Pavement Design

by AASHTO Method
Prof. Mustafa Aytekin
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A-Introduction
Engineers need to examine their agency’s standard pavement foundation
support system based on good engineering practices and the level of service
they desire for the life of both HMA and PCC pavements.

It is important to understand the characteristics of the soil and what cost-

effective soil manipulation can be achieved, whether an aggregate subbase is
used or not.

If different soil types are encountered, and an aggregate subbase is not used,
properly blending and compacting the soil will help reduce differential
movement and help prevent cracking. .

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B-Pavement Thickness Design
Good designs, followed by good construction practices with a proper
inspection/observation program, are critical to realize the full performance
potential of any pavement type.

Design objectives:

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 Pavement Thickness Design Parameters
HMA : Hot Mix Asphalt

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1. Performance Criteria (Serviceability Indexes):
Condition of pavements are rated with a Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
ranging from 5 (perfect condition) to 0 (impossible to travel).
a. Initial Serviceability Index (Po): The initial serviceability index (Po) is the PSI
immediately after the pavement is open. At the AASHTO road test, values of 4.5 for
rigid pavement and 4.2 for flexible pavement were assumed. These values are listed in
the 1993 AASHTO Design Guide (624 pages).

b. Terminal Serviceability Index (Pt): The terminal serviceability index (Pt) is considered
to be the PSI that represents the lowest acceptable level before resurfacing or
reconstruction becomes necessary.

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c. Serviceability Loss: The predicted loss or drop in serviceability (ΔPSI) is
the difference between initial and terminal serviceability (Po - Pt). The ΔPSI is
the basis for the pavement design.

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2. Design Variables:
a. Analysis Period: This refers to the period of time for which the
analysis is to be conducted. The recommended analysis period is
10, 20,….. or 50 years for both concrete and asphalt pavements.

b. Design Traffic: An estimate of the number of Equivalent 18,000

pound (80kN) Single Axle Loads (ESALs) during the analysis
period is required. This value can be estimated based on:
• the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) in the base year,
• the average percentage of trucks expected to use the facility,
• the average annual traffic growth rate, and
• the analysis period.

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As described above, the ESAL is the standard unit of pavement damage and
represents the damage caused by a single 18,000 pound (80kN) axle load.
Therefore, a two-axle vehicle with both axles loaded at 18,000 pounds would
produce two ESALs.

However, since vehicle configurations and axle loads vary, AASHTO has
established a method to convert different axle loads and configurations to
ESALs. For example, a 34,000 pound tandem axle produces approximately 1.9
ESALs for rigid pavement (1.1 for flexible pavement). Summing the different
ESAL values for each axle combination on a vehicle provides a vehicle’s Load
Equivalency Factor (LEF). The LEF can then be applied to the assumed truck
mix and the AADT to determine ESALs.

We will see how to calculate ESALs in details now.

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 This axle is considered for ESAL
standard load-18kips =18000lb = (80kN)

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 ESALi = fd x Gm x AADTi x 365 x Ni x fEi

Where:

fEi = Load Equivalency Factor, (LEF)

fd = design lane factor
Gm = Growth factor
AADTi = first year annual average daily traffic for axle category i.
Ni = number of axle on each vehicle in category i

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In order to calculate the ESAL following terms should be
defined first:

GROWTH RATES < 10% (it is between 2 % and 5% in the USA)

The Growth Factor (Gm) for different growth rates can be

calculated from the equation below:

A table has been prepared and given here as a function of

growth rate (r), and design life in years (n).

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 LOAD EQUIVALENCE FACTORS,
(LEF)

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 Table D.4

LOAD EQUIVALENCY
FACTORS

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 Table D.5

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Example
 An 8-lane divided highway is to be constructed on a new
alignment. Pt=2.5, SN=5, Traffic volume forecast indicates that
AADT in both direction during the first year of operation will be
12,000 with the following vehicle mix:

 Passenger cars:2-axle (1000 lb/axle) = 50%

 2-axle single unit trucks (6000 lb/axle) = 33%
 3-axle single unit trucks (10,000 lb/axle) = 17%
 Trucks on the design lane = 45%
 Passenger cars on the design lane 50%

If the expected annual traffic growth rate is 4% for all vehicles,

Determine the design ESAL for a design period of 20 years.
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Solution
 Growth Factor = Gm = [(1 + r)n - 1]/ r = [(1 + 0.04)20 - 1]/ 0.04 = 29.78
(or see the table below)

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Solution (Cont.)

% truck volume on design lane = 45%

Load equivalency Factors fEi (Table D.4):
Passenger cars (1000 lb/axle) = 0.0002 (negligible)
2-axle single unit trucks (6000 lb/axle) = 0.010
3-axle single unit trucks (10,000 lb/axle) = 0.088

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 Solution (Cont.)

 ESALi = (fEi) (Gm) (AADT)i (365) (fd) (Ni)

For passenger cars (2000 lb/axle) ESAL = negligible

ESAL = 0.0002 x 29.78 x(12,000x0.50)x 365 x 0.50 x 2 = 13 (too small, ignore it)

For 2-axle single unit trucks

ESAL = 0.010 X 29.78 X (12,000X 0.33) X 365 X 0.45 X 2
= 0.3874 X 106

For 3-axle single unit trucks

ESAL = 0.088 X 29.78 X (12,000 X 0.17) X 365 X 0.45 X 3
= 2.6343 X 106

Total ESAL = 0.3874 X 106 + 2.6253 X 106 = 3.0217 x 106

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 Pavement Thickness Design Parameters
HMA : Hot Mix Asphalt

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c. Reliability [R (%)]: Reliability is the probability that the design will
succeed for the life of the pavement. Because higher roadway
classification facilities are considered more critical to the transportation
network, a higher reliability is used for these facilities. The following
reliability values were assumed for the calculations.

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d. Overall Standard Deviation (So): The Overall Standard Deviation is a
coefficient that describes how well the AASHO Road Test data fits the
AASHTO Design Equations. The lower the overall deviation, the
better the equations models the data. The following ranges are
recommended by the AASHTO Design Guide.

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
a. Soil Resilient Modulus (M ): R

The important variable in describing the foundation for pavement design is the Soil Resilient
Modulus (MR). MR is a property of the soil that indicates the stiffness or elasticity of the soil
under dynamic loading.

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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 3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
Selection of Resilient Modulus (MR) in AASHTO Method:
Design by the AASHTO Guide requires the selection of an "Effective Roadbed Soil
Resilient Modulus." Since the seasonal variation of resilient modulus is quite
complex, the selection of a single resilient modulus value for use in design can be
quite complex. The objective, of course, is to select a single value that is
representative of the entire year.

The 1986 Guide contains a specific recommended method for selecting the
subgrade resilient modulus.

It consists of estimating seasonal variations in resilient modulus and assigning

relative damage factors on a monthly or bimonthly basis. The damage factors are
summed and the average determined. The resilient modulus corresponding to the
average damage factor is then used for design.
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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
The following steps are involved in selecting the subgrade resilient modulus.
Step 1. Develop a relationship between resilient modulus and subgrade
moisture content. This involves conducting resilient modulus tests on the
subgrade soil at various moisture contents representing the range of
moisture variation expected. For example, using the resilient modulus for
the 6-psi deviator stress data from Figure 9, a relationship between
resilient modulus and moisture content is developed (Figure 12).

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
Step 2. Estimate the seasonal variation in moisture content.
Although there is no standard approach for making this
estimate, a practical approach might be to sample a similar
subgrade. Here, it is assumed that moisture contents were
determined four times during the year on a similar subgrade
soil from a nearby pavement. From these a seasonal variation
has been estimated as shown in Figure 13

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3. Material Properties for
Structural Design:
Step 3. Determine the monthly (or bimonthly)
resilient modulus. Figures 12 and 13 are used to
estimate the resilient modulus for each month of
the year. The monthly values are entered on the
AASHTO form (Figure 14). For example, the
moisture content in March is about 25 percent.
From Figure 12, the resilient modulus for 25
percent moisture content is 9,500 psi. Except for
January and February, the resilient moduli for other
months are found in a similar fashion. For January,
it is assumed that the subgrade will be frozen
resulting in a very high resilient modulus. February
is assumed to be a period of thawing. To account for
the freeze-thaw effect (Figure 11), the resilient
modulus is determined in the normal fashion and
reduced by 50 percent.

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 Relative damage factor

Unit of MR is psi

MR = [uf/(1.18x10^8)]^(-1/2.32)
Fig. 14

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 3. Material Properties for
Structural Design:

Step 4. Select a relative damage factor for each resilient

modulus. Relative damage factors corresponding to the
monthly resilient modulus values are selected using the
scale on the right side of Figure 14. For the frozen
subgrade (January), the resilient modulus would be high
resulting in a low relative damage factor. For practical
purposes, a damage value of 0.0 is assigned.

Step 5. Use the average monthly relative damage factor to

select the Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus. The
average damage value (.063) is used with the scale on the
right side of Figure 14 to select the Effective Roadbed Soil
Resilient Modulus (9,900 psi) to be used in design

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

b. Modulus of Subgrade Reaction – (Subgrade Reaction Modulus) (k):

The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary input for rigid pavement
design. It estimates the support of the layers below a rigid pavement surface
course (the PCC slab). The k-value can be determined by field tests (mostly plate
load test) or by correlation with other tests.

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

For the sake of completeness, the typical subgrade reaction modulus are listed
below in Tables
Prof. Mustafa Aytekin 1 and 2. Note that these values are valid for a 12″ plate resting
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on uniform soils. If there is no potential for creep and long-term consolidation,

3. Material Properties for
Structural Design:

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3. Material Properties
for Structural Design:

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 3. Material Properties for
Structural Design:

1) Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k:

For concrete pavements, the primary
requirement of the subgrade is that it should be
uniform. This is the fundamental reason for
specifications on subgrade compaction. In
concrete pavement design, the strength of the
soil is characterized by the modulus of subgrade
reaction or, as it is more commonly referred to,
"k".

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:

2) Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, kc:

In many highway applications, the pavement is not placed directly on the

subgrade. Instead, some type of subbase material is used. When this is
done, the k value actually used for design is a "composite k" (kc), which
represents the strength of the subgrade corrected for the additional support
provided by the subbase

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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
c. Concrete Properties:

PCC - Modulus of Elasticity (Ec) and Modulus of Rupture (S'c).

The Modulus of Elasticity for concrete (Ec) depends largely on the strength of
the concrete. Typical values are from 2 to 6 million psi. The following equation
provides an approximate value for Ec:

Ec = 6,750 (S'c)
where:
S'c = modulus of rupture – MoR: [28-day flexural strength of the concrete using
third point loading (psi)]
The approximate relation between modulus of rupture (S'c) and compressive
strength (fc) is
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Importance of Modulus of Rupture
(MoR):

1. The calculation of modulus of rupture is

considered crucial in structural mechanics,
It helps in designing structural elements.
2. Aids in the study of materials and their
properties.
3. Provides a parameter for development of
stronger constructional materials.
4. Flexural strength helps in judging the
quality of structures being used for
construction.
5. It is a tool to predict both resistance and
durability of objects.
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3. Material Properties for Structural Design:
d. Layer Coefficients:

Structural layer coefficients (ai values) are required for flexible pavement
structural design.
A value for these coefficients is assigned to each layer material in the
pavement structure in order to convert actual layer thickness into the
Structural Number (SN).

SN: Structural Number

One of the key questions in the structural design of an asphalt pavement is
how thick each layer of the structure should be. During design, these
thicknesses are related to the Structural Number (SN), which is an abstract
value that expresses the structural strength of the overall pavement.
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ESTIMATION OF SN
(Structural Number)

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The Structural Number determines the total number of ESALs that a
particular pavement can support.

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a1-values

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a1-values

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a2-values

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a3-values

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4. Pavement Structural Characteristics
a. Coefficient of Drainage:
Water under the pavement is one of the primary causes of pavement failure.
Water, either from precipitation or groundwater, can cause the subgrade to
become saturated and weaken. This can contribute to pavement pumping
under heavy loads.

Cd - The coefficient of drainage for rigid pavement design used to account

for the quality of drainage.
Mi - The coefficient of drainage for flexible pavement design used to modify
layer coefficients.

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In selecting the proper Cd or Mi value, consideration must be
given to two factors:

1) how effective is the drainage, and

2) how much of the time is the subgrade and subbase in a
saturated condition?

For example, pavements in dry areas with poor drainage may

perform as well as pavements built in wet areas with excellent
drainage.

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 The following definitions are offered as a guide:
 Excellent Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 2 hours.
 Good Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 1 day.
 Fair Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 7 days.
 Poor Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 1 month.
 Very Poor Drainage: Material does not drain.

Based on these definitions, the Cd or Mi value for the road test conditions
would be 1.00. A value of 1.00 would have no impact on pavement thickness
or the number of ESALs a section would carry.

Lower values increase the recommended pavement thickness; higher values

decrease the recommended pavement thickness. Based on Tables 2.4 and 2.5
from the 1993 AASHTO Design Guide, the analysis assumed a fair quality of
drainage and 1% to 5% exposure to saturation for the drainable base sections.
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b. Load Transfer Coefficients for Jointed and Jointed Reinforced
Pavements:
One item that distinguishes PCC pavement is the type of joint used to
control cracking and whether or not steel dowels are used in the joint
for load transfer. Each of these designs provides a different level of
transfer of load from one side of a pavement joint to the other. To
adjust projected pavement performance for these various designs, the
load transfer coefficient or "J" factor is used.
c. Loss of Support:
The 1993 AASHTO Design Guide indicates that the loss of support
factor is included in the design of concrete pavements to account for
the potential impact arising from the erosion of the subgrade material
and/or differential soil movements. Values of the factor range from 0
to 3. Application of these factors impacts the k value used in
thickness design.
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
BY AASHTO

Prof. Mustafa Aytekin

 The Equation for Structural Design of Flexible Pavement
by AASHTO-1993
Po - Pt

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 First try

Second try

Last try

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The following definitions are offered as a guide:
 Excellent Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 2 hours.
 Good Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 1 day.
 Fair Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 7 days.
 Poor Drainage: Material drained to 50% of saturation in 1 month.
 Very Poor Drainage: Material does not drain.

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Example: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN-RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
A flexible pavement is constructed with 4 inches of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) wearing
surface, 8 inches of emulsion/aggregate-bituminous base, and 8 inches of crushed
stone subbase. The subgrade has a soil resilient modulus of 10,000 lb/in2 , and
drainage coefficients of m2 and m3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the pavement
structure. The overall standard deviation is 0.5, the initial PSI is 4.5, and the TSI is
2.5. The daily traffic has

1080: 20-kip single axles,

400: 24-kip single axles, and
680: 40-kip tandem axles.

How many years would you estimate this pavement would last (how long before its
PSI drops below a TSI of 2.5) if you wanted to be 90% confident (reliability) that your
estimate was not too high, and if you wanted to be 99% confident that your estimate
was not too high?

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SOLUTION:

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Calculate the required layer thicknesses for a new asphalt concrete
pavement on a fair draining base and subgrade (i.e., the water
drains out of the pavement within a period of one week). It is
estimated that the pavement structure becomes saturated less
frequently than 1% of the time. The following data is also given

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 SOLUTION:

Given data
W18 = 2500 000
MR = 30.000 psi
R = 95%
So = 0.4
DPSI = 2.2

The value of the SN that satisfies this expression is 2.4.

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The drainage conditions described suggest drainage coefficients
for the base/subgrade layers between 1.25 and 1.15

The structural layer coefficients corresponding to new layers are 0.44, 0.14,
and 0.11 for the asphalt concrete, base, and subbase, respectively.

2.4 = 0.44 D1 + 0.14x1.25 D2 = 0.11x1.15 D3

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 THE END

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