [Link] proposed the development of a new sci-

59
ence of administration based on theories and methodology of
logical positivism. The focus of such a science would be
decision-making. He maintained that to be scientific it must
exclude value judgments and concentrate attention on facts,
adopt precise definition of terms, apply rigorous analysis,
and test factual statements or postulates about administra-
tion. Simon's work emphasized the need of scientific analysis in
public administration. He considered some of the classical prin-
ciples as 'proverbs' as these were unscientifically derived. Hu-
man Relation Movement - Human element in Public Administra-
tion
The pioneering studies which resulted from the experiments
in the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company by Elton
Mayo in late twenties also challenged many prevailing ideas about
incentives and human behaviour in groups. It concentrates on
human factor and the complex interpersonal and social rela-
tions between people in organizational situations. The
main contribution of human relations approach lies in highlighting
the social and psychological side of human behaviour.
The tenants of the human relations school are as follows:-
1. An organization is not merely a techno-economic system. It
is very much a social system.
2. The behaviour of an individual is dominated by the informal
group of which he is a part.
3. An individual employee cannot be motivated by economic
incentives alone. His social and psychological needs must
be satisfied to improve the level of motivation. Social
satisfaction at the work place leads to higher performance.
4. Employees are capable of self-direction and control.
The employee centred and participative style of leader-
ship is more effective than task-centred leadership.
5. Management requires social skills to make employees
feel that they are a part of the organization. Organization
must take interest in employee development and welfare.

60
 These studies of human behaviour stresses the human as-
pect of administration, the need of employees for recognition,
security, and ego-satisfaction, and the importance of the social
environment and group attitudes in work situations. They reach
the conclusion that employee- oriented supervision is more
effective than production-minded, authoritarian supervision.
Thus these studies highlighted the weaknesses of the machine
concept of organization and suggested for taking into account
the social and psychological factors of work situation. Unlike
the machine mode of organization, it views organization in its
holistic social perspective. It treats workers as human beings
with all humanly attributes. It believes that each worker carries
with him a different culture, attitude, belief and a way of life.
Therefore, the organization must take proper cognizance of such
socio-cultural aspects of a worker while engaging an employee.
It is also significant for identifying the informal groups, which are
important in achieving the organizational goals. Thus, Human
relation theory discovered the human side of organization
and tried to offer human
solutions to human problems.
The findings of the Hawthorne experiment shocked the so-
cial scientists in many ways. The experiment was carried out on
a piece rate wage system for the participant workers. It was
seen that the workers were motivated to work for money only
till the time when they would ensure an adequate income and
refused to work more than that. This simple but startling revela-
tion created quite a shakeup for the scientists as it clearly
challenged the Taylorian principle of scientific management. At
the next level, some female workers were separated from the
rest of the workers and were put under observation. It was
observed that with time and changed in the working condi-
tions like lighting, humidity etc, their productivity kept raising.
This puzzled the scientists even more, it was later discovered
that the girls were aware of the experiment being conducted on
them and therefore displayed their best performance.

61
 The experiment conducted for over a year ended in some
new understanding regarding people and performance. It was
understood that human beings are motivated by several factors
and not alone economic. They are greatly influenced by their
social environment, form groups, have goals, beliefs, conducts
and ethics which might not be in sync with that of the organiza-
tion. So, for all practical purposes they were thinking, acting,
conscious individuals who needed to be treated like one. This
was a theory which made the thinkers move away from the ear-
lier popular classical theory which proposed and emphasized on
the structure, organizational planning etc as its core. It became
very clear after the Hawthorne experiments that the informal
relationships, the group dynamics and day to day functions of
an organization are no less complex than the study of the mecha-
nism of the organization. At the end of the day, it becomes im-
portant that the employees perform and their performance is
sometimes far removed from the parameters and motivators
understood by the organization.
However, the human relations approach suffers from the
following limitations.
1. The human relations are not a really employee-oriented ap-
proach. It seeks to manipulate and exploit the emotions of
employees for the benefit of the organization. It gives work-
ers a false sense of participation and happiness.
2. The approach ignores the wider environmental issues such
as the work task, organization structure and trade union.
Social environment may fail to motivate employees if they
find the work task highly momentous.
3. The human relations approach is based on a wrong as-
sumption that satisfied workers are more productive work-
ers.
4. The approach stresses the social psychological side of man-
agement and undermines the role of economic incentives
in work motivation. If the employees feel that salary levels
are too low, they are likely to be dissatisfied despite cordial
inter-personal relations.
62
 In spite of such limitations, Human Relations theory em-
phasized human factor in administration.
The behavioural approach to public administration owes its
genesis to the Human Relations Movement of the 1930s. The
movement started off as a protest to the traditional approaches
to public administration that focused on organizations, insti-
tutionalization, rules, and code of conducts etc with absolutely
no mention of people who are the centre of all these activities.
The pioneering work done by Taylor and the emergence of Sci-
entific Management created quite stir not just in the industrial
sector but also in management and study of public administra-
tion. Henry Fayol worked on his Fayolism at around the same
time as Taylor and came up with different set of functions and
principles for the management bringing in terms like discipline,
unity of command, equity and team spirit.
Herbert Simon was one of the torch bearers of this moment
and stated that administrative behaviour is part of behavioural
sciences and the study of public administration cannot be
complete without the study of individual and collective
human behaviour in administrative situations. The behavioural
approach has certain salient features like:
" The literature that has been written on the topic stays away
from being prescriptive. It follows a descriptive course with
an exception to the studies carried out in the areas of moti-
vation
" Individuals were paid attention to and aspects like motiva-
tion, decision making, authority and control were brought
into focus
" The informal aspects of an organization and communication
patterns amongst the members were emphasized
" The effort was to identify operational definition of terms
and a lot of empirical study like field study, laboratory
study and statistical methods were conducted
" It borrows a lot from other social sciences, social psychol-
ogy and cultural anthropology
63
 This approach made more sense and had greater relevance
than earlier approaches as it took into consideration the fact that
the political, social, economical and psychological environments
have an effect on human motivation and which ultimately has an
effect on the work output of an individual. It also helped to de-
velop an understanding of what, how and why of the way the
public administrators act. It showed that the way administration
is conducted is influenced by human sentiments, presumptions
biases and perception, which many of us may have experienced
firsthand during our interaction with government organizations
and public administrators. Behavioural approach has contrib-
uted to the study of public administration in many ways like the
scholars started studying cross-structural and cross-cultural ad-
ministrative behaviours and which further paved the way for the
comparative study of public administration.
Like all new things, this approach too has its fair share
of criticism and the critics have ruthlessly questioned the utility
of this approach in the analysis of administrative problems. They
find it limited in scope and of little use. The study of public ad-
ministration goes beyond small social groups and deals with
large communities and therefore the behavioural approach falls
short.
The modern behavioural approach is leaning towards
becoming more action oriented and prescription format nev-
ertheless. Roscoe Martin and his Craft Perspective define the
shift better. It concerns itself with the decisions, outcomes and
the political skill needed to perform a particular managerial job.
Minnowbrook conference I - Public Administration (1968)
During late 1960's the American government was criti-
cized for being ineffective, inefficient, and irresponsive to the
contemporary challenges. There was a demand by citizens for
making Public administration relevant to the contemporary
issues. It was supposed to make distance from politics and be-
come effective and responsive. A group of young American schol-
ars spoke against the contemporary nature of discipline. At the

64
Minnowbrook conference (1968) they advocated for what is
known as 'new public administration' to make the study and prac-
tice of the discipline relevant to the demands of the post-indus-
trial society. The conference was truly a wake- up call for the
theorists and the practitioners to make the discipline socially rel-
evant. These developments coupled with a deep sense of dissat-
isfaction among the practitioners regarding the present state of
the discipline especially its love for efficiency and economy. It
was held in the backdrop of a turbulent time which was marked
by a series of contemporary developments like social upheavals
in the form of ethnic conflicts across the American cities, cam-
pus clashes, Vietnam War and its repercussions in American so-
ciety and the like. These developments coupled with a deep sense
of dissatisfaction among the academicians regarding the present
state of the discipline, had ushered in qualitatively improved phase
in public administration, which is termed as New Public Admin-
istration.
Minnowbrook Conference I was held under the chairman-
ship of Dwight Waldo and had participants from department of
Political Science. Hence its approach was narrow and [Link]
focus was on Change, Relevance, Social Equity and Value and
gave rise to the concept of Public [Link] theme, ten-
ure, tone and temperament was more radical and anti
[Link] proceedings were combined in a report by Frank
Marini in 1971 named "Toward a New Public Administration:The
Minnow Brook Perspective".
The Minnowbrook I conference was famous for bringing
about a new phase in public administration characterized by
value, relevance, equity, and change. Relating administration to
'political' was the central focus of the new public administration
school. Public interest became the central concern of Public
Administration. The conference not only reaffirmed the irrel-
evance of the traditional techniques of administration, but
also stressed the obligations of public administrators to be
concerned with values, ethics and morality in dealing with the
challenges of society.
65
Minnow brook II: Variations in Foundations (1988)
The Minnow brook Conference II, which was held in 1988,
is another land mark in the evolution of Public Administration.
The outcome of the conference gave birth to the New Public
Management (NPM) approach to governance. Its emer-
gence reflected that took place in the Western nations. State
as major dispenser of social justice had been increasingly ques-
tioned across the globe since the late 1970's. The popular
approach was against the state for its dismal performance in
almost every sphere - social, economic and political. Recent
changes in the form of governance in the advanced Western de-
mocracies underwent great change, especially the public sector
management. This led to the development of the concept of New
Public Management. NPM is depicted as a normative
conceptualization of public administration consisting of inter-
related components. They are providing high quality services that
citizens value, increasing the autonomy of public managers,
rewarding organizations and individuals on the basis of their
effort, maintaining an open minded attitude about which public
purposes should be performed by the private sector, rather than
public sector.
Minnow brook Conference II was organised when the
economy of USA was upbeat and a sense of euphoria was
present among the masses. It was held under the chairmanship
of H George Fredrickson for the support and expansion of US
Public Administration. Participants were from field of Public
Administration, Political Science, law, management, administra-
tion etc. Hence it was more broad-based and liberal and LPG
(Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation). It gave rise to
the concept of New Public Management, which proved to be
successful, encouraging and [Link] its proceedings were
published in the essays in the Minnow Brook tradition edited by
Richard T. Mayor and published by Timmy Bailey - "Public
Management in the Inter-

66
 Connected World:Essays in the Minnowbrook Tradition."
(1990).
New Public Management
The term new public management was coined by scholars
from UK and Australia (Hood 1991 and Hood and Jackson
1991), who were working in the in the areas of public adminis-
tration.
Now, the origin of this new term was to propose a new
point of view towards the organizational design in the public sec-
tor, however after a decade, the meaning of this term in discus-
sions and debates became many. Some scholars choose to de-
fine it as the introduction of new institutional economics to public
management and some used it to refer to pattern changes in policy
making.
Before we make an effort to further understand the various
aspects of New Public Management, let us see how it is different
from the traditional public administration.
The new public management which emerged in the 1980s
represented an attempt to make the public sector more busi-
nesslike and to improve the efficiency of the Government bor-
rowed ideas and management models from the private sector. It
emphasized the centrality of citizens who were the recipient of
the services or customers to the public sector.
New public management system also proposed a more
decentralized control of resources and exploring other service
delivery models to achieve better results, including a quasi-mar-
ket structure where public and private service providers com-
peted with each other in an attempt to provide better and faster
services
The core themes for the New Public Management were:
" A strong focus on financial control, value for money and
increasing efficiency
" A command and control mode of functioning, identi-
fying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of

67
 performance, handing over the power to the senior man-
agement
" Introducing audits at both financial and professional lev-
els, using transparent means to review performances,
setting benchmarks, using protocols to ameliorate pro-
fessional behaviour
" Greater customer orientation and responsiveness and in-
creasing the scope of roles played by non public sector
providers
" Deregulating the labour market, replacing collective
agreements to individual rewards
packages at senior levels combined with short term con-
tracts
" Discouraging the self regulatory power of the professionals
and handing over the power from individuals to manage-
ment
" Encouraging more entrepreneurial management than
beurocracy with high retrospective accountability require-
ments upwards
" Introducing new forms of corporate governance, introduc-
ing a board model of functioning and concentrating the
power to the strategic core of the organization. With changing
times newer aspects were included in the NPM model men-
tioned above as well and what the scholarsterm as NPM
model 2 was brought in. The critical aspects of this new
model were:
" Introduction of a more elaborate and evolved quasi-mar-
ket system
" Creation of more fragmented or loosely contracted public
sector organizations at the local level setting in a change
from management of hierarchy to management of contract
" Distinguishing between the small strategic core and the
large organizational periphery, market testing and con-
tracting out the non strategic functions

68
" Delayering and downsizing
" Introduction of new managerial concepts like Management
by Influence, creating network for of organizations, creat-
ing strategic alliances between the organizations
" Moving away from standardized service forms to more flex-
ible and varied service forms.
Now, as more and more work was done in the areas of
Human Resources and Relations and popular texts
which stressed on the need of excellence, the importance
of organizational culture, values, vision and the con-
cept of Learning Organization introduced by Peter
Senge (1990)influenced the new public management
as well and therefore suitable changed were also
suggested in the theory by the scholars.
" In a bottom up form of organization- Organizational devel-
opment and learning was gaining importance. Organiza-
tional culture was seen as a glue which holds the
organization together, judging the performance by results
etc were the new point of views
" In the top down form of organization- Securing changes in
organizational culture was cited as important, clarifying and
projecting the vision and leadership from top to down was
asked for, private sector emerged as a role model for the
neo style public sector, training, corporate logos, commu-
nication strategies, assertive HR and all the other aspects
that are Theories & Concepts of Public Administration
Page 43characteristic jargon of private sector were encour-
aged to be adopted So, basically the new public manage-
ment was a radical movement to change not just the way a
public sector functions but also the entire perception about
it.
The NPM focuses on the entrepreneurial government. It is
a participatory management and community owned governance,
in which citizens are considered as active consumers and not as

69
passive recipients of programmes and policies. The main motto
is the empower citizens.
The publication of "Reinventing government' by Osborne
and Gaebler (1992) redefined the functions of the government.
The authors argue in favour of "entrepreneurial government" that
is certain to bring about radical changes by improving public
management through performance, measurement and evalua-
tion, reducing budgets, downsizing the government, selective
privatization of public enterprises and contracting out in
selective areas. Thus, in focus is on debureaucratization,
democratization and decentralization of the administrative pro-
cesses in the interest of the citizens. In addition to formal
governments, the role of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and community based organizations has been
acknowledged as supplementary public agencies.
Conclusion
Public Administration is an evolutionary discipline. The evo-
lutionary process indicates the shifting boundaries of the disci-
pline in response to constantly emerging socio-economic needs.
It has changed itself in response to new inputs from the contem-
porary socio-economic and political scenario. Today it is there-
fore difficult to grasp the nature of public administration in terms
of the Weberian conceptualization underlining its rigid, rule-
bound and hierarchic characteristics. Instead, the preferred
form of administration is one which is accountable, acces-
sible, and transparent. The notion of 'public' in public adminis-
tration has acquired new dimensions where the public private
distinction is more formal than real since there is a growing sup-
port for both cooperation and healthy competition between these
two sectors in the larger interests of societal development. To-
day, Public administration is being directed by three kinds of
Governance i.e.- EGovernance, Collaborative Governance and
Network Governance. The newest approach is that of policy
analysis approach since the Government is venturing into new
areas and different activities with increased involvement in wel-

70
fare programs, the process of making public policies and its analy-
sis, the measurement of the output etc became the new areas of
study for the scholars and subject matter experts.

Assignment:
1. Briefly explain the different Perspectives on the study of
Public Administration
2. Elucidate on Human Relations Approach on the study of
Public Administration
3. Compare Minnow brook Conferences I and II and its con-
tribution to the study of Public Administration
4. What is new Public Management?

71
 MODULE IV

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY

Introduction

The term bureaucracy has two parts 'bureau' which means

an office transacting business or a government department and
'cracy' means form of government. Hence bureaucracy implies a
system of government in which most of the decisions are taken
by state officials. So bureaucracy is a form of government run or
managed by officers of the state. The definition given by Hague,
Harrop and Breslin is relevant. "The bureaucracy is the in-
stitution that carries out the functions and responsibilities of the
state". The modern form of bureaucracy can be traced to the
outgrowth of capitalism which was the by-product of Industrial
Revolution. According to B.B. Mishra in his article The Con-
ceptual Development in the West "The period of absolute mon-
archy in the West and the phase of national sovereignty that
followed as a result of social and economic development,
were two important landmarks in the emergence of the modern
concept of bureau- cracy". As opined by Bentham; after
Industrial Revolution, disintegration of feudalism and break-
down of aristocracy there emerged in a new class known as
middle class who was quite eager to participate in the adminis-
trative functions of state. The members of this class were edu-
cated and their inordinate zeal to participate in administrative
affairs gave birth to a new group of people who, in course of
time, came to be called bureaucracy.
The rise of parliamentarianism too was responsible for
the growth of bureaucracy. It created a "dichotomy" between
politics and administration. The first wa s under the control of
ministers elected by the electorate and accountable, the legisla-
ture and the administrative organ, bureaucracy, was a separate

72
department in charge of the execution of policies. The ministers-
being political persons have no or very little experience in
administration ware to depend upon the department's top and
experienced executives. This led to the accumulation of powers
in the hands of bureaucrats.
Nature, Scope and Importance and Classification of Bu-
reaucracy Bureaucrats does everything according to law and
shows unsympathetic attitude to people's needs. Decisions or
action going against the interest of the people is usually termed
bureaucratic.
Non- accountability of bureaucracy to general public, its
hierarchical structure and detachment from public have made
the organisation centre of public criticism. Bureaucracy belongs
to a "class of power elites" Almost in every country the members
of the bureaucracy come from the wealthier sections of society.
Nicos P. Mouzalis in his article The Ideal Type of
Bureaucracy lists out some features of bureaucracy.
a. The officers are recruited through open and competitive
examination on the basis of minimum qualification and
after that the successful persons are given various types
of training.
b. There is a clear hierarchical system or structure with
limited areas of command or responsibilities. That is,
each bureaucrat's jurisdiction is limited and he cannot cross
the boundary. Hierarchical organisation is highly complex
and big.
c. In an organisation or government department the rela-
tionship among the officers or bureaucrats is impersonal.
d. The job or service of the bureaucrats is transferable. After
certain time they are transferred from one department to
another. Some critics jocularly say that the government of-
ficers, particularly of higher rank, are jack-of-all trade
and master of none. For example a bureaucrat is trans-
ferred from the department of culture to the economic de-
partment.
73
e. It is often seen that bureaucrat knows law, administration
and keeps allegiance to higher authority -specifically the
minister-accountability is not to be found in the vocabulary
of bureaucracy.
According to of Illiot Jacques Service bureaucracy is the
main pillar of an functioning administrative system. Hegel in his
Philosophy of Right (1821) bureaucracy can be defined a
"State formation" of civil society.
Hegel has also used other terms to mean bureaucracy, such
as state's consciousness, states will, state power. The State is
the final stage of evolution and this evolution has progressed
through dialectics. In the process of evolution, according to
Hegel, the civil society is a very important stage. But Hegel
thought that civil society constituted a very vital part of the evo-
lution and to him its administration was very important.
Italian scholar known as Gaetano Mosca in his work
The Theory of Governing and Parliamentary Government
(1884) said "In all human societies that have attained a certain
level of development and culture, political administration in
the widest sense of the word, including administrative, mili-
tary, religious, economic and moral leadership, is implemented
continually, by a special i.e., organised, minority." According to
him in every developed society there are mainl y two classes one
is governed and the other is governor. The latter class has certain
special qualities which virtually make it to be better equipped
and to rule the society. The functions of the state are distributed
among the state officials. There are some officials who
perform more important functions and others less important
duties. In this way in a bureaucratic state a system of hierarchy is
strictly followed. The bureaucrats receive their salary from the
state fund. According to Mosca ,whole administrative system is
concentrated in the hands of a very few persons who have spe-
cial training in administration. The bureaucrats receive their sal-
ary from the state fund and they also receive other benefits. Bu-

74
reaucracy- earns specialisation through numerous ways and such
a state (bureaucratic state) generally does not collapse easily for
it is a well-disciplined state and law and order is strictly main-
tained and because of this the state does not easily collapse.
Max Weber on Bureaucracy
It was German sociologist Max Weber ho popularised the
term bureaucracy. He said that centralised bureaucratic admin-
istration was an integral part of modern state structure and it is
inevitable. Weber has clearly stated in his Economy and
Society: Vol. II that "The growing Theories & Concepts of
Public Administration Page 46 complexity of the administrative
task and the sheer expansion of the scope increasingly result in
the technical superiority of those who have had training and ex-
perience and will thus inevitably favour the continuity of at least
some of the functionaries. He has clearly stated the origin and
inevitability of bureaucratic organisation is to rule. The increasing
complexities of modern administration only could be tackled by
bureaucracy.
Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
According to Max Weber:
1. In bureaucracy office is arranged or ordered hierarchically
like a pyramid. That is, officers hold office according to
their rank. All the officers are subject to the higher author-
ity.
2. Bureaucratic system is characterised by impersonal
and written rules. The entire administration is run by
impersonal authority and the authority is vested in rules. In
other words, in bureaucratic system, human appeal has no
importance. Laws and rules conduct the administration. All
the decisions are taken on the basis of rules and their me-
thodical application.
3. All the officials are recruited strictly on the basis of
proven efficiency and potential competence. Officials
are given specialist training. For the purpose of recruit-

75
 ment, qualifications are fixed; of course there may be pro-
vision for relaxation.
4. Each official, in bureaucracy, has special or demarcated
task. That is, there is clear division of work and each offi-
cial will have to strictly observe it. The tasks are -so de-
marcated that it involves fall time employment.
5. The separation of officials from ownership of the means of
administration. It means that the officials will simply con-
duct the administration and they cannot claim the owner-
ship of the means of administration.
6. The officials who perform their duties competently will have
security in services salaries and promotion. In other words,
in bureaucracy efficiency, merit and honesty are duly
rewarded. There is also the scope of recognition of senior-
ity.
In every modern state and administration bureaucracy is
practically indispensable. Without bureaucracy no administra-
tion can be run properly and efficiently. Even the ordinary man-
agement of administration is not possible. Precision, speed, un-
ambiguity, knowledge of the files, continuity, discretion, unity,
strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and
personal costs- these are raised to the maximum point in the
strictly bureaucratic organisation". Modern economic organisation
and the administrative structure have reached such a stage
that bureaucracy has established its indispensability. Without
bureaucracy the administration will suffer and also will suffer gen-
eral public. Weber has attributed another reason to its growth
and it is the largeness of modern state. Weber writes: "It is obvi-
ous that technically the large state is absolutely dependent on a
bureaucratic basis. The larger the state and more it is a great
power, the more unconditionally is this the case, the greater the
zones of friction with the outside the more urgent the needs for
administrative unity at home become the more this character is
inevitably and gradually giving way formally to the bureaucratic
structure".

76
Theories & Concepts of Public Administration
Page 47
Modern political scientists have found that its role may
be divided into the following categories: in general administra-
tion, in policy making and policy implementing, in articulating
and aggregating interests, in maintaining political stability,
in development The entire administration of state is under the
control of bureaucracy. In parliamentary system the ministers are
at the top of the administrative structure, but the real work is
done by the bureaucrats. Administrator requires experience, ef-
ficiency and technical knowledge.
Types of Bureaucracy
Forstein M. Marx describes four types of bureaucracy:
1. the guardian bureaucracy,
2. the caste bureaucracy,
3. the Patronage bureaucracy and
4. Merit bureaucracy.
He cites two examples of "guardian bureaucracy", viz,
Chinese bureaucracy up to the advent of Sung period (960
A.D) and the Prussian civil service during 1640 and 1740. This
type may be defined as "a scholastic officialdom trained in right
conduct according to the classics". Such civil service regarded
itself as custochians of public interest, but was independent of
and unresponsive to the public opinion. It was incorruptible, ef-
ficient, competent and benevolent on the one hand, but authori-
tarian and responsive on the other.
The caste bureaucracy has a class base and "arises from
the class connection of those in the controlling positions. Such
type is widely prevalent in oligarchical political systems. Under
such systems only persons belonging to the upper classes can
become public officials. Thus in ancient India, only Brahmins and
Kshatriyas could become high officials.
In Patronage bureaucracy the recruitment is based on
favouritism. Patronage system provides stability of tenure. Pa-

77
tronage had full sway in the U.K, till the middle of the 19th cen-
tury. This type of civil service exists where public jobs are given
as a personal favour or political reward. The Spoils system in
USA is a kind of Patronage bureaucracy but without security of
tenure.
Merit bureaucracy has, as its basis, merit of the public offi-
cial and its aim is efficiency of civil service. It aims at career open
to talent. The attempt is to recruit the best man for the public
service. Appointment to public service is no longer governed by
class considerations, and it is no more a gift or a favour. The civil
servant in a modern democracy is really an official in the service
of the people and is recruited on the basis of prescribed qualifi-
cations tested objectively.
Models of Bureaucracy: Neutral and Committed
Neutral Bureaucracy
Bureaucrats are full-time, permanent non-political em-
ployees of the government. They, therefore, should serve
any government with enthusiasm, integrity, impartiality
and disinterestedness. It is said that civil servants are required to
serve the government of the day. In other words, they must show
political neutrality. They should not be aligned with any political
party or political ideology. For this reason, top civil servants are
prohibited from taking active part in politics. They are required
to resign if they are keen to contest in election or participate in
party politics or if they disagree with government policies. Since
bureaucrats are the servants of the state, they have to apply the
laws and policies of the government consistently, fairly, impar-
tially and uniformly. While applying the laws and policies of
the state, they should not show any partiality or preference to
any individual, any race or any group of individuals in society.
They should be guided only by the application of equal law to
everybody. In their relations with the public too civil servants
must be impartial.
Governmental policy determines the allocation of resources
among the various sections of the people. The bureaucracy
78
participates in drawing up the policies for such allocation by
negotiating with representatives of the various interests, advising
ministers on the pros and cons of alternative policy proposals,
and drafting reports, proposals, resolution and legislative mea-
sures. In view of such participation by the bureaucracy in policy-
making, and also in putting it into effect, it is important that the
bureaucracy should be non-partisan or neutral between the vari-
ous sections in our society, neutrality of three kinds is important:
neutrality between classes, neutrality between cultural groups,
and neutrality between political parties.
Committed Bureaucracy
Dedication or commitment is required also because the
employees have constantly to deal with complex problems, many
of which are new. It is a mistake to think that all bureaucratic
activity is routine and monotonous. Developmental activity in
particular requires forecasting, planning, risk bearing, breaking
new ground and experimentation. Hence, innovations have to be
made all the time. The making of innovations, or creativity, re-
quires emotional commitment.
Commitment on the part of the members of a bureau-
cracy leads to effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness means
fulfilment of the organisational objectives, and efficiency means
doing so with as little expenditure of resources as possible. Thus
effectiveness and efficiency are aspects of the successful work-
ing of the organisation. However, the organisation consists of
human beings and it is also important that they should be happy.
To some extent, monetary rewards can make them happy. Equally
important, however, is their need for job satisfaction: Job satis-
faction is the intrinsic satisfaction which one gets from doing a
job. Thus commitment leads not only to organisational effec-
tiveness and efficiency but also to the satisfaction and
happiness of the employees. Hence commitment is significant
from both, the organisational and individual points of view.
i) Commitment to Values and Objectives ii) Commitment
to Service of the People iii) Commitment to Profession

79
Rational-Administrative Model:
The first model of bureaucracy is rational-administrative
model. Bureaucracy is run by rational administrative machine
and because of the rationality Weber calls it an ideal type. We
have just now analysed Weberian theory of bureaucracy which
states that it is hierarchical, the area of each official is strictly
demarcated, it is based on rules and laws, the authority of offic-
ers is impersonal and appointments are done on the basis of
recruitment and through open and public examination. Seniority,
experience and efficiency are recognised and duly rewarded.
The Power Bloc Model:
The big corporations in advanced capitalism are controlling
political and economic power. Top civil servants are conserva-
tive in their outlook and political ideology and this makes them
very much close to the capitalist class.
Bureaucratic Over-Supply Model:
Central to this model of bureaucracy is a concern with the
interests and motivations of bureaucrats themselves. All bureau-
crats, irrespective of their rank and images, try to build up their
career. Career- building is a multifaceted idea, which includes
improvement of position, higher salary, better placement etc.
The bureaucrats try to achieve these keeping themselves within
the legal framework and political structure-of society. They
often adopt political tactics. The bureaucrats, particularly the
departmental secretaries and top ranking officials, influence
their political bosses-the ministers or representatives. The politi-
cal bosses succumb to the bureaucrats because without them
they will not be able to shoulder the burden of decision-making
and policy implementing activities.
Max Weber distinguishes three types of authority: Charis-
matic, Traditional and Legal-Rational each corresponds to a
brand of leadership that operate in contemporary society.
" Charismatic Authority points to an individual who
possesses certain traits that make a leader extraordinary. This
type of leader is not only capable of but actually possesses the
80
superior power of charisma to rally diverse and conflict-prone
people behind him. His power comes from the massive trust
and almost unbreakable faith people put in him.
Charismatic leadership can be problematic because it is
somehow based on some form of a messianic promise of over-
hauling an unjust system. Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King
Jr., Nelson Mandela, etc... A charismatic leader holds the mis-
sion to unite his people amid adversities and differences in order
to attain some impossible goal.
" Traditional Authority indicates the presence of a
dominant personality. This leader is someone who depends
on established tradition or order. While this leader is also a
dominant personality, the prevailing order in society gives him
the mandate to rule. For
"Legal-Rational Authority is one that is grounded in clearly
defined laws. The obedience of people is not based on the ca-
pacity of any leader but on the legitimacy and competence that
procedures and laws bestow upon persons in authority. Con-
temporary society depends on this type of rationalization, as the
complexities of its problems require the emergence of a b u -
reaucracy that embodies order and systematization. Legal-
rational authority makes manifest the power of the bureaucracy
over the individual. In the exercise of authority, the administra-
tion of power, laws and rules, including institutional duties and
protocols, have control over individuals. While order and sys-
tematization are desirable, bureaucracy may not fully address
the problems everyone.
Bureaucracy and Development
Bureaucracy as an organization is expected to play a
pivotal role, in process of development. The concept of
Development Administration had originated in U.S.A. and
as such bureaucratic systems are expected to be
effective instruments to achieve objectives of devel-
opment. With their emphasis on rules and regulations,
division of labour, hierarchy, role specialists, rationality,
81
 impersonally and neutrality, bureaucracy was expected to
ensure smooth process of development. In fact, bureau-
cracy played a key role in stability standard of integrity and
professional competence. Bureaucracy supported industri-
alized developed nations to achieve their objectives. But
the capacity of bureaucracy to adopt to change is
rather low. In developing countries where temporal di-
mensions play a key role in process of development, ac-
cording to some thinkers, bureaucracy is a misfit. The
Weberian model is subject to the dysfunctional conse-
quences of failing to take into consideration the individual
or behavioural aspects of people who work within organi-
zational system. It has been observed that in an unstable
environment it cannot take up the challenges of situation.
Stalker identified two distinct systems of management
namely mechanistic and organic and found that mechanistic
system of management which relied heavily on Weberian
norms cannot function in an unstable environment
whereas organic system of management with its emphasis
on individuals, downward and lateral communication, con-
tinuous interaction and participatory management would be
suitable for unstable environment. Much of the bureaucratic
pursuit was directed towards activities other than achieve-
ments of goals whereas the need was to fulfill development
programs. According to Warren Bennis, bureaucracy is
likely to go out of use in changed socio-economic
environment. In Indian context bureaucracy, who em-
phasized on maintenance of law and order and genera-
tion of revenue has failed to fulfil developmental func-
tions.
a. Bureaucracy is not necessarily bad what is required is de-
velopmental bureaucracy and this can be achieved through
motivation and training.
b. Conflict between bureaucracy and political executive
need not be dysfunctional. This conflict can help in find-

82
 ing new solutions to existing problems through the pro-
cess of integration.
c. Hierarchical organization forms of bureaucracy can be
transformed into people centric institutions through inno-
vation, structural and procedural reforms.
d. Bureaucracy should not be burdened with all kinds of
activities. If it were to perform developmental activities it
should be left alone to perform these activities only. It can-
not be overturned with regulatory and revenue generation
functions.
The bureaucracy, broadly defined, is that apparatus of gov-
ernment designed to implement the decisions of political leaders.
Political leaders make policy, the public bureaucracy executes it.
If the bureaucracy lacks the capacity to implement the poli-
cies of the political leadership, those policies, however well in-
tentioned, will not be implemented in an effective manner. It is
one thing to promise development, it is quite another to achieve
it. Viewed in this light, the role of public bureaucracy in the pro-
cess of economic, social, and political development looms large
indeed. The role of bureaucracy is critical to all areas of the de-
velopment process in developing nations. Public bureaucracy is
a very vital element of the development process. Bureaucratic
capacity determines what will get done, when it will get done,
and how well it will get done. The greater the capacity of the
bureaucracy to implement complex economic and social de-
velopment plans, the higher the development potential of that
society. Bureaucratic capacity is not a sufficient condition
for development, but it is most assuredly a necessary condition
Liberal Bureaucracy
Liberal Bureaucracy is basically bureaucracy that functions
in Liberal Democracies. In a liberal Democracy the functions of
the state is more about partnership with the Private entities the
role of bureaucracy is not anyway less. State as major
dispenser of social justice had been increasingly questioned
across the globe since the late 1970's. The popular approach
83
was against the state for its dismal performance in almost every
sphere ie. social, economic and political. Recent changes in the
form of governance in the advanced Western democracies un-
derwent great change, especially the public sector management.
This led to the development of the concept of New Public
Management. NPM is depicted as a normative conceptualization
of public administration consisting of inter-related compo-
nents. This process of lessening government control and
bureaucratic role and giving space to private players the activi-
ties of the state is called liberal bureaucracy Liberal Bureaucracy
is seen in liberal democracies. They are providing high quality
services that citizens value, increasing the autonomy of public
managers, rewarding organizations and individuals on the basis
of their effort, maintaining an open minded attitude about which
public purposes should be performed by the private sector, rather
than public sector.
Bureaucracy is becoming more and more efficient with
lesser response time despite of being added with array of re-
sponsibilities and duties. The organizations are restructured to
ensure greater autonomy and mobilization within organiza-
tions. The inter-departmental transactions; coordination and
cooperation are being improved using technologies like ERP
or Enterprise Resource Planning.
The way the government functions in many modern democ-
racies has also changed. The structures and roles have become
flexible; the democratic administration has found its way into public
institutions and organizations, the inclusion of people and their
opinions and ideas etc are some of the new developments.
Merits of Bureaucracy
" The government cannot survive without the bureaucracy -
it helps formulate policies and implements them for the ben-
efit of the people.
" Bureaucracy has made administration more efficient, ratio-
nal, impartial and consistent than was the case in earlier
times.
84
" In the third world countries, bureaucracy plays an impor-
tant role. It promotes national integration and national unity
through administrative policy and action.
" It provides various services to the public in an efficient and
effective manner.
" It fights corruption, divisive and disruptive forces and
enforce order and peace in the country.
Demerits of Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy has been criticized by many.
" One of the criticisms against bureaucracy is that it unre-
sponsive to popular demands and desires. Bureaucracy,
tends to regard itself as the self appointed guardian and
interpreter of public interest.
" Secondly, red tape or undue formalism is another criticism.
It is true that bureaucracy puts too much emphasis on "pro-
cedure through proper channel" and precedents.
" Thirdly, bureaucracy is self-perpetuating.
" Fourthly departmentalism or empire building is another draw-
back.
" Finally, bureaucracy loves tradition and stands conserva-
tism.
In brief, the maladies of bureaucracy are arrogance,
self complacency, obsession with rules, ignorance of human
factor rigidity in outlook and indifference to democratic institu-
tions and processes.

85
 MODULE V

COMPARATIVE PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

Meaning and nature of CPA

The Second World War is generally regarded as dividing
line between the traditional and new literature on the subject of
public administration. Comparative public administration is sucha
field emerged in the subject of public administration,. As a sub-
field,comparative public administration cannot claim a long his-
tory. It was widelyaccepted in the administration of the third world
countries especially after the Second World War. Comparative
public administration stands for cross-cultural and cross-national
public administration. According to JONG S un. "CPA has been
predominantly cross-cultural cre0ss-national in orientation".
In the words of Robert H Jackson, "PA is that facet of the
study of public administration which is concerned with making
rigorous cross cultural comparisons of the structures and the pro-
cesses involved in the activity of administering public affairs".
CAP has two basic motivational concerns: [Link] build-
ing and [Link] problems of the developing countries.
In the worlds of L. Caldwell; its objectives has been to hasten
the emergence of a universally valid booboo of knowledge con-
cerning administrative behaviour to contribute to a genuine and
generic discipline of public administration.
By 1960's , both Political Science and Public administra-
tion had moved into a "post behavioural era'- During this period
substantial attention was given to developing an approach which
was interdisciplinary, value-laden and philosophically non pa-
rochial. Comparative public administration has gained momen-
tum at this period. Woodraw Wilson was the foremost thinker
who has emphasized the need for comparative method in study-
ing public administration way back in 1887. Robert Dahl was

86
more emphatic in seeking two importance of comparison as
a prerequisite for the development of the science of public ad-
ministration. F.W. Riggs corroborated Robert Dahl's idea of
comparative studies.
Comparative Administrative Groups were formed in
U.S.A in [Link] studies received massive impetus for
CAG in 1963, as a committee of the American society for Public
Administration. The committee was headed by F.W. Riggs for a
long time. Fred Riggis considered as the father of CAP. Com-
parative Administrative Group has received financial support
from the Ford Foundation for the research and studies.
The primary interest of the Ford Foundation was on
administrative problems faced by developing countries. CAG
was expected to study these problems in the context of the
Socio- economic environmental factors that exist in developing
countries. The Ford Foundation had a strong development ad-
ministration focus and was interested in transferring knowledge
to these countries through technical assistance projects and
domestically based development within targeted countries.
The CAG developed a programme with three objects;
(1) Encouraging research, (2) Encouraging teaching,
(3) Contributing to more effective public policy formula-
tion in the area of development administration.
Several studies carried out during this time were based on
regions, such as Asia, Latin America and Africa. Other studies
were based on themes such as urban studies, international
administration and comparative legislative studies.
Between 1970 and 1980m there was a decrease in the in-
terest and support for comparative public administration. The
Ford Foundation grants to American society for Public Adminis-
tration ended and no substitute financial sponsor in the United
States materialized. In 1973, the CAG ended as an organisation.
It merged with the International committee of the American So-
ciety for Public Administration to form a new Section on Inter-
national and Comparative Administration (SICA). Cold Well
87
observed that the ultimate purpose of the comparative public
administration movement has been "to hasten the emergence of
universally valid body of knowledge concern administrative
behaviour - in brief, to contribute to a genuine and generic
discipline of public administration."
Comparative Public Administration has two major differ-
ences with traditional public administration. Firstly, public ad-
ministration generally is ethno-centric, whereas comparative ad-
ministration is cross-cultural in orientation and thrust. The earlier
belief was that cultural factors did not make any difference in
administrative settings, because principles, after all, were
principles. But Dahl and Waldo and others pointed out that cul-
tural factors could make public administration different in differ-
ent parts of the globe. Secondly, while public administration has
attempted to build theory and to seek knowledge for the sake of
knowledge, the latter has a purely scholarly thrust as opposed to
a professional one.
Behaviourism has contributed to the stimulation of com-
parative public administration. Behaviourism in administrative
studies started with the famous Hawthorne experiments and those
developed by Chester Bernard and Herbert Simon. The
behavioural approach in public administration has motivated
a great deal of scientific research and systematic theory con-
struction. The testing of hypotheses in cross-cultural contexts
has made the study of comparative public administration a ne-
cessity. Students of comparative public administration have shown
a dominant interest in the interactions between the political
system and its bureaucracy in cross cultural settings.
Comparative Public Administration emphasized the follow-
ing aspects:-
1. Organisations must be viewed as embedded in specific cul-
tures and political settings.
2. The principles of public administration are seriously inad-
equate

88
3. Both the study and practice of administration are perva-
sively value loaded and
4. A ny proper discipline must have complementary pure and
applied aspects.
Scope of CPA
1. Woodrow Wilson in his essay 'the study of administration
'visualised the scope of the comparative studies in public
administration . He felt that such comparative studies were
necessary -
2. To see whether any administrative institutions can be trans-
planted from other countries to the US administration ;and
3. To see whether administrative processes in the
[Link] relevant other countries.
Generally the scope of CPA can be summarized as follows;
1. It studies different administrative system in their ecological
settings;
2. Emphasises empirical study based don rigorous methods,
such as observations
3. Has developed on the inter-disciplinary orientation;
4. Lays stress on the interaction between administration
and socio-economic cultural and political phenomena;
and
5. Has widened the horizons of the discipline by making it
broader, deeper and useful.
Purpose of Comparative Public Administration
1. To learn the distinctive features of a system or a cluster of
systems.
2. To explain the factors responsible for the cross national and
cross cultural differences in bureaucratic behaviour.
3. To examine the census for the success or failure of par-
ticular administrative features in particular ecological set-
tings and
4. To understand strategies of administrative reform. What are
to compare?
89
I n the Comparative Public Administration, what are the ele-
ments is being compared? Whetherit is the comparison of
some parts or the whole administrative system?. That is a
question arising among the students. Really the subject matter
of the comparison one or all of the following phenomena;
1. Environment of the administrative system
2. The administrative system
3. The formal structure of the administrative system with the
focus on the pattern on hierarchy, division of work,
specialisation, authority-responsibility network, decentrali-
zation, delegation, control mechanisms, procedures ect.
4. Theinformal organizational patterns existing in the adminis-
trative set-up.
5. The role of theindividuals
6. The interaction between the personality of the individual and
the organizational system
7. The policy and decisional systems of organization that link
its various parts
8. The communication system which also involves the feed-
back mechanism
9. The performance of an administrative system.
Conceptual Approaches a)Bureaucratic System Approach:
The most influential of these approaches or Mar Weber's
ideal type bureaucratic model. The Weberian model by itself may
not serve an adequate tool, but it can provide a frame of refer-
ence for comparative [Link] scholars who have contrib-
uted to the comparative studies of comparative bureaucratic
systems are Morre Berger, Alfred Diament, Ferrel Heady,
Robert Presthus and Michael Crozier.
The comparative approach to bureaucracies had been of
two kinds: (a) examination of internal processes of bureau-
cratic organization, such as decision making, planning etc. and
(b) examination of the relationship between organization and the
external environment

90
c) Decision making approach:
In the comparative study of public administration, the deci-
sion making approach was advocated by Martin Landan. He
observed that in developing societies, planning, programming and
other facts of decision making should be given considerable at-
tention. Landau stressed the need to enhance the decision
making capacities of the administrative systems of develop-
ing nations.
b) Input output system approach:
One of the major approaches in this category, the general
systems approach, views an administrative system as a sub-
system of society. It looks at the various parts of an administra-
tive system (for example formal organization, informal orga-
nization, roles and individuals) and examines the interlinkages
among them. Besides, the approach analyses the dynamic inter-
actions between the administrative system and its external envi-
ronment.
In 1957, Rigg-the foremost theorist of comparative public
administration- introduced an important theoretical construct in
comparative public administration in the form of "agrarian
transitiaindustria' typology. He was influenced by Talcott Par-
sons, Marion Levy, [Link] . Later Riggs came out with
his well-known model of "prismatic society".
Another scholar who employs the systems concept in com-
parative public administration is John.T. Dorsey, whose 'infor-
mation energy' model is based on a synthesis of the concepts
of general system theory, communication and cybernetics and
energy and energy conversion. His basic hypothesis is that a
society's degree of development may be measured in terms of
the size of information and energy surplus.
d. Component Approach:
A well-known conceptual approach in comparative public
administration is of development administration. While the
development approach emphasizes the problems of devel-
oping countries, it is argued that even those countries which are
91
industrially advanced, face the challenge of social change. There-
fore, development has universal implications and relevance. That
is how development approach has come to be treated as an
important component of comparative public administration.
Importance of Comparative Public Administration
The importance of the study of CPA is an universally
accepted [Link] scope and importance of the study of com-
parative public administration is growing day by day. Three fac-
tors make comparative studies [Link] first factor relates
to the academic study of public administration. It is believed that
through comparative public administration, hypotheses,
generalisations, models and theories can be constructed
which can collectively help in the scientific study of public
administration. The old principles of administration is not con-
sidered valid any more and now it is believed that generalisations
related to administrative structures and behaviour emerge out of
comparative studies in different nations and cultures, which can
provide a scientific basis to the study of public administration.
The second important function of comparative public ad-
ministration relates to its relevance to the empirical world.
Through a study of comparative public administration, admin-
istrators, policy makers and academicians can examine causes
for the success or failure of particular administrative structures
and patterns in different nations and cultures, which can
provide a scientific basis to the study of public administration.
Thirdly, the study of comparative public administration also
contributes to a greater understanding of the individual charac-
teristics of administrative systems functioning in different nations
and cultures. We can lean about the administrative practices fol-
lowed in different countries and then we can adopt these prac-
tices which can fit in our own systems. Besides, comparative
studies also help in explaining factors responsible for cross na-
tional and cross cultural similarities as well as differences in the
administrative systems.
On the whole, comparative public administration definitely
92
boosted the academic utility of the subject by providing scien-
tific and systematic vision in improving knowledge about
other administrative systems, so that suitable administrative
reforms could be undertaken, thereby providing practical ap-
plicability too.
Definitely comparative public administration have an
important role in making the discipline broader, useful and
inter disciplinary catering to cross cultural, temporal settings. With
increasing interactions with politics and administration machin-
ery, it brought politics and administration closer in providing
practical solutions and inducing scientific outlook in theory build-
ing.
Challenges to comparative public administration
The beginning of the 1970s saw the decline of the com-
parative public administration. In 1971, the FordFoundation ter-
minated its finical support to the CAG. In 1973, the CAG itself
was disbanded and merged with theInternational Committee of
the American Society for PublicAdministration to form a new
Section on International andComparative Administration
(SICA). Its major journal TheJournal of Comparative Adminis-
tration ceased to publish from 1974, after five years of exist-
ence. Its legacies wereabsorbed into the larger field of political
science and publicadministration. On failure of comparative
publicadministration, Robert T. Golembiewski said,
"Publicadministration should take full notice of the fact
thatcomparative administration's failure rests substantially on
aself-imposed failure experience. It set an unattainable goal,that
is, in its early and persisting choice to seek acomprehensive
theory or model in terms of which to defineitself ". Similarly,
Peter Savage, who served as the editor ofThe Journal of Com-
parative Administration (published for afive-year period from 1969
to 1974), observed,"Comparative administration started with no
paradigm of itsown and developed none."
Several reasons have adduced to the decline in the impor-
tance of comparative public administration. One such reason is

93
that many eminent persons began to think that only Public Ad-
ministration was enough; and if so why comparative public ad-
ministration. Many persons associated with the comparative ad-
ministrative movement could not give any satisfactory answer to
this question. In 1973 the comparative administration group
was dismantled. It was also a challenge to the Comparative
public administration. In the 1970's many persons were eager
to have degree in comparative public administration but by the
end of 1990's only few persons were shown interest.
During the cold war period and even after the relaxation of
tension, many top ranking administrators of USA began to think
of development administration and not about comparative ad-
ministration. This is a potent cause of the decline of comparative
public administration. Again it was thought that only Public Ad-
ministration was enough and comparative chapter or approach
is unnecessary. There is another reason for the decline is that in
order to a separate subject and an important discipline, it must
have separate research group and the researchers and must build
up models and paradigms. Unfortunately the Comparative Pub-
lic Administration has no such models.
The Comparative Public Administration earned good will
and wide publicity under the aegis of Comparative administra-
tive group and many organizations .But in the eighties and
nineties of the last century many showed their disinterest in this
subject. Nicholas Henry has called the ill-fate of comparative
public administration a 'dilemma'. However we do not think that
comparative public administration is dead or the scholars do not
show interest in it . They show interest whenever they need the
study of comparison of different administrative systems.
Conclusion:
The comparative approach has become an integral part of
social science studies. No social science research can be com-
plete without a comparative focus. The Public Administration is
not an exception to this theory. The study of comparative public
administration helps us to understand the administrative systems

94
of different countries. In this module we have examined the mean-
ing nature and importance of comparative public administration.
We also examined the different approaches to the study of pub-
lic administration
Assignment:
1. Explain the meaning and impotence of comparative Public
Administration
2. Narrate the different approaches to the study of Compara-
tive Public Administration

95