ANCIENT CIV ILIZ ATION

A T E XT B OOK
F OR

S E C ONDARY S C HOOL S

R OS COE LE WI S AS HLE Y
'

A T H OR OF
U
“
A M ER I C A N H I S TORY ,
” “
A M ER I C A N
G O ER N M E NT E TC
V ,
”
.

Nam Earl:
T HE M A C M I L L A N C O M P A NY
1 915

All ri gh t s r r
es e v ed
 CO P YR IG HT , 1 9 1 4 , 19 15 ,

B Y T HE MA M ILLA N
C CO M AN
P Y .

Se t u p a nd el ect o ty r p ed . P u b li s h ed Feb r ryua , 191 5 . r

R ep i nt ed
S c p t cmbe r , 19 ! 5 .

Nat ives !) 9 m :
J . C u nh i ng Co . Be r Wi ck 65 S mi t h 0 0
-

r
No w oo d , M u m, U S A
. . .
 PR E F ACE

A GR E AT dea l mo r e ing given t o s o ci a l h i s

a t t ent i o n i s be
tory a nd t h e li fe o f t h e p eop l e o f t h e p a st th an w a s f o me ly r r

t h e c as e .A g eat d ea l l es s i s b eing given ex c ep t by cl a s si

r ,

cal s t u d ents t o t h e h ist o y o f G r eec e a nd R om e

,
r Th is .

bo ok ai m s t o meet t h e n eed o f sc h oo l s th at des i e a s h o t r r

a nci ent h i s t o ry t ex t t o t h e ti m e o f Ch a l em a gn e w h ich s h a l l

,
r ,

not b e c h i efly a n a r ativ e o f events r It dea l s p ri marily with .

h u ma n p o g es s r It d ev o t es es p eci al att enti on t o g eat

r . r

mo vements t o i mp o t ant l ea d e s t o t h e l i fe o f t h e p eo p l e
,
r r ,

a nd t o t h e civiliz a ti o n o f d i ffe ent p eri o d s A lth o u g h it i s

r .

no t a lw ays ea sy t o t a c e t h e ec o d s o f t h e r
“
di m sil entr r

mass es ”
,
th is s o ci a l h i s t o y s eems t o b e w o th mo re th an
r ,
r

t h e ann a l s o f c o ts o r o f c o nqu e o r s
ur As f ar a s p o s s ibl e r .
,

t h e a u th o r h a s t i ed t o k eep in m in d th r ee t h ing s
r
( )
1 t h e :

i m p o rtanc e o f any ch ange as a p a t o f t h e dev el op ment o f r

anci ent civiliz ati o n ; ( )

2 t h e c o nn ecti o n b etw een t h e s e

ch anges and mo de n li fe ; and (3) t h e inter est and c ap a city

r

o f t h e st d ent in t h e h ig h s c h o o l
u H e h a s t i ed t o give a . r

c o r ect i mp es s i o n o f e ents and c h ang es ath e th an t o

r r v r r

d es c ib e t h em w ith lit e a l acc a cy a s l it er a l acc u a cy i s

r r ur ,
r

i mp o s s ibl e i n s o bri ef an accou nt Even i f it w e e not i m . r

p o s s ibl e i t w o l d b e u n d es i abl e fo a n exa ct d eta il ed ao

,
u r ,
r ,

c ou nt wo ul d rend e obsc e t h e c h a a ct er a nd t h e meaning

r ur r

o f t h e mo vem ent un d er c onsi d e ati on B i ef and g en er a l r . r

a s i s t h i s s u vey o f a v ery b o ad fi el d
r t h e au th o r h o p es
r
,

th at h e may h av e made t h e s u b j ect int er esting as well as

int elligibl e .

T h e au th o r s t h ank s a e du e t o t h e fo ll owing t eac h er s fo

’
r r

t h e ea d ing o f p a t o al l o f t h e b oo k in m anu scri p t

r r r M iss :
 P R EF AC E
M a u d e F ra nc es S t even s o f t h e P a l o Alt o ( Ca li fo rni a) High
S c h o o l , M i s s A l ic e N G ibb on s o f t h e East H igh S c h o o l
.
,

R o c h es ter, N ew Y o rk , a nd M i s s L eo n ora S ch o p b ach o f t h e

P a s ad en a (Ca li fo rni a) High S c h o o l H e i s in d ebt ed t o P ro .

fes s o rs G eo rge W illi s

t s fo rd T G Tu ck er Ch a rl es
Bo ,
. .
,

H eal d Well er F B Ta bell and W G S o l as f o t h e u s e

,
. . r ,
. . r

o f ill u s t rati on s f o m t h eir b o ok s

r H i s in debt ednes s t o o th er
.

a u t h o s a nd ill u s t a t o r s i s in d ic at ed in t h e t ext o r in t h e li s t
r r

o f ill u str a ti o ns T h e a t h o will b e gl a d t o ec eive s u gges

. u r r

ti on s o c itici s ms f o m th o s e th at h ave o cc asi o n t o u s e t h e

r r r

vo l u me .

PA S A D E N A , CA L l l ‘
-
U R NI A ,

J ul y ,
19 1 4 .
 CONT E NT S

I NT RO DU CT KHJ
SECT I ON
1 . A N C I E NT A N D M O D E R N C I L I A T I O N
IV Z

7 . H I S T ORY A N D P RE H I S T ORY

P AR T I

T H E DAW N I I I
OF C V L Z AT ON I
CH A P T ER I

P RE H I ST OR I C MAN
12 . TH E OL D S T O N E A G E
19 . TH E NE W S T O N E A G E
P RE H I S T OR I C C I V I L I Z A T I O N
37 . M AN A T T H E D A W N OF H I S T ORY

CH A P T ER II

T HE DA W N OF H I ST O R Y

43 . ANC IENT BO F I I
' ’

TH E T I G R I S E P H R A T ES V A L LEY —
-
U EA RLY P ER I O D
58 . A SSYR I A A N D C H A L D E A
TH E E AS T M E D I T ERRA N EA N COAS T

P T E R I II
CH A

A N C I E N T C I V I L I Z A T I ON

TH E R U L I N C A SS ES
G L

L I FE OF T H E P EO P LE
R EL I I O N
G

WR I T I NG A N D L I T E R A TU R E
T R A D E A N D I N D U S T RY
P R OG RESS or T W E N T Y F I E CE NTU R I ES
-
V

vi i
 CON T E NT S

CH A PTE R IV

T HE J EG EA N A R E A
S ECT ION
1 17 . T H E G EO G RA P H Y OF T H E J EG E A N A RE A
1 22 . E A RLY jEG E A N C I V I L I Z A T I O N S
127 . TH E H OM E R I C A G E
13 2 . TH E U N I T Y O R T H E G REE R S
138 . T H E G REA T ER G REE K WOR L D
1 45 . SPA RTA
1 50 . A TH ENS

P A RT H

T H E E X P AN S O N I o r T HE N A T ON S I
( 5 5 0— 14 6

A . G R E E CE

CH A P T ER V

G RE E CE AN D PE RS I A
1 57 . TH E G EO G RA P H Y o r A NC I E NT E X P A N S I O N
1 60 . TH E P ERS I A N E M P I RE
16 7 . TH E P ERS I A N WA R S

P T ER V I
CH A

H E LL E N I C G R E E C E

17 8 . T H E G OL D E N A GE G REE C E
or

18 8 . T H E P E LO P O NN ES I A N W A R
19 4 . JE M
G OS P OT A I C H ER N E A
To / O

C H A P T ER V II

A L E XA N D E R T HE : HE LL E N I ST I C A GE

T H E E M P I RE or A LE A N D ER
X

T HE H ELLE N I S T I C A GE
 C ON T ENTS ix

SECT I ON
2 12 . CE N T E RS OF H E LLE N I S T I C C U L TU RE
2 18 . G REE C E AF T ER A x D LE AN ER

CH A P T ER V III

T HE PLA C E OF GREE CE I N H I ST OR Y

S O C A L L I FE
I

G O ER N M E NT
V

L I T ERA TU RE
G REE K
'

ART
INT E LLE C TU A L SC I E N C E
S P RE A D OF H E LLE N I SM

B . R OME

CH A P T ER IX

E A R L Y R OM E
2 75 . G EO G RA P H Y
280 . T H E R OM A N S B EFORE 5 1 0 B C .

2 86 . T H E S T R U G G LE OF T H E CLASSES
29 3 . T H E CO N ! U ES T OF I T A L Y
299 .
TH E R OMA N S T A T E A N D A RM Y

CH A P T ER X

C ON ! U E ST OF T HE ME D I TE R R A N E A N ( 2 64 — 1 46 A D
. .
)
3 04 B EFORE A N D AF T ER T H E P N I C WARS
. U

3 08 CAR T H A G E
.

3 1 3 TH E E A RLY P U N I C W A RS
.

32 1 COM P LE T I O N OF M E D I T ERRA N E A N CO N ! U E S T S
.

3 2 6 C H A NG ES I N R OM E
.
X C ON T E NT S

P A RT I II

T HE R O M AN S T AT E
1
( 46 H C —4 7 6
. . A D . .
)
CH A P T ER XI

R E V OL U T I O N D I M PE R I A L I SM ( 146
AN R C.
.
-
14 A D
.
)
S EP T IO N

TH E E ARLY R E OL T A G A I N S T S E N A T OR I A L R U LE
V

3 42 . TH E S T R UGG LE M I L I T A RY S U P REM A C Y
FOR

TH E E T A L I S H M E NT OF A N E M P I RE
S B

C H A PT E R XII

T HE R OM A N W O R LD
R OM E A N D T H E E M P I RE
CLA SSES I N T H E R OMA N W RL D O

L I FE T H E P EO P LE
OF

R OM A N I A T I O N OF T H E M E D I T ERRA N EA N WORL D
Z

CH A P T ER XI I I

T HE R OM A N EM P I RE A F TE R A U G U ST U S

F ROM A U U S TU SG M A R C U S A U RE L I U S
To

D I S OR D ER A N D R EOR G A N I A T I N Z O

T H E S P RE A D C H R I ST I A N I T Y
O P

TH E D E C L I N T H E E M P I RE
E OF

T R AN S T ON I I F R O M AN C E N T I T IME S
CH A P T E R X I V
T HE G E RM A N S IN W E STE R N E U R OPE
T H E G E RM A N S
TH E T E UTO N I C K I NG D OM S
F I S I O N O F R OMA N A N D T E IIT O N
'

T II E C H R I S T I A N C H U R C H
TH E M O H A M M E D A N S
TH E E M P I RE o r T H E F R AN R S
 I LLUS T RAT I ONS

T h e Ac ro p o l i s , A h ens , t res t o red by D Oo ge

’

F i s t h a t c h et ,
-
a ft er Ch o u q u et
P reh i st o r i c p a i nt i ng ( Al t a m i ra ) , a f t er Ca rt a i l h a c a nd B r eu i l
y
P reh i s t O I i c Eg p t i a n v a ses , r m P et ri e, A rts a nd in
4 nci ent E gyp t ( McCl u rg)
P reh i s t o ri c h o rse ( P rz ev a l s k y )
T h e Gr ea t P y r a mi ds
K a rna k , Great Co l u m ns
Ha m Inu I ab i I ecei v i n
g c o de
S i x S i d ed
-
c y l i nder
W i nged b u l l a ft eI P eI I o t
, a nd Ch i p i ez
R u i ns o f B a b y l o n
T h e M o a b i t e S to ne
y
Eg p t i a n h o u s e
T h e s c ri b e
T he b a st i na do , a ft er M a sp ero , A nci ent E gyp t a nd A s sy ri a
( A p p l et o n)
P ea s a nt h o u se, a ft er P err o t a nd Ch i p i ez
’
s

Wo men gri ndi ng a t t h e m i l l

W o ma n m ak i ng b rea d
M u mmy a nd mu mmy c ase
J u dg ment of t h e Sou l , a ft er Ma sp ero
T empl e of Lu xo r, res t o red , a ft er P erro t a nd Ch i p i ez
y
B a b l o ni a n t em p l e, a ft e r P err o t a nd Ch i p i ez
T he R oset t a S t o ne
y
Eg p t i a n h i er o gl y p h i c s
Ir ri a t i o n o n t h e Eu
g p h ra t es
Egy p t i a n w a t er s w eep -

Tr a d e i n m a r k et

y
An Eg p t i a n s h i p , a ft er M a s pero
A Cret a n v a se, fro m A nnu a l of th e B r i t t s /z S ch ool A th ens
’

at

T h e L i o n Ga te , Myc enae
Ol y mp i a t
res o red
xi i I L LU T S R AT I ON S

A c ro p o l i s at At h ens
A nc i e nt co i n

y
C l i nd er of C y ru s

M ara t h o n , l o ok i n gt o wa rd th e s ea

B ay of S a l a mi s
Harb o r o f P i raeu s ( Mu nyc h i a)
S eat s i n t h e a mp h i t h ea t re a t At h ens
T h e bema , At h e ns
P e ri c l es
P o rc h of the M a i de ns
P a l l as At h ena , by P h i di a s
P lan of t h e A c ro po l is , by Ro b ert B . D a le

D e mo s t h enes
Al exa nder
Al t a r of Z eu s , P erga m u m, res t o red

L ao c o o n
W o ma n s d ress’

G reek c h a i rs a ft er , G uh l a nd Ko ne r
W ri t i ng ma te ri a l s , a f t er Gu h l a nd K o ner
Ma sk s fo r t ra g dy e , af t er Gu h l a nd Ko ner
G reek a nd R o m a n t h ea t res , a fter Co c k erel l
Orders of Greek Ar c h i tec t u re, f ro m S t a t h a m A rc h i tec t u re fo r
Genera l R ea d ers 19 5
T h e P a rt h eno n, p res ent c o nd it i o n 1 96
D i s c o b o l u s , b M ro n y y 197
T he Th ree F a t es 198
Hermes by P ra xi tel es 19 8
dn
,

S arc o ph a g u s of t h e Ki ng of Si o 19 9
Apo ll o B el v i de re 2 00
W i nged Vi c t o ry o f S a mo t h ra ce 2 01
V e nu s de M i l o 2 01
S o cra t es 2 02
V es t a l V i gi n r 222
S a c re d c h i ck n e s , a ft er Sc h rei ber 2 23
R o ma n s o l d i er, a ft e r Gu h l a nd Ko ner 23 1
A T ri u mp h — t h at of J u l ius Caesa r, 4 6 B C
. .
, a f t er Wei ma r 2 32 3
-

Ro ma n a rt i l ler y ( Di c t i o na r y of A nt i q u i t i es ) 249
R o ma n gl a d i a t o rs, a ft er Guh l a nd Ko ner 2 52
y
P o mpe t h e G reat 2 67
 I LLU S T R AT I O N S xi i i

J u l i u s Caes a r
Au gu s t us

T h e F o ru m t o da y -

T h e F o r u m rest o red , a f t er G at t es c h i
I mp er i al R o m e, genera l vi e w by B i got
, f ol l o wi ng
T h e Co l os seu m , p r es en tc o nd i t i o n

T h e P a nt h eo n
Ru i ns of gym n a si u m o f Ha d r i a n
R o man b ri d ge a nd a qu ed u c t
R o m a n t h ea t re .

S l av e i n fet t er s
Ho rs i ng a b oy
S c h em e of R o m a n h o u se
Ho u se f u rni t u re
P eri s t y l e I n h o u se of the V et t II

T o ga , a f er t Gu h l a nd K o ner
Ba hs t of Ca r a c al l a , t ex er i o r

Co l o s seu m , r es t o re d by C . Ni pp i La ndi-

Ci r c u s M a x i m u s , r est o re d
Ap p i a n W ay w i t h ,
ru i ns o f Cl a u di a n a qu edu ct
S p o i l s fro m J eru s a l em , Ar c h of Ti t us

V esu v i u s f ro m F o r u m of P o mp ei i
S t at u e of M ar c u s Au rel i u s
W a l l s o f A u rel i a n R o m e
Ch u rc h o f S t S o p h i a Co ns t a nti no p l e
,

.
,

S t P et er s Ch u r c h R o me d uri ng t h e ea rl y M i d d l e Ages
’
.
, , ,

resto r ati o n by Cos t a ro s sa

 LI S T OF COLOR MAP S

P A GE
Egy p t i a n em p i re, 14 5 B C. .

Hi t t i t e em p i re, 1 3 5 0
B a b y l o ni a n a nd A s s y ri a n emp i res , 1 900 a nd 67 0 B . C

G reec e
G rea t er Hel l a s , sh o w i ng P h oeni c i a n c o l o ni es
F o u r Grea t K i ngd o m s, 5 5 5 B C . .

P ers i a n emp i re .

Emp i re o f Al ex a nder t h e ( n ea t sh o w i ng t h e k i ngdo m s o f his

su cces s ms o
pp os zte

I t ly
a

Exp a ns i o n of Ro m e
R o m a n em p i r e u nd er D
i o c l e t i a n a nd Co ns t a nt i ne
T g
e u t o ni c k i n d o ms i n Wes t ern Eu ro e a b o u t 5 2 5
p A D
. .

M o h a mmed an a nd Ch r i s t i a n W o rl d s ,
8 00 A D. .

MAP S I N T E X T

Anc i ent Eg p t y
Ti gri s Eu p h ra t es
-
b as i n
Ea st M edi terra nea n c o a s t
G reec e at t h e t i me o f t h e P ers i a n W a rs
At h ens a nd P i raeu s fro m B o t sfo r d
( )
I mp o rt a nt R o m an ro a d s

T h e G er ma n m i grat i o ns
 S U GGE S T I ONS T O T E ACHE RS

TH I S bo o k is off er ed a s a t ext fo r a h al f y ear c ours e in -

a nci ent h i s t o ry ; o r f o r t h e fi r s t h a l f o f a y ea r s s u rvey o f

’

Eu r op ean h i s t o ry t o t h e R efo mati o n o r t h e eigh t eenth cen

r

t u y ; o r fo a year s w ork in anci ent h isto y with su ffi ci ent

r r
’
r

u s e o f t h e r ef e enc es r S t u d i es a nd o th er s u gg esti on s f o
. r

s u pp l em ent a y w o k a e giv en f o
r r r t h o s e w h o can d evot e at r

l east a h al f y ear t o t h e s bj ect S ome o f t h e m o e di fii cu l t

u . r

t op ic s and d i s c u s si ons will nat u r ally b e r ead at h er th an r

s t u d i ed by y o u ng e s t u d ent s
r Th o se w h o wis h t o give
.

mu c h l es s ti me t o anci ent h i st o y m ay find t h e fo ll o wing r

s u gg esti o ns h el fu l
p
Th ose w h o wish ch i efly a n arr ative of anci ent h istory
m ay d ev ot e es p eci a l att enti o n t o t h e n arr a tive c h ap t ers ,

tic l r ly II I V —V I I I X—X I X III —XI V S i m ly r ea d ing

p a
r u a , , p , ,

t h e o th er c h ap t e s and t h e p art s o f t h es e n arr ativ e c h ap t ers

r

th at dea l with li fe o r civiliz ati o n .

Th o se w h o wish t o give s p eci al att enti on t o anci ent l i fe

o nly m ay s t u dy t h e Int o d cti o n c h a p t e s III V III X I I
,
r u ,
r , , ,

t h e su mm a ri es o f t h e o th er c h ap t e s and many o f t h e
'

r ,

f o ll o wing s ecti o ns 42 45 4 9 5 4 5 7
: -

63 7 2 1 17 1 44
,
-

, , , ,
-

1 5 6—1 60, 1 7 6, 1 83 — 1 8 7 , 2 06 2 09 , 2 1 2 —21 6 , 2 7 4—2 8 7 , 2 99 —3 02 ,

-

3 04— 3 1 2 , 3 2 64 33 5, 3 49 , 3 5 2—3 5 8 , 3 9 9 —4 1 9 , 42 5 —4 3 6, 4 4 7 —449 .

In eith er of th es e ways a c o u s e can b e ar anged th at r r

m ay b e given in a h a l f y ea r wit h not mo r e t h an th ee r eci

-

,
r

t at i o ns p e w eek
r .

Even t h o s e w h o h ave b u t a s h o rt time f o r anci ent h ist o ry

wil l p robably b e abl e t o u s es o me o f t h e S tu d i es Th es e su p .

p l e m en tra y e
r a d ing s h av e b een s el ect ed wit h c a e and rep re r ,

s ent t h e m o s t ea d abl e a nd m o st s ati s fa ct o y s el ecti o ns t h a t

r r

t h e au t h o h as b een abl e t o find in a s ma ll c o ll ecti o n o f b oo ks

r .

S o me o f th es e a cc o u nts are nec es s arily f o m t h e w o rks o f r

x vi i
x v ii i SU G G ES T I O N S To T EAC HER S
w it e
r rs wh o a re ig h es t a u th o iti es S ome Of t h em
no t t h e h r .
,

t o o a e ra t h e d i ffic u lt f o r stu d ents o f t h e fi r s t o

,
r r s ec o n d r

y ear o f t h e h igh s c h o o l In s p it e Of t h e l a ge nu mber o f . r

vo l u mes Of h isto y written n t h e anci ent p e i o d th ere i s

r o r ,

c omp ar atively littl e t h at i s s ati s fa cto y fo r c o ll ater al ead r r

ing A s m o s t Of it i s fo ma l o d i ffi c u lt o r littl e r el at ed t o
. r r ,

t h e li fe t h a t w e wis h t o st u dy it is h a dl y ava il a bl e f o r ,
r

u se . T h e T o p ic s a e n ec es s arily s el ect ed f om m u c h m o e
r r r

f o rma l a cc o u nt s t h an t h e S t u d i es a nd a e int en ded f o r ,

r

f a i rly a dvanc ed s t u d ent s .

T h e f o ll o wing s u gg es ti o n s in r eg a d t o b o o k s fo s u pp l e r r

m ent a y u s e may b e o f int eres t t o s o me t ea c h er s

r T he .

r ec o mmended bo ok s a re t h o s e t h at t h e au t h o h as fo u nd r

u s abl e in cl a s s es o f s ec ond y ea h igh s c h oo l s t dent s w ith -

r u
,

s o me s t u dent s from t h e fi rs t and t h ir d y ea rs Al l s tu d ent s .

w h o u s e t h i s bo o k S h o u l d h av e a cc es s t o o ne o f t h e m any
exc ell ent l o ng er t extbo o k s o n a nci ent h i t o y In c onn ec s r .

ti o n wit h th is c ou s e t h e auth o p a tic u l a ly ec o mm en ds

r ,
r r r r

eit h er B o ts fo r d s T h e A nci ent Wo rl d o M o ey s O tl i nes of

’ ’
,
r r u

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’

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e s o , ,
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S o r ce B o o k f Anc i ent H i s to ry will b e f ou n d ex c ell ent

u .
o , .

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r r r r ,

no b o s Anci ent Ci vi l i za t i o n and Du P o ntet s T e A nci ent

’ ’
h

Wo rld a re w o th c o ns i d ering On p eh i s to ric devel o p m ent

r . r

S o ll a s Anci ent H nters a nd o n p reh i s t o ic civiliz ati on

’
u ,
r ,

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’ ’
o r s u

r e s a re int e es ting
s r .

B es i d es Du P o nt et B a i k i e s S to ry of th e P h a ra ohs and
’
,

S a K i ngs of Crete are goo d

e W i nckl er s H i s t ry of B a by .
1 ’
o

l o ni a a nd As y ri a i s pe h ap s t h e b es t s h o rt b o o k o n t h e
s ,
r ,

Tig i s E p h rates h i sto ry B r eas t ed s H i to ry f th e Anci ent

r -
u .
’
s o

Egyp t i a ns and G o o d s p eed

’
s H i s to ry of th e B a by lo ni a ns a nd

l
I n l i eu of t h es e bo o k s c l a s s es ma y O b t a i n c o p i es of the N a ti o na l
Geo gra p h i c M a ga z i ne fo r J a nu a ry , 19 1 2 , a nd S e p t em ber ,
1 9 13 , wi t h
a rt i c l es by M r . B a i ki e on C re t e a nd Egy p t .
XX S U G G ES TI ON S TO TEAC HER S
S ei gnob os
’
H i s to ry of th e R o ma n P eop l e i s mo re us abl e
p ro bably th an s l
exc ell ent Ou tl i n s of R o ma n H i
P e h am
’
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to y o
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’ ’
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) a re g o o d f o r r efe enc e o n t h e
p eri o ds r

indic ated T h e au th o h as fo u n d Tu c k e s L ife i n th e R 0

. r r
’

ma n Wo rl d t h e b es t b o o k o n R o ma n li f e fo f a i ly ma t e r r ur

s t u dents Da vi s Infl ence of IVea l th i n I mp er i a l R ome i s

’
. u

int e es ting reading F or y o ng e s t u dent s p e h ap s P es ton

r . u r r r

and D o d g e s P r i va te L i fe of th e R ma ns i s l es s u ns at i s fac
’
o

to y th an t h e o th er a cc o u nt s T h e Camb i d ge (S an dy s ed )
r . r
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.

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’
u e o

t h e emp i e a re v a l abl e r ef e enc e b o o k s f o t ea c h e s

r u On r r r .

t h e p e i o d o f G er man invasi o n s a nd o f t h e t a n s iti o n

r r

f o m t h e R o man E mp i e t o t h e F eu d a l Age al l o f t h e
r r

gene a l efe enc es given o n p age 3 4 8 a re g o o d

r r r .

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m at eri al s m ay b e Of val u e t o so me t eac h er s T h e au t h o r .

beli eves t h at t h e s tudents will l earn t h e geogr ap h y o f any

tim e better i f th ey d raw t h e map s fo r t h em selves s ing a s et ,
u

Of o u tlin e m ap s wit h c o l o cray o ns A bl ackbo ar d map ”

,
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o n S p ring o ll ers i s a gr ea t c o nveni enc e in ex p l a ining l o ca

r

ti ons and b o u nd a i es One of Eu ro p e can b e us ed i f o ne Of

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t h e M ed it err an ean and t h e Tig i s Eu p h r at es b a s in c ann o t r -

b e p r o cured T h e b es t s ingl e w all map f o r th i s c o u s e i s

. r

a l a rg e map o f t h e R om a n Em p i e An un mo u nted map r .

abo u t 2 4 x 3 0 inc h es ca n be Obt a in ed f o littl e m o re th an r

$ 1 but t h e l a rg e m a p s on s p ing o ll e s c o sting f rom $ 1 0

,
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t o 351 5 a e v ery d es ir abl e

r T h e b es t s u p p l ementa ry map s .

are th o se Of Al ex an d er s Em p i e a nd o f E u o p e P l an s
’
r r .

o f R om e t o acc o m any t h e r ec o n s t r u cti o n o f anci ent R o m e

p ,

can b e Obt ain ed f o m M on s i eu r P B igo t P a i s at t w o fr anc

r .
,
r ,
s

ea c h .

H a i s o n o f N ew Y o r k and M cK i nl ey Of P h il a d el p h i a
r

p u bli s h s h ee t s f p ict es n o t eb o
o o k S iz e ill u str
ur a ting an, ,
 S U G G ES T O I NS To TEAC HER S xxi
ci ent l i fe Amo ng t h e fo r eign b o oks th at
.
a re us abl e be
c au s e Of t h e l arge nu mb er o f ill u strati o n s a re Mu zi k and

P ers ch i nk a , K u ns t a nd L eben i n Al t ertu m ( F r eytag ,

Le pi zig ,

and ger es L a V i e p r i vee et p bli q e d es Grecs

F ou , ,
’

u u ,

et R o ma i ns (P a i s r S o me Of t h e G er man s ets o f
,

h i s t o ic al w a ll p ictu es a e s u p eri o r t o t h o s e p u bl i sh ed in
r r r

th i s c o nt y Amo ng t h e best are t h e Cyb u l ski c h a ts

u r . r

il l u s t ating G eek and R o man anti q iti es p u blish ed at 4

r r u ,

ma k s ea c h t h e L eh mann h i s t o ric a l p ictu r es o f anci ent and

r ,

nedi aev a l civiliz ati o n u n mo u nt ed a t m a k s ea c h N at u 1

I , ,
r .

r ally th es e c o st m o e in Ame ic a M o dels of h ou s es

r r .
,

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,
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,
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. . r .
,
r ,
r r , r

B l u mner a nd R a u sc h o r in t h e R au sc h s et f r o m t h e G er
, ,

man m anu fact u r ers Th es e mo del s can be p u rch as ed s ep a

.

at ely .

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f o m t h e A me ic an L ibr ary A s s o ci ati o n a ec ent list o f c h ea p
r r r

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. r

s p ecific r ec o m m en dati o n s b u t h e b eli eves t h at t h e s u ges , g

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enced i n a n
y c a s e by a ny o t h er d es i e t h a n t h at o f bringing r

t h e best m at eri a l b ef o r e cl a s s es t h a t c a r e t o u s e t h is boo k .

It h as been imp o s s ibl e Of c ou s e t o inclu de t h e titl es o f,

r ,

many v al u abl e b o o k s t h at ar e o nly a littl e l es s u s eful th an

s o me Of th o s e th at h ave been menti oned .

1
A fu l l l i s t Of m a ny s et s o f c
p i t u r es , wi t h p ri c es i s g i v en i n t h e Germ a n
,

c a t a l o gu e o f s c h o o l su p p li es , B i bl i o th eca P a eda go gi ca P a r t X I (b) .

M a ny m o del s l i s t ed i n P a rt X I (a )
a re If p i c t u res a nd m o d el s c a nno t
.

O b t a i ne d t h r o u gh S t e c k er t o r s o m e o t h er i m
p o rt er p o ss i bl y t h ey ca n
be
,

be o b t a i ned t h r o u g h P l a h n s ch e B u c h h a nd l u ng Ec h e Ob erw a l l u nd
’

F r a nz Os i s ch es t r as s e B erl i n C ent ru m , G erm a n

,
y W h o l es al e
, .
o rd ers wi ll ,

Of c o u rs e, b e fil l ed b y B r o c kh au s L ei z i
, p g, G erm a n y .
I N T R ODU CT I ON
 ANCIENT CIV ILIZ ATION

AN CI E N T AND M ODE R N CI V I L I Z AT I ON

1 . M o d ern Civiliz a ti o n a nd th e P ast . We s o m etim es

t h ink o f o u r p r es ent civiliz ati o n a s c h i efly a p r o duct o f
m o d ern tim es B ec a us e t h e st ea m engin e and t h e t el e
.

p h on e t,
h e aut o m o bil e t h e r a ilr,
o ad a nd t h e Unit ed S
,
t a t es
o f Am erica did no t exist t w o c enturi es a go w e d o no t ,

r ea liz e h o w gr eat t h e w o rld w as b efo r e t h at tim e We can .

trav el m o r e r ap idly t h an o u r anc est o rs Ou r m a c h in es .

turn o u t S h o es and cl o t h and st eel r a ils a t a rat e t h a t

o u r a nc est o rs c o uld no t h a v e im a gin ed We enj o y n ews .

p ap ers p ers o n a l rig h ts a nd p o litic a l p rivil eg es t h at w er e

,

u nk no wn a few c enturi es ago M any o f t h es e c h a ng es .

h av e b een du e t o inv enti o ns a nd a re t h er efo r e fo rm s o f

,

ma teri a l p rogress w h ich i s a n im p o rtant but no t o ne o f

, ,

t h e b es t p ro o fs o f civilizati o n
,

T h e m a in qu esti o n h o w ev er is t h is h av e t h es e c h a ng es
, ,

b een c h i efly in o u r surr o undings o r in o urs elves ? Al

t h o ugh w e h av e m o r e p rivil eges and o p p o rtuniti es a nd
righ ts t h a n o u r anc est o rs are w e any b ett er ? We h a ve
,

m o r e w ealt h and t h er efor e m o r e c o mfo rts and luxuri es .

Do w e und erst a nd li fe b ett er ? Are w e b ett er educ a t ed ,

m o r e h o n est and m o r e h um an e ? Are w e m o r e cultur ed ,

m o r e int er est ed in o u r fell o w ma n m o r e r eligi o us and

-

m o r e m o r a l ? I f w e a re o bliged t o a nsw er m o st o f t h es e
qu esti o ns n ega tively w e must a dmit t h a t w e a re no t m o r e
,

civiliz ed t h an o u r a nc est o rs in s p it e Of t h e fa ct t h a t
,

m at eri al p ro gr ess h as b een s o gr eat during t h e last two

c enturi es .
 INT R OD U CTI ON

2 . imi t ati o n s o f t h e An ci ent W o rl d

L Wh en w e co m
.

p a r e t h e a nci ent w o rld wi t h t h a t o f to d a y w e find t h a t

-

anci ent p eo p l e liv ed in a sm a ll er w o rld t h a n o urs in a lm o st

ev ery w a y T h ey did no t kn o w as muc h a b o ut t h is
.

p l a n et as w e kn o w n o r did ,
t h ey h a v e t h e m o d ern i m
p ro v ement s w h ic h w e j ustly v a lu e S O h i gh lv T h e .

kn o wn w o rld Of t h e Gr eeks a nd t h e R o m a ns ext end ed

fr o m t h e Indus R iver t o t h e Atl a ntic Oc ean a nd w a s
bo und ed o n t h e s o ut h by t h e grea t d es ert o f S a h a r a .

T h es e p eo p l es o f l o ng ago m a d e a lm o st ev eryt h ing t h ey

n eed ed by h a nd o r m o re ex a ctly t h es e a rticl es w er e m a d e
,

by t h e l o w er cl ass es a nd S l a ves c h i efly fo r t h e u s e o f t h e

ric h a nd n o bl e cl ass es o f s o ci ety Educ a ti o n w as no t .

c o mm o n exc ep t a m o ng t h e b o ys Of t h e influ enti a l fa mili es .

T h e individual usu a lly h a d no rig h ts t h a t t h e rul er s w er e

b o und t o r es p ect In s p it e Of t h es e di ffer enc es a nd
.

limit ati o ns w e are surp ris ed t o find h o w muc h w e o w e

t o t h e p eo p l e o f a nci e nt tim es .

3 T h e M o d ernn es s
. o f th e A n ci ent O ri nt
e /
l\ I a ny .
-

Of t h e m et h o ds a nd id ea s t h a t w e c o nsid er m o s t m o d ern

a re v ery O l d If w e h a d visit ed anci ent B a byl o n ab o ut

.

fo rty c enturi es a go w e s h o uld h a v e fo und tw elv e m o nt h s

,

in a y ea r wit h s even d ays in ea c h w eek ea c h d a y b eing

, ,

divid ed int o t w o s et s o f tw elv e h o urs ea c h T h e m er .

c h ants w o uld h a v e s o ld us g o o d s using weig h ts a nd m eas

,

ur es no t r a dic a lly di ffer ent fr o m t h o s e t h a t w e kn o w .

B usin ess w as c o nduct ed a g o o d d ea l as it is t o d a y ev en -

if it w as d o n e o n a sm all er s c a l e and t h e m erc h a nt w as

,

fo rc ed by la w t o k eep h i s c o ntr a ct s .

Ha d w e visit ed a nci ent T h eb es a b o ut t h e s a m e tim e w e

s h o uld h a ve fo und t h a t t h e Egy p ti a ns wer e fam o us fo r
t h eir lit er a ture t h eir gl a ss w a r e t h eir p o tt ery a nd o t h er
, ,

fine a rt s . We c o uld h a ve ins p ect ed a gr ea t p i ec e Of en

gi neeri ng t h at w o uld h a v e c o m p a r ed v ery fa v o r a bly wit h
t h e f a m o u s dam at Assu a n in Egyp t r ec ently c o nstruct ed
 INT R OD U CTI ON

6 . S t and a r d s of ivi li z ati o n

C I t is no t eas y to l a y
—

d o wn rul es by w h ic h w e s h a ll be a bl e to l earn w h et h er
p pe o l e a re civiliz e d o r n o t but c ertain,
st a nd a rds a r e

usu a lly f o und a m o ng all civiliz ed p eo p l e Am o ng t h es e .

S T A N DA R D S t h e f o ll o wing may be m enti o n ed : ( 1 ) C iviliz a

ti o n c o nsists in w h a t a man o r a soci ety i s muc h m o re t h an

in w h at it h a s (2 ) No p eo p l e are civiliz ed sim p ly b ecaus e
.

a few men are gr eat stat esm en o r writ ers o r a rtists ; , ,

bec a us e th e wh ole p eop le mu st be ci vi li zed not a few mem ,

bers .
(3 ) Civiliz a ti o n m ay b e m easur ed by t h e ma teri a l
p gro r e s s o f a p eo p l e t h at,
is by t h e im,p r o v em ent o f r a il
w ays t h e c o nstructi o n Of citi es a nd t h e d ev el o p m ent o f
,

t h e c o m fo rts Of li fe (4 ) A still b ett er st a ndard Of civil

.

i z a t i o n is t h e gener a l wel l bei ng of th e p eop le a s a wh o l e

-
.

If o nly a few enj o y a l l Of t h e a dvant a g es o f t h e wealt h

and mat eri a l p r o gr ess t h e p eo p l e h a ve no t b ec o m e r ea lly
,

civiliz ed (5 ) T h e p r o gr ess o f h umanity can b e m easur ed

.

by t h e s oci a l p oli ti ca l a nd economi c i ns ti tu ti ons o f a p eo p l e

, ,

for ins titutions are t o a s o ci ety w h at o rg a ns are t o anim a ls ,

and no o ne can d o ubt t h at a nim als wi t h h earts and lungs

and br ains are m o r e h ig h ly d ev el o p ed t h an a nimals t h at
l a ck t h o s e o rg ans (6 ) An o t h er g o od stand a rd is the
.

exi s tence of cu l tu r e as s h o wn in t h e lit er a t u r e O f a p eo p l e a nd

its art sci enc e a nd p h il o s o p h y (7 ) A still bett er t est

,
.

o f civi liz a ti o n i s S h o wn in t h e mo ra l a nd r eli gi ou s devel op

ment of a p eop le (8 ) F inally no p eo p l e are r ea lly

.
,

civiliz ed w h o h ave no t at l east a minimum Of eac h o f t h es e

el em ents Of ci v iliz a ti o n m enti o n ed ab o ve T h a t is
“ ”
.
,

ci vi li za ti o n co ns i s ts in a goo d co mbi na ti o n f
o th e ments
ele

of r t
ci vi li za ti o n
a h er t h a n a c o n s id er a bl e d ev el o p m ent of

o ne and a t o tal d isr egard fo r s ev eral o t h ers .

H I S T OR Y A ND P R EH I S T OR Y
7 T h e R e co r d s o f H i s t o ry
.
— We mus t k eep in mind .

t h es e standards as we study t h e st o ry Of di ffer ent p eo p l es ,

 A N C I ENT AN D M OD ER N C IVI LIZ ATI ON

but we must no t exp ect t o find a v ery h igh grad e Of civil

i z a t i o n a m o ng t h e earli er rac es no r must w e ex p ect t o
kn o w v ery much a b o u t t h em N o wad ays w e h ave i n.
s

num erabl e n ews p ap ers b oo ks a nd m o r e p erm a n ent

, ,

r ec o rds t o give us t h e f a cts but a few h undr ed y ears ago

,

b o o ks w er e sc a rc e a nd a few t h o usand years ago t h ey

w er e unkn o wn We ca n tr a c e back t h e r eal h ist o ry o f
.

m ankind by t h e m eans o f writt en r ec o rds o nly a littl e

way : o nly ab o ut t w o t h o us a nd y ears fo r o u r a nc est o rs ;
l ess t h a n t h r ee t h o us a nd fo r t h e cl assic a l nati o ns t h e
“ ”
,

R o m a ns and t h e G r eeks ; a nd o nly a littl e mor e t h an

fiv e t h o us a nd fo r t h e o ld est h ist o ric a l civiliz ati o n of
t h e w o rld T h is r ec o rd o f h ist o ric a l c h anges wh ic h we
.

g e t f r o m writt e n a cc o unts w e c a ll H I S T OR Y .

8 T h e P e ri o d b efo r e W ri t t en R e co r d s
.
— B ack o f t h e
.
,

d awn o f h ist o ry in Egy p t a nd G r eec e a nd B rit a in li es a ,

l o ng d a rk p eri o d in w h ic h men lived a nd fo ug h t and

l earn ed We call t h at t h e P R EH I S T OR I C P ER I OD in th e l i fe
.

o f man . We d o no t kno w muc h a b o ut it and y et all , ,

t h ings c o nsid er ed w e kno w a gr eat d ea l We can s ee man

,
.

struggling u p fr o m t h e l o w est s a v ag ery t o barb a rism fro m ,

b a rb a rism t o a li fe Of us eful t o il and fro m s emib a rb arism

,

t o a st a t e o f s emicivilizatio n B efo r e h ist o ry

. dawn ed
in Egyp t t h er e w er e in t h e vall ey Of t h e N il e str o ng gov
'

ernment s well o rg aniz ed s o ci eti es ext ensiv e busin ess es

,
-

, ,

s o m e art and f a irly well d ev el o p ed r eligi o ns T h es e t h ings

-
.

S h o w t h a t m a n must h av e b een t o s o m e ext ent civiliz ed

, ,

b efo r e h e w a s a bl e t o l eav e writt en r ec o rds by w h ic h w e

ca n fo ll o w h i s trav els cl early .

9 Ep o ch s o f H i s t o ry — Wh en w e l o o k Off t o ward t h
. . e

h o riz o n w e s ee easily t h os e l a rg e o bj ects t h at mak e u p

,

t h e f o r egr o und F art h er aw a y Obj ects t h a t r eall y a re

.

j ust as l a rg e l o o k small er and o ccup y a muc h l ess imp o rt a nt

p l a c e in o u r fi eld o f visi o n B ey o nd t h a t ind efinit e lin e
.

wh ich we call t h e h o riz o n str etc h limitl ess dist anc es

, .
 INTR OD U CTI ON

T he ep o c h s o f h ist o ry a re like t h es e distanc es T h e fo re .

g r o und ,
e xt e ndi ng b a ck s o m e fi v e o r six c enturi es w e c a ll ,

modern hi s tor y T h e h istory t h a t p r ec ed es m o d ern

.

h ist o ry c o v ering a p eriod ab o ut S i x o r s ev en tim es a s l o ng

,

as m o d ern h ist o ry we call a nci ent h i s tor y We h ave no w

,
.
1

r eac h ed t h e lin e o f t h e h o riz o n B eyo nd t h at a ll is p re .

h istoric .

1 0 Ep o ch s o f P r eh i s t o ry
.
— T h e p r eh ist o ric p eri o d is
.

very muc h l o nger t h a n t h e h ist o ric p eri o d Ho w l o ng it .

is no o ne kno ws T h at p art w h ic h imm ediat ely p r ec ed es

.

t h e p eri o d w h ic h w e c a ll anci ent hi st o ry is kn o wn as

'
t h e new s to ne a ge o r t h e ne o li th i c p eri od It is co m- -
.

p a r a t i v el y s h o rt and all O f t h,
o s e a g es t h a t go b ef o re are
'
c a ll ed t h e old s tone a ge o r t h e p a te o li th i c p eri o d - - -

1 1 T h e Ages o f S t o n e a nd o f M et al s
.
— I t is s a id
s o m etim es t h at ma n h a s p a ss ed th rou gh th r ee grea t a ges .

the o ld s to ne a ge, t h e new s to ne a ge, a nd the a ge o f meta ls ,

first the a ge or t h en t h e a ge of bronze a nd t h en t h e

f cop p e ,

a ge of i r o n T h e a ge o f m et a ls c o incid es r at h er r o ug h ly
.

wi t h t h e h isto ric p eri o d o f a ny p eo p l e fo r man mad e ,

rap id p ro gr es s as s oo n as h e gain ed m etals and s Oo n h a d ,

writt en r ec o rds fro m w h ic h h i s h i s t o ry can b e trac ed .

1 M o st a u t h o rs p refer t o h a v e a p eri o d b et ween t h e An i ent c a nd t he

M od er n t h a t t h ey c al l
M ed i ev a l p eri o d o r t h e M i dd l e Ages
the S o me .

p l a c e t h e begi nni ng o f t h e M i d dl e Ag es a s ea rly a s 3 7 6 A D ; o t h ers a s .

,

la t e a s 8 14 A D S o m e g i v e 1 4 5 3 a s t h e e nd o f t h e M i ddl e Ages o t h ers

. .
,

gi v e 1 49 2 , o t h er s 1 5 2 0, a nd s t il l o t h er s 17 89 .
P AR T I

OF C I V I LI Z ATI ON
 C H AP T ER I

I
P R EH S T OR C I M AN

T HE OL D S T O N E AG E

. r
1 2 T h e Wo l d s E a rli e s
’
t C ivi l iz a t i o n — T h at o f t h e
F i r s t T o o l m a k er s
-
T h e o nly r emaining tr a c es Of ea rly
.

m a n o n t h is eart h a re t h e
few h um a n b o n es t h a t a re
f o und fr o m tim e to tim e in
wid ely sc att er ed p lac es A .
1

gr ea t int erval in tim e s ep a

r at es t h es e h um a n fr a gm ents
from t h e tr a c es o f m an i n t h e
n ext p eri o d t h e m an w h o
—

mad e t o o ls We do no t find .

any of t h e b o n es Of t h es e
early t o o l m a k ers but w e d o
-

find fis t h a tc
-
h ets m a d e O,
f
flint rud ely c h i p p ed S O t h at
,

t h e h atc h et c o uld b e h eld i n

t h e h a nd and us ed fo r cutting .

We find a ls o flint s cra p ers T h F i t h tch t

, e s -
a e .

us ed fo r cutting and fo r p re
‘

p aring S kins Occ a si o nally flint s p ea r h ea ds h a v e b een

.
-

fo und als o but usu a lly t h es e p rimitiv e m en must h a v e

,

us ed wea p ons Of wo o d a lt h o ugh t h ey m a d e t o o ls o f rough

,

st o n e It is p o ssibl e t h at t h es e men wit h t h e first civi

.

l i z at i o n m ay h a v e h a d fire als o a nd it is p r o b a bl e t h at ,

S o m e p eo p l e b eli ev e t h a t t h e
1
eo l i t h s a re t o o l s m a de b y man h u n
,

dred s o f c ent u ri es b efo re t h e d a y s of t h e fi s t h a t h et s

-
c .

11
 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN

t h ey h ad many o t h er t o o ls and p roducts o f m o r e p erish abl e

m a t eri a ls than t h e st o n e h atc h ets .

1 3 T h e S p r e a d o f t h e Ea rli e s t Civi li z a ti o n — At t h e
. .

tim e t h es e men lived Engl a nd was no t a n island fo r t h e

, ,

N o rt h S ea w as a br o a d lo w v a ll ey It a ly was als o co n
.

nect ed wit h Afric a across S icily T h e t o o ls o f t h es e

.

ea rly m en w er e c a rri ed ev eryw h er e a nd w e find t h a t men

Of lat er p eri o ds w h o liv ed in eas t er n Eur o p e in Asi a and ,

in Am eric a o r in s o ut h ern Euro p e a nd in Afric a us ed t o o ls

very muc h lik e t h es e fis t h a tc h ets
“ -
”
S O t h e civiliza
.

ti o n d evel o p ed by a few men was s p r ea d o v er t h e surf a c e

O f t h e gl o b e ,
a nd s o l a t er civilizati o ns a nd id ea s w er e

cr eat ed by o ne s et o f p eo p l e a nd imit at ed by t h o s e t h at
fo ll o wed fo r it is muc h ea s i er fo r man t o imitat e t h an t o
,

cr eat e s o m et h ing fo r h ims elf T h e u s e o f fire a nd t o o l s

.

c onstitut ed t h e first and gr eat est r evo luti o n in t h e u p w a rd

struggl e o f t h e rac e .

1 4 Ear ly M a n a nd h i s En emi es
. M o st o f t h es e p re
.

h ist o ric m en liv ed i n t h e Op en p r eferably n ea r a riv er

,

wh er e t h ey c o uld get wat er and w h er e fruits wer e abun

,

dant H er e a nim a ls c a m e al o ng t h e tr a ils fo r drink and

.

men migh t o btain anim a l fo o d by lying in w a it To .

p r o t ect t h ems elv es fr o m t h eir en emi es t h es e river drift

p eo p l e p r o b a bly liv ed in tr ees In s.
p it e o f h i s l o ng h a iry

arms wit h t h eir S in ewy muscl es p al eo lit h ic man h a d no

n atur a l w eap o ns Of deI ence S inc e h e w as i nf eri o r in
.

natur a l str engt h t o m any o f t h e b easts Of t h e f o r est h e ,

was o blig ed t o d efend h ims el f by h i s su p eri o r int ellig enc e

and by t h e u s e o f w eap o ns t h a t h e m a d e fo r t h at p ur p o s e .

B u t m a n must do m o r e t h an d ef end h im s elf h e must find

fo o d and at l eas t h a lf o f t h e y ear t h i s fo o d must b e c h i efly
,

t h e fl es h o f anim a ls . Wit h h i s club and h is s p ear h e w a s

a wo rt h y ant ago ni st fo r any o t h er m o n a rc h Of t h e fo r est ,

t h o ugh h e usu a lly a tt a ck ed t h e y o ung er anim a ls b ecaus e

th ey w ere kill ed m o r e easily and w er e m o r e t end er In .
 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN

ces t o rs . S o me
of t h eir skulls are as larg e as t h o s e of
p r es ent day savag es and a few Of t h e lat er skulls a re no t
-

v ery di ffer ent fro m t h e skulls o f Eur o p ea ns o f to day -

.

T h e t o o ls Of t h e c o ld p eri o d are l ess fini s h ed t h an t h o s e

Of t h e warm p eri o ds t h at p r ec ed ed and f o ll o w ed M an .

evid ently was using m o r e en ergy in g etting f oo d and l ess

in making to o ls He was an untidy h o us ekeep er in h is

.

cave t h r o wing t h e b o n es a b o ut w h en h e h ad p ick ed t h em

,

A P r ehi s t o ri c P a i nt i ng .

cl ean but h e h a d l eisur e a ls o t o t h ink ab o ut t h e fo rc es

,

o f n a tur e a nd ab o ut hi ms elf We find s o m e sk el et o ns

.

i n t h es e caves t h at und o ubt edly w er e buri ed t h er e No t .

o nly w er e t h ey buri ed but t h ey h a v e a t h a nd t o o ls a nd

im p l em ents suc h as t h e c a v e men h a d u s ed in li fe It .

is di fficult t o b eli ev e t h a t m an as lo w in t h e sc a l e Of civili

z at i o n as th e ca ve men beli eved i n a life after dea th and y et ,

t h a t is t h e n a tur a l c o nclusi o n t o dr a w No t m a ny y ea rs .

a go t h e N o rt h Am eric a n Indi a n p l a c ed at t h e S id e o f
h i s d ea d c o mr a d e t h e w ea p o ns a nd o t h er O bj ects t h a t
t h e d ea d m a n w o uld n eed in t h e h ap p y h untin g
gro unds .
 T HE OL D S T ON E AG E

17 . T h e Ca ve Ar t i s t s
is l ess strange t h at man
.
-

It
S h o uld t h ink Of r eligi o n t h an t h at h e s h o uld b ecom e an

artist Y et t h e p ictur es t h a t l at er cave men h a v e l eft

.

are a mong t h e m o st int er esting relics o f t h e distant p a st .

A quart er of a c entury a go a S p a nis h n o bl eman w h o was

int er est ed i n t h e cav e men visit ed t h e cav e o f Altamira
in n o rt h er n S p a in He was a cc o mp a ni ed by h i s littl e
.

d a ugh t er Wh il e h e ex amin ed t h e fl o or o f t h e c a v e
.
,

h e w a s s t artl ed by an excl a m a ti o n fr o m t h e c h ild and , ,

l o o king u p s aw a w o nd erful c eiling p a inting in c o l o rs

, ,

o f bis o n d eer a nd o t h er a nim a ls A figur e fr o m t h is

,
.

p a inting is giv en o n t h e Opp o sit e p ag e T h e figur es a re .

r emark a bly li fe like A gr eat m a ny o t h er dr a wings

-
.

h a v e b een fo und S inc e t h a t tim e s o m e o f t h em o n t h e ,

w a lls o f c a v es o t h ers o f a l a t er d a t e o n r eind eer s

, , ,
’

h o rns o r o n b o n e Hum a n figur es r a r ely o ccur am o ng

.

t h e p aintings but occasi o nally w e find a b o n e o r st o n e

,

figur e Of a h um an b eing usu a lly from two to fiv e inc h es ,

i n h eig h t .

1 8 S u mm a ry o f P a l eo lith i c Civiliz a ti o n
.
— T h e man
of t h e Ol d st o n e age h a d c o m e a l o ng j o urn ey a nd h a d
tr a vell ed S l o wly He h ad p r o b a bly liv ed o n t h e ea rt h
.

a l o ng tim e b efo r e h e di s covered h ow to ma ke fire a nd h ow

to ma ke too l s L a t er h e d ev el o p ed a p ri mi ti ve reli gi on
.

and h e h ad s o m e a rt During t h is p eri o d h e must als o

.

h av e b een d ev el o p ing a l a nguag e P a leo li thi c ma n h ow .

,

ever , had very li ttle ci vi li za ti on .

T H E NEW S T O N E AG E

19 . tch en M i d d en s
T h e Ki T h e Euro p eans o f t h e .
-

new st o n e age liv ed in a Eur o p e t h at was littl e di ff er ent

i n g eo gr a p h y p r o ducts and clim a t e fr o m t h at w h ic h w e
,

kn o w S o m e Of t h e m o st int er es ting r emains wh ic h t h e

.

Eur o p eans o f t h e n eo lit h ic a ge h av e l eft us are t h e

Kitch en M idd ens a s eri es o f b o n e and s h ell h eap s
”
,
 P R EHI S T OR I C M AN

n ear t h e S h o r es o f t h e N o rt h S ea T h es e a re s o m etim es .

as h ig h as t en feet t wo o r t h r ee h undr ed feet wid e and

,

a t h o usand feet in l engt h T h ey are mad e u p c h i efly o f .

o yst er o r mus s el s h ells and t h e b o n es o f fis h o r a nim a ls

,

t h e fl es h o f w h ic h w as us ed fo r f o o d T h e p eo p l e Of t h e .

Kitc h en M idd ens do no t ex h ibit a h ig h d egr ee o f civiliza

ti o n y et t h ey h a d s o m e crud e p o tt ery and t h e way t h at
, ,

b o n es wer e gnawed S h ows t h at t h ey h a d d o m estic at ed

d o gs .

2 0 T h e La k e Dw elling s — Of a s o m ew h a t lat er dat e

. .

t h a n t h e Kitc h en M idd ens p er h a p s 4000 B C are t h e l a k e , . .

,

dwellings o f S witz erland and o t h er p l a c es S o m e Of t h es e .

vill ag es built o n p il es n ea r t h e l a k e S h o r es w er e d es troy ed

, ,

by fire a nd we h a v e t h e r em a ins Of b o n e a nd p o lis h ed

st o n e instrum ents rud e p o tt ery s p indl e st o n es o r w h o rls
, , ,

woven cl o t h and h alf bak ed c er eals T h es e p eo p l e w er e

,
-
.

no t o nly h unt ers but t h e w o m en a t l east h a d s o m e S kill

,

in p o tt ery m a king weaving and p er h ap s t h e cultivation

,

of gr a ins .

2 1 T h e M egal ith s
, S o m e Of t h e n eo lit h ic fo lk er ect ed
.

h ug e st o n es s o m etim es a s s ep a r a t e S h a fts s o m etim es in

, ,

t h e fo rm o f circl es a nd O ft en as r o o ms m a d e o f a few h ug e
u p righ t st o n es wit h gr ea t S l a bs a cr o ss t h e t o p T h es e
'

ro o ms are c a ll ed d o lm ans and wer e us ed fo r t h e buri a l Of ,

t h e d ead Do lm a ns a re fo und in B rit a in o n t h e c o ntin ent

.
,

Of w est ern Eur o p e in n o rt h ern Afric a a nd in Asi a as fa r

, ,

east a s Indi a T h e d ead ma n wa s p r o vid ed wit h ev ery

1
.

t h ing t h at h e c o ul d p o ssibly n eed fo r p r eh ist o ric man , ,

like s o m e s a v ag es o f r ec ent tim es dread ed n o t h ing m o r e ,

t h an t h e return o f t h e S p irit Of a d ead p ers o n T h es e i m .

l S ergi , M ed i terra nea n R a ce , p . 70

, b eli ev es t h a t t h e di s t ri bu t i o n of

t h e d o l m a ns p ro v es t h a t t h ey were e rec t ed b y the M ed i t erra nea n ra ce

(5 O ne rec ent w ri t er ( M o s so ) b eli ev es t h a t t h e d o l m a ns were e rec t ed
by m e n fro m t h e M e di t erra nea n a l o ng t h e t ra d e ro u t es fro m no rt h A fri c a
t o t h e no rt h ern p a rt o f Eu ro p e a nd A si a .
 T H E N EW S T ON E AG E

p l ement s S h o w t h a t t h e d o lmans b el o ng t o a c o mp arativ ely

r ec ent dat e but t h ey do no t
,
t ell us muc h about t h e p eo p l e
by w h o m t h ey w er e er ect ed .

2 2 N e o lith i c M a n i n Cr et e
. It is easi er t o trac e t h e
.

d evel o p m ent o f n eo lit h ic man in Cr et e and E gyp t t h an

in w est ern Eur o p e Und er o ne o f t h e p alac es o f Cr et e
.

excav a ti o ns h a v e S h o wn a succ essi o n o f n eo lit h ic s ettl e

m ents t h e earli est Of wh ic h h ad crud e p o tt ery and s p indl e

,

wh o rls and a fin er art t h an exist ed in B rit a i n a t a simil a r

,

p eri o d . T h es e C r et ans w er e p r o bably a s ea faring a s w ell -

P r eh i s t o ri c Eg y p t i a n V a s es .

as an agricultural p eo p l e w h o lat er m a d e fine grad es Of

,

p o tt ery and tr a d ed wit h t h e p eo p l e Of Egy p t and t h e

Ori ent .

2 3 Egyp t i n N eo lith i c Ti m e s
. In Egyp t we find g o ld
.

and co p p er o re us ed fo r s everal t h o us a nd y ears b efo r e t h e

d awn Of t h e wo rld s first h ist o ric civilizati o n and t h e
’

vall ey o f t h e N il e h o us ed a p rogr essive p o p ul a ti o n t h at

was distinguis h ed in t h e n eo lit h ic p eri o d even m o r e t h an
wer e t h e Cr etans fo r a gricultur e w ea ving and art ,

T h er e was und o ubt edly a c o nsid er a bl e tr a d e c arri ed

o n b etw een t h e di ffer ent p eo p l e Of t h e M edit err a n ea n

c
 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN

during t h e lat e n eo lit h ic p eri o d We find p o tt ery and .

o t h er w o rks o f a rt wit h t h e trad e mark o f t h e mak er

,
-

v ery far fro m t h e p lac e w h er e t h ey must h av e b een m ad e .

B ur i a l c u st o ms and o t h er id eas s eem t o h a v e s p r ea d fr o m

o ne locality t o dist a nt p lac es fo r p r eh ist o ric m a n l ea rn ed
,

m o r e fr o m hi s f ell o ws t h an h e was a bl e t o d ev el o p fo r
h ims elf .

2 4 S u mm a ry
. of Neo lit h i c Civi li z a ti o n N eo li thi c .

men li ved i n gr ou p s or vi lla ges T h ey h a d do mes ti c a ni ma l s

.

s u ch as th e dog, th e or a nd th e goa t, a nd p erh a p s o th ers .

T h ey cu l ti va ted
gra i ns , a nd s o me of th em we e g ea t
s a i lo s r r r .

r
T h ey we e u na cqu a i nted y et wi th meta l s , bu t th ey h a d fi ne
bone a nd p o li s h ed s tone i ns t u ments r
T h ey we e s p i nne s . r r
a nd weave s r
T h ey were exp e t ba s ket ma ke s a nd th ei
. r r r
p o tte ry th ou gh cru de wa s s tr o ng a nd s er vi cea ble It s eem s
, ,
.

a littl e t h ing p o tt ery y et it marks t h e b eginning Of a

, ,

new era in w h ic h ma n w a s b ec o ming r a p idly civiliz ed

,
.

We ca n get s o m e id ea o f t h e way t h a t m a n was d ev el o p ing

h i s id eas o f a rt a nd r eligi o n and h i s l a nguag e during h is
p e ri o d H e .c o uld h ardly h a v e h a d c o mmunity li fe as h e ,

did wit h o ut t h e u s e o f w o rds wi t h o ut s o m e divi s ion o f

, ,

lab o r and s o m d evel o p m ent o f tr a d e

,
e .

P R EH I S T OR I C C I V I L IZ AT I O N

25 . The M a k in g o f F ir e AS we h a v e a lr ea dy n o tic ed ,
.

pa l eo lit h ic men d ev el o p ed t wo p r a ctic a l a rts t h at carri ed

m a n rap idly u p ward in t h e sc a l e o f civilizati o n T he .

first o f t h es e was t h e disc o v ery o f m ea ns fo r t h e m a king of

fire T h e s ec o nd w as t h e art o f m a king t o o ls
’

. .

Any o ne w h o h a s struck flint wit h st eel h as n o tic ed t h e

succ essi o n Of s p arks t h at f o ll o w P r eh ist o ric man w o rk ed .

a gr ea t d eal wi t h flints in making h i s t o o ls but h e us ed a ,

st o n e h amm er a nd did no t get hi s fire in t h at w a y Al .

m o st al l p r eh ist o ric men h ad fire b efo r e t h ey m a d e t o o ls ,

S om e Of t h es e p r o bably s a ved a fire st a rt ed by lig h tni ng

 P R EH S I T OR I C C IVI L I Z ATI ON

and k ep t it a liv e r eligi o usl y In fact m o st l at er r eligi o ns

.
, /
L

h a d s p ecial p ri est ess es w h o s e c h i ef duty it w a s to k eep

fire burning c o ntinu o usl y .

It is gen erally agr eed a m o ng a rc h eo l o gists and sci entists

t h at fire w as m a d e by p r eh ist o ric m an by t h e fricti o n o f
wo o d ag a inst wo o d A h a rd p o int ed stick w as us ed in
.

t h e h and and rubb ed ag ainst a stri p o f s o ft er w o o d .

It was eit h er rubb ed r ap idly u p and d o wn a gr o o v e t h e ,

littl e s p lint ers fr o m w h ic h quickly c a ug h t fire o r it w as ,

twirl ed rap idly in t h e h a nds Lat er men us ed a fire drill .

and c o rd t o s ecur e a r ap id a nd c o ntinu o us w h irling m o ti o n .

Occ a si o n a lly no d o ubt fire w a s o btain ed by striking flint

wit h a ki nd o f ir o n o re c a ll ed ir o n p yrit es (fire iron )
- -
.

2 6 I m p o r t a n ce o f F ir e in t h e D ev el o p m ent o f Civi l i z a
.

tion . It i s di fficult t o o v er estim a t e t h e imp o rt a nc e o f fire .

B y t h e u s e o f fire it wa s p o s s ibl e t o c o o k fo o d a nd by s mo k , ,

ing anim a l fl es h t o p r es erv e m eat as w e sm o k e b a c o n h am

, , ,

o r b eef fo r wint er o r a tim e o f scarcity S inc e m a n was t h e .

h unt er it p l a c ed up o n w o man t h e n ec essity o f g a t h ering

,

fu el and k eep ing t h e fire a liv e T h is ti ed h er t o h er h o m e . .

It h elp ed t o cr eat e a s emi p erm an ent a biding p l a c e fo r -

man s inc e t h e fir ep l a c e dr ew h i m b a ck in h i s wand erings

,
.

It mad e p o s s ibl e s o m e o f t h e a rts w h ic h l a t er w er e t h e

‘

m eans o f civilizing m an fo r W it h o ut fire m et a ls c o uld

, , ,

n ev er h av e b een us ed .

2 7 T h e M a k in g o f P r eh i s t o ri c T o o l s
. M a n h as .

b een c a ll ed t h e o nly t o o l m aking a nim a l a nd t h e t oo l

-

h as b een a n im p o rt a nt l ev er in t h e u p li fting o f t h e h um a n
r a c e As w e h a ve s een v ery early men h ad simp l e st o n e
.
,

h a tc h ets a nd scr a p ers T h es e w er e o f r o ugh flint fre

.
,

quently fl a k ed o n o ne sid e o nly L at er l a nc e h ea ds wer e .

,
-

inv ent ed as well as kniv es t h in st o n

, e s a ws and a rr o w
, ,

h ea ds .

In t h e m a king o f t h es e t o o ls p rimitiv e m an wo uld ,

find a p i ec e o f flint t h a t h ad b een buri ed in t h e gr o und

 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN

and was t h er efo r e l ess h ard and l ess brittl e th a n th o s e o n

t h e surfac e Wit h a h a rd st o n e as a h a mm er h e w o uld
.

h i t t h e first st o n e a succ essi o n o f s h a rp bl o ws s o as t o

disl o dg e fl a k es He w o uld t h en h ave a n edg e t h a t c o uld
.

b e us ed fo r cutting skinning o r scr a p ing , S o m e men .

w h o w er e m o r e exp ert t h an o t h ers d ev o t ed t h ems elv es t o

t o o l m a king We h av e fo und t h e w o rk s h o p s in w h ic h
-
.

many o f t h es e t o o ls w er e mad e wit h t h e st o nes t h at w er e ,

us ed fo r h a mm ers t h o us a nds of flak es and m a ny h alf

, ,

c o mp l et ed o r d isc a rd ed to o ls .

In t h e l a t er p r eh ist o ric p eriod t h es e t o o ls w er e o ft en o f

v ery fine w o rkm a ns h i p In t h e n eo lit h ic p eri o d m a ny .
,

o f t h em w er e p o lis h ed o n grindst o n es T h e fin est o rn a .

m ents wer e rubb ed d o wn w it h p umic e st o ne o r ev en wit h

wo o d S o m e o f t h e Egyp tian w o rkm en s p ent y ea rs o f
.

h a rd l a b o r cutting out o f st o n e br a c el ets in t h e fo rm of a ,

thin ring S t o n es w er e h o ll o wed o u t fo r c o o king s o ap

.
,

st o n e b eing t h e b est for t h is p ur p o s e b ecaus e it wo uld

no t cr a ck in t h e h ea t It is alm o s t im p o ssibl e t o r ea liz e
.

h o w muc h t o o ls did fo r man .

2 8 B a s k etry
. P a l eo lit h ic man d ev el o p ed fire and
.

t o o ls but t h e o t h er arts of civiliz a ti o n c a m e aft er h i s

,

d ay One o f t h e ea rli es t o f t h es e w as t h e a rt o f making

.

p o tt ery fo r p o tt ery is f o und in a lm o s t a ll ea rly n eo lit h ic

,

s ettl em ents but n ev er a s y et in t h e h o m e o f p al eo lit h ic

,

man Lo ng b efo r e ma n l ea rn ed t o m a ke p o tt ery h o w

.
,

ev er h e h a d di s cov er ed t h e art o f w ea ving b ask ets

,
.

S om e bask ets w er e lin ed wit h cl a y mud s o t h at t h ey c o uld

b e fill ed wit h h o t st o n es a nd us ed like t h e earli er s t o n e ,

c oo king p o ts fo r b o ili ng fl es h fo o ds S o m etim es t h e

,
.

b a k ets wer e lin ed ins id e a nd o u t wit h cl a y

s
.

29 P o tt ery — P er h a p s t h e firs t cl a y p o t s w er e m a d e a cci

. .

d ent a lly by h a ving t h e o ut er o r inn er c o at o f cl ay s ep ar at e

fr o m t h e b ask etry o v er w h ic h it was f a s h i o n ed P rimitiv e .

p o tt ery s o m etim es s h o ws t h e im p r essi o n o f bask et m o ld .

 P R EH S I T O RI C M AN

At a c o m p ar a tiv ely early dat e b o n e n eedl es w ere us ed to

,

s ew skins t o g et h er p r o bably wit h sin ews o r l ea t h er stri s

, p
(t h o ngs ) As man b ecam e mor e s ettl ed o r as wild a ni
.

mals b ecam e l ess num er o us h e was fo rc ed t o u s e fib re

,

p r o ducing p lants o r fl eece b ea ring a nim a ls

-
d ep ending o n ,

h i s kn o wl edg e o f s p inning and w eaving t o furnis h h i m t h e

cl o t h and dr ap eri es t h a t h e w a nt ed In Egyp t we h a ve .

found s o m e fine lin en cl o t h o f t h e n eo lit h ic p eri o d .

3 1 T h e D o m esti cat o n
. i o f A ni m a l s — P al eo lit h ic m a n
ap p ar ently h a d no d o m estic animals u nl ess occ as i o nal ,

P r eh i s t o r i c H o rs e .

p ets o r w o und ed gam e k ep t fo r futur e u s e mig h t be co n

s i d eredd o m estic T o t h e end o f h i s ep o c h h e r emain ed
.

a h unt er a nd a s av a g e Am o ng Eur o p ea n n eo lit h ic men

.

w e find t h e fir s t d o m estic a t ed d o gs .
1

S o m e o f t h e l a t er n eo lit h ic p eo p l es no t o nly k ep t
w o und ed a nim a ls but tr a p p ed t h em a liv e If t h ey gave
,
.

milk as t h e go a t o r t h e co w o r p r o duc ed fl eec e as t h e g o at

, , ,

1
It b een s u gg es t ed t h a t t h es e a nc i ent h u nt ers were u s u al l y
h as
fo ll o wed b y p a c k s o f w il d d o g s w h o s h ared i n t h e s p o il s As t h e d o g.

l o v es c o m p a ni o ns h i p s o m e o f t h es e w i l d c rea t u r es m a y i n t i m e e as il y
,

h a v e a b a nd o ned t h e p a c k fo r m a n w h o w as a b et t er h u nt er a nd p ro v i d er
,
.
 P R EH S I T OR I C C IVI LIZ ATI ON

or t h e s h eep t h ey wo uld b e p riz ed by t h e w o m en sinc e

, ,

t h ey wo uld ligh t en t h e l a b o r o f o bt a ining f o o d and s ecu r

ing a sup p ly o f mat erial fo r sp inning Having d o gs t o .

gu a rd t h es e v a lu a bl e cr eatur es t h ey all o w ed t h e flocks

,

t o incr eas e a nd p rehi s tori c ma n beca me a s h ep h erd He .

a ls o b eg a n t o rid e t h e fa t p o ni es t h at fo rm erly h e h a d

kill ed fo r fo o d He was still a n o mad w a nd ering fro m

.
,

o ne p astur e t o an o t h er and p r o b a bly still a h unt er ;

,

but he h a d not only domes ti ca ted a ni ma ls for h e wa s hi m ,

self becomi ng domes ti ca ted f And t h is was t h e w o rk o f

p rimitiv e w o man .

3 2 T h e D o m es ti ca t i o n o f P l a nt s
.
— Ea rly m a n liv ed .

c h i efly o n fl es h fo o d b eing p articularly p artial t o fat

, .

B u t in summ er a nd in g en er a l in w a rm cl i mat es
, , , ,

h e us ed t h e fruit and t h e nuts t h e yams and t h e b erri es

, ,

t h e ed i bl e bulbs a nd r oo ts t h at t h e w o m en g a t h er ed We .

ca n im a gin e p rimitiv e w o man bringing to h er fir ep lac e a

bask et full o f s eeds at h a rv est tim e S h e may h av e b een .

o blig ed t o c a rry t h e fill ed bask et a l o ng distanc e str a p p ed

u p o n h er s h o uld ers fo r h er lo rd a nd m ast er c h o s e an

,

a biding p l a c e n ear a g o o d h unting gr o und and w as i ndi f

-

ferent t o t h e dist a nc e fr o m t h e m ead o w w h er e s eed

gr a ss es gr ew T h e s eeds w er e d ep o sit ed in b a skets o r
.

j ars fo r u se in t h e wint er p er h ap s a lt h o ug h p rimitive ,

p p
e o l e a re n o t o ri o usly im p r o vid ent ea ting w h at is at ,

h a nd a nd l etting t h e m o rr o w t a k e car e o f its elf .

P er h ap s s o m e o f t h es e s eeds w er e s p ill ed o n t h e tr a il
or scatt er ed accid entally n ear t h e camp T h e n ext .

y ear t h ey s p r o ut ed a nd if t h e c a mp h a d no t b een m o v ed
, , ,

t h e w o man g a t h er ed p a rt o f h er grai n n ea r er h o m e .

Aft er a tim e s h e n o tic ed t h a t t h e blad es s p r o ut ed fr o m t h e

s eed T h en s h e sc a tt er ed s eeds and aft er a tim e a few
.
, ,

h undr ed o r t h o us a nd y ea rs p er h a p s s o m e w o m a n scratc h ed
,

u p t h e gr o und o r ev en dug h o l es fo r t h e s eeds wit h t h e

s h arp p o int ed stick t h at s h e h a d us ed fo r digging r o o ts

-

,
 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN

so t h a t f ew er of t h em wo uld di e and m o r e would s p r o ut .

G radually t h e stick was us ed lik e a p ick or an adz e to ,

ri p u p t h e ground r eady fo r p lanting Aft er an o t h er

.

int erval during w h ic h animals w er e d o m esticat ed an o x

, ,

w a attac h ed t o t h is curv ed stick and h umanity h a d its

s
,

first p low P lows lik e t h es e a re us ed no w am o ng s o m e

.

sav a ge trib es and w er e us ed in ea rly h ist o ric tim es am o ng

t h e Egyp tians .

3 3 I m p o r t a n ce o f t h e D o m e s ti ca ti o n o f P l a nt s a nd
.

Ani m al s . Wit h t h e dom estic ati o n o f p lants as w ell

as a nimals p rimi tiv e man w as no l o ng er o blig ed t o roam
,

far afi eld fo r f o o d As p o p ulati o n i ncr eas ed and g a m e

.

w as kill ed o ff t h e m en l o st t h eir f o rm er o ccu p ati o n and

,

gradu a lly turn ed t h eir att enti o n t o grazing o r a gricultur e .

Do m estic duti es o f w o m en als o incr eas ed as h o m es b ec a m e

establish ed S o ma n p a s s ed from th e h u nti ng s ta ge to th e
.

p a s tora l s ta ge a nd fr om th e p a s tora l s ta ge to th e a gri cu l tu r a l

34 . L a ngu a g e It w o uld no t b e r eas o n a bl e t o ex p ect

.

t h at m an w o uld make a ll t h e p r o gr ess w h ic h w e h a v e

n o t ed i n t h e p r ec eding s ecti o ns wit h o ut h a vi ng l earn ed
new and b ett er ways o f c o mmunic a ting wit h h i s f ell o ws .

At all tim es h e must h av e us ed cri es and excl a mati o ns

and p r o b a bly sign l angu a ge t o c o nvey h i s m eaning .

B u t h e h a d o t h er m ess a g es t h a t h e wi s h ed t o d eliv er
and o t h er id eas t h a t h e wis h ed t o ex p r ess T h es e w er e .

p e r h a p s c o nv ey ed by s o unds t h a t would c o rr es p o nd
s o m ew h at t o t h e id ea c o nv ey ed T h es e s o unds o r
. .
,

syll a bl es or w o rds may h a v e b een n a m es o f objects as

, , ,

t h e co w o r t h e p i g t h e b o w o r t h e a rr o w ; o r t h ey may
,

h a v e c o nv ey ed i dea s as fear str en gt h o r d ea th

, ,
S o me .

rac es d ev el o p ed l a ngu a g e muc h fart h er t h a n o t h ers and ,

t h e o t h ers und o ubt edly b o rr o w ed from t h em but t h e ,

numb er o f dial ects was v ery gr eat and t h e num b er o f w ell

d ev el o p ed l an guages w a s v ery few .
 P R EH S I T OR I C C IVI LIZ ATI ON

W ri t in g — T he cav e men of S p ain a nd F ranc e

m ay h a v e b een a m o ng t h e ea rli est o f o u r p ictur e writ ers ,

but t h e exc ell enc e o f t h eir dr a wing wo uld s eem to s h o w

t h at t h ey h a d many p r ed ec ess o rs P ictur e writing w a .
s

t h e earli est f o rm in w h ic h men tri ed gr ap h ic a lly t o ex p r ess

t h eir id eas It w as easi er p er h ap s t o dr aw a bird t h an
.

t o inv ent a w o rd t h a t w o uld m ea n bird P ictur e

“ ”
.

writing is fo und a m o ng mo st p rimitive p eo p l e at p r es ent

and w as an imp o rtant m eans o f t elling a st o ry in early
tim es .

In s o m e c as es p er h ap s ev en b efo r e n eo lit h ic man dis

,

a p p ear ed b ecau s e men b eg a n t o u s e m et a ls t h e p ictur e

, ,

o f a n o bj ect w o uld b e s im p lifi ed int o a c h a r a ct er s o m et h ing ,

lik e t h e o bj ect t h at wo uld r ep r es ent t h e o bj ect T h es e

,
.

c h ar a ct ers fo r w o rds are fo und in m a ny ea rly writt en l an

gu ag es 5 2 9 8 ) a nd in Ch in es e a t p r es ent
,
.

3 6 T h e Al p h a b et
.
—
Wh en t h e c h a r a ct er w a s u s ed t o
.

r ep r es ent a s o und r a t h er t h an a wo rd m anki nd reac h ed a ,

still furt h er st a ge in t h e d ev el o p m ent o f t h at m a rv ell o us

m eans of communi cati o n t h e a l p h a b et P erh ap s t h e
,
.

marks o f m a k ers o f p o tt ery in p r eh ist o ric tim es o r t h e

signs o r m a rks us ed by early s a il o rs and tr a d ers may b e
fo und to h a v e s o m e c o nn ecti o n wit h t h e transiti o n fro m
wo rd writing t o s o und writing w h ic h end ed in t h e a l p h a
- -

b et i n writt en l a ngu ag e in lit er a tur e a nd in a l l o f t h e

, ,

p r o gr ess o f m a nkind t h a t h a s c o m e fr o m t h e writt en

scro ll o r t h e p rint ed p a ge .

M AN AT T HE DAW N or H I S T OR Y
37 . r i ri c
P eh s t o H i s to ri c
a nd r If w e l o o k
P e i o ds .
—

b a ck o v er t h is l o ng p eri o d o f p r eh ist o ric d ev el o p m ent and

fo rw a rd t o t h e p r es ent w e are im p r es s ed wit h t h e fa ct
,

t h at h umani ty h as m o v ed fo rw a rd and up ward wit h i n

cr easing s p eed as i t h as a dv a nc ed T h e first age t h e .
,

p a leo li thi c p er i od was v ery l o ng a nd t h e p r o gr es s o f man

,
 N CI ENT
A C IV I LIZ ATI ON

kind s eems infinit esimal s ec o nd p r eh istoric p eri o d

. T he ,

t h e neo li thi c p eri od w a s muc h s h o rt er a nd w as muc h

, ,

m o r e p r o ductiv e o f r esults y et a t t h e b eginning o f h ist o ry

,

m a n h a d c o m e o nly a littl e w a y T h e a nci ent p eri od o f .

h ist o ry w as s h o rt er t h a n t h e n eo lit h ic a ge but a w o nd erful ,

new civiliz a ti o n was d ev el o p ed a nd w as s p r ea d o v er a

fair p a rt o f t h e ea s t ern h emis p h er e T h e modern p eri od .

is muc h s h o rt er t h a n t h e a nci ent but in fiv e h undr ed ,

yea rs it h as alr eady c h ang ed t h e li fe o f civiliz ed m a n as

much as li fe w as ch a ng ed in 5 0 c enturi es o f t h e a nci ent
wo rld .

3 8 T h e R a ces o f M en Acco r d in g t o C o l o r
. M en m a y .

b e divid ed a cc o rding t o c o l o r int o t h e w h it e t h e y ell o w

, , ,

and t h e bl a ck r a c es Eur o p e is distinctly t h e c o ntin ent

.

o f t h e w h it e r a c e ; Afric a o f t h e bl a ck ; a nd Asi a o f t h e
, ,

y ell o w r a c e Y et n o rt h ern Africa and w est ern Asia were

.
,

and still a re inh a bit ed by men o f t h e w h it e rac e

, .

T h is b o o k t ells t h e s t o ry p rim a rily o f t h o s e s ucc essiv e

civi lizati o ns o f t h e w h it e r a c e w h ic h a r o s e o n t h e b o rd ers
o f t h e ea s t ern M edit err a n ea n es p eci a lly in t h e v a ll eys o f ,

t h e N il e a nd t h e Eup h r a t es We s h all fo ll o w t h e s p r ea d
.

and t h e fur t h er d evel o p m ent o f t h is west ern civiliza

ti o n t h r o ug h G r eec e a nd R o m e and muc h l a t er t h e
, , , ,

fin al d ev el o p m ent o f t h is civiliz a ti o n i n w es t ern Euro p e

and in Am eric a by a n o t h er br a nc h o f t h e w h it e r a c e .

3 9 T h e O l d Cl a s s ifi ca ti o n o f R a ce s Acco r d in g t O L a n
.
'

— A g n r a ti n a
gu a ge . e e o go a l l w h it e m en w er e cl a s s ifi ed
as Ind o Euro p ea n S e mit ic o r Ha—mit ic We mus t re
-

,
-
’ ’
.

m emb er t h e cl as s ific a tion no t o nl y bec a u s e it i s im p o rt a nt

, ,

but fo r t h e r eas o n t h a t m o s t h ist o ric a l lit er a t u r e m a k es

t h es e di s tincti o ns w h ic h w e o t h erwis e w o uld no t und er
,

st a nd T h e H AM I T I C r a c e was t h e r a c e t o w h ic h t h e
.

Egyp ti a ns b el o ng ed T h e S E M I T E S includ ed t h e Ar a bs
.
,

t h e B a b yl o ni a n s t h e As s yri a n s
,
t h e H ebr ew s a nd t h e ,

S yri a ns fr o m s o ut h w es t ern Asi a T h e I NDo EU R O P EA N S .

-
 M AN AT D AW N OF H I S T OR Y

includ ed a ll o f t h e p eo p l es fr o m Indi a t o Ir eland a ll o f ,

w h o m s p ea k simil a r l a ngu ages T h e w est ernm o st .

br a nc h o f t h i s rac e w er e kn o wn a s t h e Celts T h e .

n ext was c a ll ed t h e T eu tons and t h o s e in ea st ern Euro p e ’

wer e c a ll ed S la vs In s o ut h ern Eur o p e w as t h e Grceco

.

Roma n br a nc h a nd i n Asi a t h e P ersian a nd t h e Indian

,
.

4 0 A mo r e R ecent Cl a s s i fi ca t i o n o f W h it e M e n
.
— M ore .

r ec ent inv estig ati o ns o f t h e p eo p l es o f t h e s o c a ll ed Ind o -

Eur o p ea n rac e h av e s h o wn t h at w h il e t h eir l a nguag es ,

a re r elat ed t h e p eo p l e t h ems elv es a re no t n ec ess a rily

,

r el at ed M any sc h o l a rs b eli ev e t h a t t h er e are t h r ee

.

gr ea t gro u p s o f men in Eur o p e T h e s o ut h ernm o st o f .

t es e is e c
h t h M d —i te r ra ne a n ra ce wh ic h cam e p r o b a bly
— - -
’
,

fr o m n o rt h ern Afric a It includ es m o st o f t h e p eo p l e.

w h o d ev el o p ed t h e civiliz a ti o ns o f a nci ent h ist o ry fo r ,

it includ es t h e Egy p ti a ns t h e Cr et a ns a nd m any o f t h e ,

G r eeks and t h e R o m a ns l T h es e M edit erran ea n men .

a re s h o rt a nd d a rk c o m p l exi o n ed .

A s ec o nd r a c e is c a ll ed s o m etim es t h e Al p i nef T h ey a re
’

a h ill p eo p l e d evo t ed t o grazing as t h e M edit err a n ean

, ,

m en are t o t h e l o wl a nds a nd t o a gricultur e T h ey .

ext end fr o m w est ern Eur o p e al o ng t h e Al p in e f o o t h ills

ea stw a rd int o t h e p l a t ea us o f w est ern As i a .

T h e t h ird r a c e c o m p ris es t h e t a ll f a ir h a ir ed and fa ir ,

-

skinn ed p eo p l e w h o no w d o min at e n o rt h ern Eur o p e

fr o m Engl a nd east t o t h e B a ltic S ea and t h e Vistula
'
R iv er T h ey are s o m etim es call ed N or di e o r T eu t o n ic ’
-
. .

It will r eadily b e s een t h a t w e do no t kn o w v ery muc h

ab o ut t h e r a c e c o m p o siti o n o f t h e p o p ulati o ns o f o u r
p r es ent c o untri es o f Eur o p e It aly Gr eec e Asi a M in o r .
, ,

a nd Egyp t a re still in h a bit ed c h i efly by m en o f t h e M ed

i t erra nean r a c e England G erm a ny and es p eci a lly t h e

.
,

1 I t i nc l u d ed al s o p ro b a bl y t h e p eo p l e w h o d ev el o p ed t h e b es t o f t h e
neo li t hi c c i v il i z a t i o n . S ome au t h o ri t i e s t h i nk t h a t t h e S em i t i c p eo p l e
a re c l o sel y r el a t ed to M ed i t err a nea n m a n .
 A N C I ENT C I VI LIZ ATI ON

S candinavi a n p eninsul a s are larg ely N o rdic , c entr a l a nd

s o ut h east ern Eur o p e are l a rg ely Al p in e, but no rac e is
“
p ur e fo r ap p ar ently lik e t h e Am eric a n p eo p l e t h e
,
”
, ,

p eo p l e of ev ery country o f Euro p e a re a mixt ur e o f s ev er a l

r a c es .

4 1 S u m m a ry
. M a nkind h as h a d a l o ng a nd int er est
.

ing exp eri enc e on t h i s eart h T h is exp eri enc e m ay b e .

divid ed int o t h e h ist o ric p eri o d c o m p o s ed o f m o d ern ,

h ist o ry t h e l a st fiv e o r six c enturi es and a nci ent h ist o ry

, ,

t h e fifty c enturi es b ef o r e t h a t tim e B efo r e h ist o ry

“
.

b eg an we h a v e t h e p r eh ist o ric p eri o d s t h e l a st o f w h ic h ,

w e c a ll n eo lit h ic t h e new st o n e a ge a t l ea st t en t h o usand

, ,

yea rs in l engt h and t h e ea rli er o f w h ic h a muc h l o nger

, ,

p eri o d w e call t h e
, p al eo lit h ic o r o l d st o n e age , Wh en .

w e study t h e to o ls o f m a n w e divid e t h e lif e o f t h e

r a c e int o t h r ee p eri o d s ; t h e o l d st o n e age t h e new st o n e ,

a ge a nd t h e age o f m etals first c o p p er t h en br o nz e and

, ,

t h en ir o n .

Alm o st t h e earli est tr a c es o f m an s h o w t h a t h e

und erst o o d t h e m a kin g a nd t h e u s e o f fire S o o n aft er .

t h is m an mad e rud e t o o ls fi t h atc h ets and scr a p ers

, ,
s -
.

He liv ed in c a v es dr ess ed in skin s a t e a nim a l fl es h a nd

, ,

fruits carv ed figur es o n t h e r o ck and b eli ev ed t h at m an

,

h as a s p irit w h ic h surviv es aft er d ea t h He h unt ed t h e .

cave b ea r t h e a uro c h s o r bis o n t h e s a br e t o o t h ed tiger

, ,
-

t h e r h in o c er o s t h e littl e h o rs e a nd t h e r eind eer

,
.

N eo lit h ic man liv ed in h uts s o m etim es gr o u p ed t o g et h er

,

in villages He m a d e fine p o lis h ed st o n e t o o ls and w eap

.

o ns . He d o m esticat ed t h e do g t h e g o at t h e s h eep a nd , ,

t h e ox He b eg a n t o cultiv a t e gr a in s and t o m a k e a rud e

.

p low H e . s p un t h r ea d a n d w o v e cl o t h m a d e bask ets ,

a nd rud e p o tt ery N eo lit h ic man w a s much m o r e civil

.

i z ed in Egy p t C r et e a nd in t h e n eig h b o r h o o d o f t h e
,

C as p i a n S ea t h en h e w a s in w es t ern Eur o p e .

P al eolit h ic m a n t o o k two im p o rtant st ep s u p ward .

30 A N CI ENT C IVI L IZ ATI ON

Ge n er al R efe r en ces 1

S o ll a s , A nc i ent H u nters , es p . cha pt II V

ers , ,
VI ,
VIII ,
X XI, ,

X III X I V , .

J oly , M a n bef o re M eta l s .

Ty l or, A nt h r o p o l o gy .

S t a rr , F i r s t S tep s i n H u ma n P ro gr es s .

C l o dd , T h e S to r y f
o P ri mi ti ve M an .

D u c k w o rt h ,
P r eh i s to ri c Man .

P eet , R o u gh S to ne M o nu ments a nd th ei r B u i l ders .

M a s o n T h e Ori gi ns of I nventi o n
, .

hi a s o n, Wo ma n s ’
S h a re i n P ri mi t i ve C u l t u r e .

Boa s M i nd of P r i mi ti ve M a n
, T he .

T h o ma s S o u rc e B o o k f o r S o c i a l Or i gi ns .

M cC u rd y A nti q u i t y of M a n i n Eu r o p e
, .

M u nro P a l eo l i th i c M a n
, .

C h a p i n S o c i a l E vo l u ti o n ;
, T h e P reh i s tori c P er i o d .

To p i cs
T HE C A V E AR T I S T : M a cC u r d y , A nti qu i t y of M en i n Eu ro p e
i n m
( S i th os n i a n R p ort o r
e f 54 7 5 6 3 ;
— M u nr o , P a l eo l i t h i c
M a n 2 00—2 4 0 ; S o l l a s A nci ent H u nter s , 2 2 2 —2 6 4
, , .

ORI I N G AND D E VE LOP M E NT OF T OOLS : Ty l o r, A nth ro pol o gy ,

1 8 2 —2 05 ; M a s o n, Or i gi ns of I nventi o n 1 2 1 — 15 1 ; , Th o ma s
S o u r c e B o o k f o r S o c i a l Or i gi ns ,
—
33 5 3 7 2 .

S tu d i es
1 . Hi s t o ry a nd ci il i ti
v za on . M o rey , Ou tl i nes of Greek Hi s
t o ry , 1 1 — 1 4 . a

2 . T h e fis t h a t c h e -
t . S o ll a s , A nc i ent H u nters , 1 1 3 —1 2 0 .

3 T h e g eo gra p h y a nd t h e
. a ni ma l s o f Eu ro p e l o ng a go . S ol l a s ,
A nc i ent H u nters 9 2 —9 8 , .

4 . T he c a v e ma n a s a n a rt i s t . M a cC ur dy G G , . .
, i n Cent u r y ,

84 4 39 —44 8 .

5 . T h e Ki tc h en M i dd ens . C l o dd . S to ry o f P ri mi ti ve Ma n ,

9 4 —96 .

6 . T h e l a k e d w el l i ng s . C l o dd , P ri mi ti ve M a n 1 3 1 —14 3 ,
.

7 . D ol m a ns a nd o th er neo l i t h s i n It aly a nd F ra nc e M o ss o .
,

Da wn of M edi terr a nea n Ci vi l i z a ti o n 2 44 2 5 0 ,

-
.

S t u d ent s m a y b e i nt eres t ed i n W a t erl o o f Ab a nd A S on f

’
1 s S to ry o o

the
“ es .
 P R EH S I T OR I C M AN 31

8 . T he b u i l d ers of th e m ega l i t h i c mo nu ment s . P ee t , R o u gh

S to ne M o nu ments 12 9 4 42 , .

9 T h e neo l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n
. of C re t e . M o sso M edi terra nea n
,

Ci vi l i za ti o n, 9 2 —102 .

10 . D r es s of w o m en in t h e N eo l i t h i c Age . M o s s o M edi l er ,

ra nco n Ci vi l i z a ti o n 1 8 5 — 19 7
, .

11 . T he m a k i ng Of fire . Ty l o r, Ant h r l
o p o o gy , 2 6 —
0 2 64 .

12 . T he an c i ent a rt of b a s k et ry . M a s o n Wo ma n s S h a r e
,
’
in
P ri m t
i i ve Cu l t u r e 4 1 —52 .
,

13 . B aske t ry a nd p ot t ery . S t a rr , F i rs t S tep s in H u ma n

P ro gres s , 5 0—5 7 .

14 . T h e d o m es i c a i o n t t of p l a nt s . Th omas S o u rc e B o o k
f orS o c i a l Or i gi ns , 9 8 —1 1 2 .

1 5 T h e d o m es t i a t i o
. c n of a ni ma l s . Ty l o r, A nth ro p o l o gy ,

2 14—22 1 .

16 . T h e d ev el o p m ent of wr i t i ng , S t a rr , F i r s t S tep s i n H u ma n
P ro gr es s , 1 9 2 —2 07 .

17 . T he ra ces o f m en . Ch a p i n , S oci a l —
Evo l u ti o n, 2 1 7 2 2 0 .

Q u es ti o ns
(F o r I nt ro du ct i o n a nd Ch a p t er I)
1 H a s m a nk i nd m a d e u nifo rm p ro gres s u p w a r d o r h a s h e
.
,

a d v a nc ed m o re i n s o m e p eri o d s t h a n m o t h ers ?

2 N a m e t h e m o s t i m p or t a nt c i v i li z a t i o ns s i nc e t h e b eg i nni ng
.

of h i s t o ry .

3 . N am e fiv e s t a nd a r d s by w h i ch we ca n j u dge t h e p ro gr es s
mad e b y m an .

4 . Ho w i s the exp eri en e o f c m a nki nd su b divi d ed ? G iv e t h e

di v i s i o ns of
h i s t o ry ; t h e d i v i s i o ns o f p reh i s t o ry .

5 W h y d o t h e ro u g h s t o ne fi s t h a t c h e s a nd s cra p ers
.
-
t r ep r e

s ent t h e ea rli es t c i v i l i z a t i o n Wa s t h a t i v i l i z a t i o n c s p r ea d

w i d el y , d ur i ng t h e o l d s t o ne a g e ? a ft er the o l d s t o ne a g e ?
6 M a k e a l i t t l e t a b l e s h o w i ng i n o ne c o l u mn w h y t h e ri v er
.
“

dr ift m a n l i v ed nea r t h e ri v ers i n a s eco nd c o l u mn t h e t o o l s o r ,

w ea p ons t h a t h e h a d a nd i n a t h ird t h e a ni mal s a m o ng w h i c h

,

h e l i v ed .

7 H o w d o w e k no w t h a t t h e earl y ca v e m en w er e m o re c i vil
.

i z ed t h a n t h e ri v er d rift m en ? t h a t t h e l a t er c a v e men h a d
“ ”

a b et t er c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a n t h e ea rl y c a v e m en ?

8 W a s p a l eo l i t h i c m a n c i v i l i z ed a c co r di ng t o t h e s t a nd a rd s
.
,
32 A N C I ENT C IVI LIZ ATI ON
na m ed in 6? Wh a t d id n eo li t hi c m an a dd to the ci v il i za ti n o

of h i s p red e es s o rs c ?

9 Ho w d o y o u
. a cc o u nt fo r t h e fa t t h a c t t h e neo l i t h i c c i v il i
z at io n o f the ea s t ern M ed i t erra nea n was m o re adv a nc ed tha n
t h at of w es t ern Eu ro p e i n t h e sa m e p eri o d ?
10 .Do w e l ea rn c h i efl y b y i nv ent i ng t o o l s a nd m et h o d s o r ,

b y l ea rni ng fro m o t h ers ? S h o u l d w e exp ec t ma n t o m a k e m o re

o r l es s p ro gres s w i t h i n a c ert a i n t i me a s h e b ec a m e mo re ci v il i z ed

1 1 D i d fire b enefi t men m o re t h a n w o men

.

1 2 .W h a t d i d t o o l s d o f o r m a n ?

1 3 Tra c e t h e ev o l u t i o n o f t h e h a t c h et fro m t h e fi s t h a t c h et
.
-

to th e s o t n e h a t c h et w i th a h a ndl e , a nd to o u r s t eel h a t c h et s o f
t h e p rese nt .

1 4 Ho w w a s t h e
. a rt o f p o t t ery -
ma k i ng d ep end ent on tha t of

b a s k et w ea vi ng ?
-
Ho w w a s the s p i nni ng a nd the w ea v ing of

cl o t h also d ep end en t on b a s k et ry ?

15 . As m a n c ea s ed t o b e a h u nt er h o w , di d h e get fo o d , c lo t h
i ng , a nd p o w er t o c ul t i v a te fi eld s Sho w h o w t h e d o m es t ica ti o n
of a ni m als is t
rel a ed to th es e n eed s o f ma n .

16 . Wh y
i s t h e p a s t o ra l t
s a ge o f civi l i t i
za on h i gh er t h a n th e
t
h u n i ng s t a g e, a nd t h e a gri c u l t u ra l s a t g h igh
e er th a n th e p a s t o ra l
t
s a ge

17 . N
m e t h e ch i ef s t ep s i n t h e d ev el o p ment o f a s p o k en la n
a

gu a ge ; t h o s e i n t h e d ev el o p ment o f wri t i ng .

1 8 S h o w o n a m a p t h e l o c a ti o n o f t h e c h i ef ra c es o f whi t e
.

men t o d a y -
.

19 Wh a t i s t h e c h i ef int eres t i n th e p ro h i s t o ri c p eri o d ? t h e

.

c h i ef val u e ?
 C H AP T ER I I

T HE D AW N OF H S I T OR Y
42 . The O ri gi ns ivi l iz a ti
of We t h ink
W e s t er n C on
— .

o f Eur o p e as t h e most civiliz ed o f t h e c o ntin ents of t h e

m o d ern w o rld T h e civilizati o n o f Eur o p eans and o f

.
,

men o f Eur o p ea n rac e in t h e new w o rld w e call w est ern ,

civilizati o n t o distinguis h it fr o m t h e civilizati o ns o f t h e

,

F ar East o f Indi a o f C h in a and o f J ap an

, ,
Alt h o ug h t h is .

west ern civilizatio n w a s d ev el o p ed c h i efly o n t h e c o nti

n ent o f Euro p e its b eginnings w e find no t in Eur o p e at
, ,

all but in Africa and in Asia It is t o Egyp t t h a t w e l o o k

,
.

fo r t h e earli est o f t h e anci ent civilizati o ns a civilizati o n ,

t o w h ic h t h e G r eeks o w ed muc h In B abylonia and in .

P a l estin e w er e d ev el o p ed m a ny id ea s r eg a rding busin ess

and r eligi o n wh ic h w e u s e daily T o und erstand w est ern .

civilization t h en w ,
e must d ev o t e s o m e att ention t o t h es e
,

early p eo p l es o utsid e o f Eur o p e .

AN CI E N T EG Y PT

43 . Then t h e Nil e
I fl u ence
of H ero d o tus the .
,
”
fat h er o f h ist o ry mor e t h an 2 000 years ago c a ll ed Egyp t
, ,

t h e gift o f t h e N il e T h is N il e vall ey is l o ng and narro w

.
,

a nd is bound ed by lim eston e cli ff s b ey o nd w h ich li es t h e ,

d es ert T h e cultiv at ed ar ea is about s even h undr ed mil es

.

in l en gt h and fr o m t en t o t h irty mil es wi d e exc ep t at t h e ,

Delta t h e triangular ar ea f o rm ed a t t h e mout h o f t h e

,

N il e by mud bro ug h t d o wn by t h e riv er As Egyp t is a .

l and o f littl e rain and c o nsid erabl e s uns h in e it t o o wo uld ,

h a v e b een a d es ert but for t h e fact t h a t t h e N il e o v erfl o ws

its banks .

D
 T HE N EAR EAS T
T h e N il e ris es in Afric a n ear t h e equ a t o r It h as .

tribut a ri es t h a t bring d o wn fr es h ets fro m t h e m o unt ai ns

o f east Afric a . It fl o ws t h ro ug h Egyp t a t a d ep t h o f
ab o ut 30 feet b el o w t h e l ev el o f t h e v a ll ey In Jun e t h e
.

river b egins t o ri s e o n
account o f t h e h eavy
r a ins at t h e s o urc es
o f t h e riv er a nd t h e ,

fl o o d w a t ers c o ntinu e
until Oct o b er In .

anci ent tim es if t h e

river ro s e o nly ab o ut
twenty fiv e feet it
-

fill ed but a few o f

t h e irrig a ti o n ditc h es
t h at c a rri ed t h e w at er
t o t h e t h irsty fi elds ,

a nd t h er e w er e s h o rt

cro p s in Egyp t If .

it ro s e m o r e t h a n
t h irty feet it igno red,

t h e irrig a ti o n ditc h es
a l t o g e t h e r a nd ,

Anc i nt Egy p t
e .
fl o o d ed t h e fi eld s as

it p l eas ed a nd did a
,

great d eal o f d am age P r o s p erity in Egy p t h as a lways

.

d ep end ed o n a n o rm a l ris e o f t h e riv er fo r t h en t h e

,

fi elds h a v e b een w ell c o v er ed wi t h w a t er and a t h in

d ep o sit o f fertil e mud h as b een l eft insuring a go o d
,

cro p .

44 Egyp t a t th e D awn o f H i s to ry
. .
—
T h is f ertil e N il e
v a ll ey was t h e s c en e o f t h e ea rli es t r eal civiliz a ti o n in t h e
h ist o ry o f t h e w o rld T h is civilizati o n w as d ev el o p ed s l o wly
. .

Lo ng b efo r e t h e d a w n o f h i s t o ry in Egyp t num er o us l o cal

,

go v ernm ents h a d a ris en al o ng t h e river t o l o o k a ft er t h e

 A N C I ENT EG Y P T
irrig ati o n o f t h e fi elds a nd o t h er affa i rs o f g en eral int er est "

I n t h e Delt a t h e draining o f t h e swam p s w a s o ne o f t h e

first and m o st imp o rt a nt p r o bl ems It was i n t h e Delt a .

t h at in 424 1 B C t h e y ea r w as divid ed int o 3 65 days

. .
,

tw elve m o nt h s o f 30 d ays ea c h wit h 5 extra f east days ,

.

A h ig h aut h o rity calls 4 2 4 1 B C th e ea rli es t fixed da te . .

i n h i s tory Ab o ut t h is tim e t h e Delt a o r l o w er Egy p t

.
, ,

was unit ed und er a singl e king a nd s o o n aft er t h e v a ll ey , , ,

o f t h e N il e fr o m t h e D elt a n ea rly t o t h e first cat a ract w a s

unit ed und er a n o t h er king L ower Egy p t o r t h e Delta .

, ,

w as c a ll ed t h e kingd o m o f t h e R ed Cr o wn U p p er Egyp t .

w a s kn o wn a s t h e kingd o m o f t h e Wh it e Cr o wn .

Ab o ut 3 400 B C t h e yo ung and ent erp rising king o f u p

. .

p er Egy p t M e nes , m a rc h
’
ed ag a inst
,
t h e l o w er Kingd o m .

M en es w as V ict o ri o us and unit ed u p p er and l o w er Egyp t

und er hi s Vi g o r o us swa y He p l a c ed h i s c ap it a l a t M em
.

p h is, o n t h e b o rd er lin e b etw een u pp er and l o w er Egy p t ,

and h e establis h ed t h e first dyn asty l All ea rli er ev ents .

a re s p o k en Of a s p redy na s ti c and al l l a t er rul ers b el o ng t o

,

dy na s ti es whic h a re numb er ed fr o m o ne t o tw enty six -

.

4 5 T h e P yr a mi d B u il d ers
.
— T h e ea rly P h a ra o h s as
.
,

t h e k ings w er e call ed w er e p r o s p er o us a nd built fine

,

t emp l es but t h ey c a r ed m o r e fo r massiv e t o mbs aft er

,

d eat h t h a n fo r p a l a c es w h il e living It is fr o m t h e t o mbs .

o f t h e ea rly P h a ra o h s a nd t h e still ea rli er (p r edynastic )

n o bl es t h a t w e h a v e l ea rn ed m o st o f wh at w e kno w
a b o ut ea rly Egy p t Ab o ut fiv e c enturi es a ft er M en es
.

t h e P h a r a o h s b eg a n t o build t h eir t o mbs in t h e f o rm o f

gr eat p yramids .

T h es e p yramids are l o cat ed n ear M emp h is T h e .

1
M enes cc es so r s o p ened c o p p er m i nes a nd s t o ne q u a rri es a t
a nd hi s su

M o u nt S i na i c o nst ru c t ed g rea t b u i l di ng s u nd ert o o k g r ea t engi neeri ng

, ,

wo rk s b ro u gh t no rt h ea s t ern Afri c a a nd s o u t h er n P a l es t i ne u nd er t h ei r
,

sw a y a nd c a rri ed o n ex t ens i v e c o mm er c e u p t h e N i l e o v er t h e R ed S ea ,

a nd o n the M edi t erra nea n .

 T HE N EAR EAS T
l a rg est that o f Ch e o p s was 48 6 feet h igh t h e bas e
,
-
’
, ,

b eing square and c o v ering t h irt een acr es It is said to .

h av e tak en an army o f wo rkm en tw enty y ea rs to

c o m p l et e t h e hug e structur e in t h e bas e o f w h ic h was t o ,

b e t h e t o mb o f t h e ruling P h a ra o h T h e h ug e blocks o f .

st o n e m any o f w h ic h w eig h ed s ev eral tons w er e drawn

, ,

u p a m o untain o f eart h and fitt ed accurat ely t o t h eir p o

T h e G re a t P y r a m i d s .

s i t i o ns . N ear t h es e
p yr a mids is t h e w ell kn o wn s p h i nx
-

t h e f a c e b eing t h a t o f t h e P h a rao h w h o construct ed it .

46 T h e Es tab l i s h m ent o f an Emp i r e

.
— F o r a t h o usand .

y ears a ft er t h e d ays o f t h e gr ea t p yramid build ers Egyp t ,

w as d o mi n a t ed by h er n o bl es h er ki ng b eing p r o b a bly ,

t h e m o st im p o rt a nt n o bl e Af t er t h is p eri o d c a m e in.
1

v a d ers fr o m t h e ea st w h o bro ug h t in h o rs es and o v er

,

ra n t h e c o untry F o r p er h a p s t wo c enturi es t h es e H y ks o s
.

ki ng s rul ed l o w er Egy p t a nd tri ed t o contr o l u p p er Egyp t

a s w ell T h e Hyks o s w ere driv en o u t by t h e p rinc es o f
.

1
T h i s w as p ra c t i c all y a feu d al p eri o d a nd i s c all ed t h e M idd le K i ng
do m T h e l as t r u l ers o f t h i s
.
“
feu d al p er i o d
"
w ere ent erp ri s i ng a nd a b l e
P h a ra o h s ( t h os e o f t h e t wel ft h d y nas t y ) u nd er wh o m t h e c l as s i c a l ,

l a ngu ag e w as p erfec t ed l i t er a t u r e fl o ur i s h ed a nd c o m m erc e w a s d ev el

,

O p ed . A c a nal w as cu t fro m t h e R ed S ea t o t h e N il e . By a wa ll t went y

sev e n mil es l o ng t h e gr ea t b a s i n w es t of the N il e k no w n
, as t h e F a y u m,
w as rec l ai m ed for a g ri c u l t ure .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
of low er Egyp t fo r a few y ea rs but t h ey w er e s o o n driv en ,

o u t and a n a tiv e P h ara o h onc e m o r e rul ed Egy p t Af t er .

5 2 5 cam e t h e P ersi a ns and fr o m t h a t tim e t o our own day ,

Egy p t h a s no t b een fr ee fr o m f o r eign rul e .

48 Egyp t u n d er W o rl d Em p ir es
. P er si a n ru l e l a st ed .

fo r t w o c enturi es until Al ex a nd er t h e G r eat marc h ed

,

int o t h e Delta a nd fo und ed Al ex a ndri a w h ic h fo r cen ,

t u ri es w a s t h e c entr e o f c o mm erc e a nd l earning in t h e

anci ent wo rld Aft er t h ree c enturi es o f Gr eek ru le c a m e
.

t h e R oman l egi o ns th e Roma ns b o rro wing t h e cal endar

,

w h ic h we u s e no w a nd c o p ying s o m e o f t h e l ea st d esir a bl e
,

r eligi o us rit es o f t h e Egyp ti ans In t h e C h ri s tian era .

,

t h e A r a bs (M o h a m m e dans ) and t h e T u rks h a v e rul ed

’
- -

Egyp t sinc e R o m a n tim es and t o day Egyp t is p r a ctic a lly ,

-

, ,

a p art o f t h e gr eat est em p ir e o f t h e lat e nin et eent h cen

tu ry th e B ri ti s h emp i re
,
.

49 Di s t in ctiv e Ch a r a ct eri sti cs o f Egyp ti a n Civi l iz a ti o n

. .

— I t is no t t h e p a rt p l a y ed by Egyp t as a d ep end ent

st a t e in lat er em p ir es but t h e f a ct t h a t h er civilizati o n
,

was t h e first in t h e w o rld s h i s t o ry t h at m a k es Eg y p t s o ’

,

imp o rt a nt We s h a ll study t h at civiliz ati o n l at er but

.
,

s h o uld n o t e s o m e distinguis h i ng f eatur es no w We .

t h ink o f Egyp t a s t h e l a nd o f t h e Ni le as t h e kingd o m o f ,

t h e P h a ra oh s as t h e c o untry o f m a ssiv e a rc h it ectur e

, ,

suc h as t h e p y ra mi ds t h e l a by ri nth t h e S p hi nx a nd t h e
, , ,

gr ea t h a l ls a t K a rna k a nd L u xor We t h ink o f it as t h e .

land w h er e th e li vi ng wors hi p p ed sa cred a ni ma ls suc h as ,

1

t h e bull t h e ibis a nd t h e ca t a nd w h er e t h e b o di es o f t h e
, ,

dea d wer e emba l med (as mummi es ) b ec a us e t h e Egy p ti a ns ,

b eli ev ed m o r e t h a n a ny o t h er anci ent p eo p l e in a life aft er

, ,

d eat h F inally w e t h ink o f Egyp t as t h e l a nd o f p ictur e

.

writing h i er o gly p h i cs fo r t h e a nci ent Egyp tians co v

,
- - -
’
,

er ed t h eir t o mbs w a lls and r o cks wit h t h eir p ictur ed st o ri es

,
.

1
T he wo rs h i p of sa c red a ni m al s is c h a ra c t eri s t i c of l a t er Eg y p t i a n
rel i g i o n, no t of the ea rl i er p eri o d .
 T HE TI — I
G R S EU P H R A TES VALLEY

50 . rt s i n Egyp t
The A B esid es t h es e c h ar a ct eristics .
,

wh ic h ap p ea l t o o u r im aginati o ns and a re s emi p o p ul a r -

w e find t h a t t h e Egyp ti a ns exc ell ed in fine art w o rk a s ,

in t h e making o f p o tt ery glass war e j ew elry and i n ,

-

carving T h ey w er e m at h em aticians w h o us ed g eo m etry

.

t o lay o u t t h eir fi elds a gai n a ft er t h e inundati o ns o f t h e

N il e T h ey studi ed t h e st a rs
. T o b e sur e t h ey did no t .

kno w as muc h ab o ut s o m e o f t h es e t h ings a s t h ey tri ed

t o mak e o t h er p eo p l e t h ink and y et t h ey kn ew m o r e ,

ab o ut m o st o f t h em t h a n a ny o ne els e did a t t h a t tim e .

T HE T I GR I S -
EU P HR AT E S V AL L E Y — EAR L Y P E R I OD

51 . r a p h y o f t h e Ti gri s Eu p h r at es V a l l ey
T h e G eo g -
.

Lik e t h e N il e v a ll ey t h e Tigris Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey is o ne o f -

t h e m o st f ertil e s p o ts o n t h e gl o b e as w ell as t h e s ea t o f ,

o ne o f t h e w o rld s first h ist o ric civiliz a ti o ns T h e l o w er

’
.

p a rt ,
c a ll ed B a by l o ni a is m a d e u p c h i efly o f,
mud1
d e

p o sit ed by t h e riv ers Wh en it w as dr a in ed and p ro p erly

.

irrig at ed its fertility w as s o grea t t h at t r a v ell ers re

,

p o rt ed a yi eld o f 2 00 o r ev en 3 00 fo ld fr o m gr a in st a lks
six feet h igh wit h h ea ds t h r ee inc h es bro a d Alt h o ug h
,
.

it is im p o ssibl e t o b eli eve t h es e st ori es y et t h ey s h o w ,

t h at t h e so il o f B a byl o nia must h a v e b een r em a rk a bly

f ertil e .

T h e up p er v a ll ey is c a ll ed M es o—p o ta mi a b etw een t h e

’
- - -

riv ers a nd is kno wn as As s y ri a o n t h e h ill s n o rt h east o f

,

t h e Tigris riv er T h e s o il is p o o r er t h a n it is in t h e
.

alluvi a l d ep o sits o f B a byl o ni a and t h e r a i nf all is gr eat er , ,

es p eci a lly in Assyri a T h er e is no st o n e o r m et a l any

.

wh er e i h B abyl o ni a but b o t h are a bund a nt in t h e up p er

,

v a ll ey A gl anc e a t t h e m ap s h o ws t h at th e Eu p hra tes

.

va lley wa s th e na tu ra l hi gh wa y from th e P ersi a n Gu lf to

1 B a b y l o ni a i s di v i d ed i nt o l o wer B a b y l o ni a , a m u d d el t a , a nd u p p er

B a b y l o ni a , a l o w fert i l e p l a i n . I t w a s l a t er c a ll ed C h a l dea .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
th e M edi terra nea n S ea ,
1
th a t i s between the Ea s t a nd th e
Wes t of th a t da y .

52 . m eri n s
The Su T h e earli est civilizati o n o f t h e
a .
—

Tigri s Eu p h rat es b a sin s o far as w e h av e kn o wl edg e was

-

, ,

not d ev el o p ed in its o wn v a ll ey as w as t h at o f Egyp t , ,

T h e T i gri s Eu p h ra t es B a s i n
-
.

but was broug h t in fro m o ut s id e T h es e p eo p l e lived in .

'
a p a rt o f t h e vall ey call ed S u m er and a re kn o wn as S u
1
U nli k e Egy p t t h i s T i g ri s Eu p h ra t e s v a l l ey i s no t i so l a t ed
,
-
It i s .

o p e n a t t h e so u t h t o t h e P ers i a n G u l f N u m ero u s p a s se s l ea d d o w n fro m

.

t h e p l a t ea u s o n t h e no r t h a nd ea s t (t h e p l a t ea u of I ra n th e h om e of

t h e M edes a nd P ers i a ns ) , a nd Ara b i a li es

wes t ern b o rd er I t i s
on its .

no t o nl y o p e n o n a l l s i d es t o c o m m erc e b u t t h e ri c h nes s o f i t s so il a nd
,

t h e w ea l t h o f i t s p eo p l e a t t ra c t ed t h e no m a d i c t ri b es o f t h e nei gh b o ri ng
fo o t h ill s S o m et i m es t h ese i nv a d er s b ro u gh t i n a hi g h er c i v i li z a t i o n
.

t h a n t h ey fo u nd i n t h e v a ll ey b u t a l m o s t w i t h o u t ex c ep t i o n t h ey w ere
, , ,

c ru d e a nd b a r b a ro u s p eo p l e w h o so u gh t p l u nd er R ep ea t edl y t h e p ro g
, .

r ess o f c i v ili z a t i o n i n t h e T i gri s Eu p h ra t es v a ll ey w a s set b a c k b y t h ese

-

b a rb a ri a ns a l t h o u gh u s u a ll y t h e new c o mers a d o p t ed t h e wa y s o f t h e
,

Va ll ey dwell ers
-
.
 T HE TI G R I S —
EU P HR A ES T VALLEY

m e ri ans but w e r ea lly do

’
-

,
no t kno w wh o t h ey w er e .

We do kn o w h o w ev er t h a t , ,
th e S u meri a ns h a d a
'
wri tten
l a ngu a ge, so me a rt a nd a Th eir
hi gh degree f
o cu l tu re .

writt en c h ar a ct ers w er e a c o mbinati o n o f w edg e s h ap ed -

'
imp r essi o ns c a ll ed t h e cu n e i fo rm scri p t It was
,
- -
.

ad o p t ed by al l lat er p eo p l es o f w est ern Asia and was

us ed in Egyp t in t h e tim e o f t h e emp ir e
5 3 T h e S em i t e s i n W e s t er n As i a
.
— T h e S um eri a ns .

wer e o v erw h elm ed by invad ers fr o m Ar abi a T h es e .

inv ad ers are call ed W W h e nam e given t o a gr ea t

r a c e t h at sp ea ks a l a ngu ag e simil a r t o t h a t o f t h e H ebr ews .

T he a nci ent hi s tory f

o wes tern Asi a i s l a rgel y a hi s tory f
o

S emi ti c p eop les i n B a by l oni a , i n As s y ri a , i n S y ri a , i n

P hoeni ci a a nd i n P a les ti ne T h e S emit es h ad littl e .

o rigi nality t h at is t h ey w er e no t go o d at inv enting t h ings

,

o r d ev el o p ing t h ings fo r t h ems elv es but t h ey m a d e ,

exc ell ent u s e o f t h e a rt t h e writing a nd t h e cultur e o f t h e

,

S um erians Th ey w er e int er est ed in trad e a nd t h ey

.

d ev el o p ed citi es so t h at busin ess could be c a rri ed o n

,

b ett er .

5 4 T h e City S t a t e s
. T h e earli est in h abitants o f
-
.

t h e v a ll ey liv ed i n vill a g es o f rud e r eed h uts T h es e .

g ave p lac e in tim e t o h o us es o f sun b a k ed bricks wit h a -

d o m e lik e r o o f eac h vill ag e b eing surr o und ed by a wall

-

o f brick t o k eep Off en emi es Ea ch city h a d a gr eat num .

b er o f g o ds including a t l east o ne p a tr o n d eity

, Each .

h ad its o wn king o r its o wn rul er w h o was ind ep end ent ,

a t first a nd liv ed in a h ug e h o us e o f brick c a ll ed a p alac e

, , .

T h es e littl e s el f go v erning citi es are call ed ci ty s ta tes

- -

and t h e nam e s h o uld b e r em emb er ed fo r t h e city stat e ,

-

p l a y ed a v ery im p o rt a nt p a rt in a nci ent h istory until t h e ,

establis h m ent o f t h e R o m a n Emp ir e

5 5 S a r go n o f Aga d e
. S o m e o f t h es e citi es w er e larg er
.

and w ealt h i er t h a n o t h ers and w er e rul ed by abl er a nd

more ambitious men T h e str o nger citi es gain ed Co ntr o l
.
 T HE N EAR EAS T
of t h eir n eigh bors making t h e kings o f t h es e n eighboring
,

citi es int o d ep end ents w h o m w e may c a ll g o v erno rs .

One o f t h e m o st p o w erful o f t h e citi es was A ga —de t h e

’
,

t h ro n e o f w h ic h w as h eld by a man w h o h a d b een a

gardenerg fl a t ej w ard a cu p b ear er in t h e king s p a lac e
ih
’
-
.

S ar gon must av e h eefi a and a bility

‘
’ '

He not o nly c o nqu er ed h i s imm ediat e n eig h b o rs but ex

t end ed h is rul e s o ut h t o t h e P ersi a n Gulf and n o rt h
alo ng t h e He carri ed B a byl o ni a n cultur e
'
and civilizati o n t o t h e f o o t h ills o f Ar m e ni a a nd t o dis - -

tant S yri a and br o ugh t back t h e ston es m et a ls a nd o t h er

, ,

p r o ducts o f t h es e p r o vinc es S arg o n s em p ir e is t h e first

’
.

in h ist o ry b eing 1 2 00 y ears earli er t h an t h at o f T h o t mes

,

I II in Egy p t .

5 6 H a m m u ra b i s Em p ir e — I n f a ct m o r e t h a n fo ur
’
.
.
,

c enturi es b efo re T h o t mes I I I ano t h er l a rger str o nger , ,

and m o r e lasting emp ir e

t h an t h at o f S argo n w as
establis h ed by a gr eat
c o nqu ero r and stat esm an ,

Ha m mu ra bi T h is em - -
’
.

p ir e l a st ed s ev er a l c entu
ri es a nd is c all ed t h e o ld
B a by l o ni a n ki ngd o m .

T he cap it a l of B a byl o ni a
was no w t h e im p o rt ant
wall ed ci t y o f B a by lon ,

a c o mm erci a l met ro p o
lis w h ic h d esired fo r eign
trad e and was anxi o us t o
d w d d w d
C o p y ri g h t b y U n er oo a nd Un er oo
ext end its rul e fo r t h e
H mm bi c i i ng C d
a u ra re e v o e
b en efit Of its tr a d e
.

Hammurabi s ent o u t h i s o w n o ffi ci a ls t o rul e o v er t h e

sub ject citi es He est a blis h ed a p o st syst em o p en ed
.
-

u p b ett er m ea ns o f c o mmunicati o n c o ns truct ed great ,

 T HE TI G R I S —
EU P H R A T E S VALLEY

canals and w as r ep aid by suc h an I ncr eas e in agricultur e

,

and suc h exp a nsi o n o f m a nufacturing a nd c o mm erc e

as h a d n ev er t ak en p l a c e b ef o r e .

5 7 H a m m u ra b i s Co d e o f L a w s Hammur a bi is
’
. .

b est known fo r h i s c o d e o f l a ws w h ic h s h o ws t h at busi ,

n ess w as c o nduct ed o n wis e a nd j ust p rinci p l es and t h at ,

buying and s elling as w ell as s o ci a l r el ati o ns w er e r egu

, ,

l at ed by law M o st o f t h e laws in t h e c o d e are muc h o ld er

.

t h an Hammu rab i s tim e and m a ny o f t h em are t o b e ’

,

fo und in a mild er fo rm in t h e muc h lat er M o saic c o d e o f

t h e H ebr ews .

We ca n j udg e Hammurabi s c o d e o f l aws fo r o urs elv es ’

fr o m t h e fo ll o wing extr a cts

If m n d i ng
a al w c h ll tt t h t g i n t t h
ur a a ase s a u er r ea s a a s e

w itn nd h s n t j
es s es , a t ifi d t h w d h a tt d if t h t
o it us e e or e u er e , a su

is o ne o n wh i c h l ife d ep end s , t h a t m a n s h a l l d i e
a .

If a m a n h a s s t o l en a n o x , s h eep o r a s s , o r p i g , o r g o a
—
t ith
, e er

fro m a go d [ t em p l e! W et p a l a c e , h e s h a ll p a y t h i r t y fo l d If h e
-
.

is a co m m o n m an h e M , m t en fo l d
-
. t
I f t h e h i ef h a s no t h i ng
to p ay wi t h , he s h a ll li e p u t
“

t o d ea t h .

If a man h a s effe ct ed a ro b b ery , a nd i s t a k en, t h a tm an sh al l

b e p u t t o d ea t h
!fi d
.

If a m a n h a s t a k en el of c ul t i v a t i o n, a nd h a s no t c a u s ed
c o rn t o gr o w on t h e fi el d , h a s no t p erfo r m ed t h e w o r k o n t h e
a nd

fi el d , h e sh all be ca l l ed t o a cc o u nt a nd h e s h a ll gi v e o rn [ gra i n! c
l i k e h i s nei g h b o r t o t h e o wner o f t h e fi el d .

t
I f a m a n d es ro y t h e ey e o f a m a n, h i s ey e t h ey s h a l l p u t o u t .

If a m a n k no ck o u t t h e t ee h o f h i s eq u a l , h i s t eet h s h a ll b e t
k no ck ed o u t .

If a d oct o r h a s sa v ed th e ey e o f a m a n t en s h ek el s
, o f s i l v er

h e sh all t ak e . If i t w a s a fr eed ma n, fi v e s h ek el s o f s i l v er he t a k es .

If i t wa s a s l a v e, h e s h a ll t a k e t w o s h ek el s .

If d o ct o r h a s p u t o u t t h e ey e , h i s h a nd s sh a l l b e cu t o fl
a .

If h e b u il d a h o u s e fo r a m a n a nd d i d no t s et h i s w o rk a nd ,

t
t h e w a l l s t o p p l e o v er , h a t b u i l d er fro m h i s o w n m o ney s h a l l
ma k e t h a t w all s tro ng .

If a m a n h i r e a h a rv es t er h e ,
sh all gi v e h i m ei gh t gu r [64
b u s h el s ! o f c o rn fo r t h e y ea r .

If a m a n h i re a sh i p o f 60 g u r [4 8 0 b u s h el s ! ,
fo r ea ch d ay h e
s h al l p a y o ne s i xt h o f a-
s h ek el .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

AS S Y R IA A ND CHAL DEA

58 . syri a n s
T h e As .
—
syr i ans lived on t h e
T h e As -
’
-

sl o p e o f t h e m o untain ea st a nd n o rt h o f t h e Tigris R iv er .

T h ey w er e a h ealt h y , V ig o r o us p eo p l e and t h eir m o nu ,

m ents s h o w t h em wit h
t h e l o ng b eards a nd
facial c h aract eristics o f
t h e t y p ical H ebr ew p a
triarc h T h e Assyrian s .

w ere no t an industrial
o r agricultur a l p eo p l e
lik e t h e B abyl o nians ,

but t h ey wer e int er

es t ed in trad e and w er e

es p eci a lly f o nd o f w a r
1
,

w h i c h t h ey w a g ed
a gainst t h eir en emi es
wi t h fiercenes s a nd cru
el t y
2
.

59 . Th e A s s yri a n
S i x s i d ed C y l i nd er
-

. E mp ir e . Ab o ut 7 50

T h e gr ea t es t o f t h e e a rl y As s y ri a n c o n u ero rs w as T i g la th P i le s er
1
q ' - -
'

I w h o c o nq u ered a cc o rd i ng t o hi s i nscr i p t i o n
, ,
fo r t y t w o c o u nt r i es a nd ,
-

t h ei r p r i n c es , fr o m t h e l ef t b a nk of th e l o wer Z a b a nd the b o rd er of

fo res t -
cl a d m o u nt ai ns as far as the r i gh t b a nk o f t h e Eu p h ra t es , t h e
l a nd of the Kh at ti [ Hi t t i t es ! a nd t h e U p p erS ea o f t h e s et t i ng s u n

T h e feet of the enem y I k ep t fr o m m y c o u nt ry .

"

‘
One w o rd u ni t ed I c au s ed t h em t o s p ea k .
”

2
One of c ri p t i o ns gi v es a n i ns t a nc e o f t h e p u ni s h m ent m et ed
t h e i ns
o u t t o r e bel s W i t h b a t t l e a nd sl a u gh t er I a s s a u l t ed a nd t o o k t h e c i t y
.
“
.

T h ree t h o u sa nd c a p t i v e s I s l ew i n b a t t l e T h ei r b o o t y a nd p o s se s si o ns
.
,

c a t t l e s h eep I c a rri ed a wa y ; m a ny c a p t i v es I b u rned wi t h fi re M a ny

, , .

o f t h ei r so l di ers I t o o k a li v e ; o f so m e I cu t o ff h a nd s a nd li m b s ; o f o t h er s

t h e no s es , ea r s a nd a rm s m a ny
I p u t o u t t h e ey es
; of I re a red
so l d i er s .

a c o l u m n o f t h e l i v i ng a nd a c o l u m n o f h ea d s
'
I h u ng u p o n h i g h t h ei r .

h ea d s o n t rees i n t h e v i c i ni t y o f t h ei r c i t y T h ei r b o y s a nd gi rl s I b u rned
.

u p i n t h e fl a m es I d ev a s t a t ed t h e c i t y , d u g i t u p i n fire b u rned i t ;
.
,

”
I a nni h il a t ed it .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
wat ers o f eig ht een m o untain str eams with r es ervoi rs for ,

k eep ing a sup p ly in t h e city .

T h is barb a ric sp l endor and t h es e p r ecauti o ns for de

f enc e a gainst en emi es did no t h el p N inev eh fo r h er rul ers ,

o p p ress ed all of t h eir subj ects and from t h e four quart ers
, ,

W i nged B u ll .

of t he m p ire r evolt fo ll o w ed r evolt T h e M ed es from

e ,
.

t h e P ersian p lat ea u j o in ed wit h t h e p rinc e of B abyl o ni a ,

and aft er a l o ng si ege N in ev eh f ell t h e l as t Assyrian

, , ,

king p eris h ing in t h e fl a m es (606

6 1 T h e New B a b yl o ni a n K in gd o m
. M o st o f t h e .

Assyri a n p o ss essi o ns fell t o B a byl o ni a w h o s e new king , ,

'
Neb u ch a d nez za r s h o w ed wo nd erful ability in r ec o n
- - -

qu ering t h e p ro vinc es t h at h ad r evo lt ed He did not try to .

 I
AS S Y R A AN D C HAL D EA
gain Egy p t but h e c o nqu er ed J erusal em (5 8 6
,
s ending
t ens o f t h o usands o f J ews t o B abyl o n T h is exp eri enc e o f .

J ewis h exil es is kno wn in H ebr ew h ist o ry as t h e B abylon

ian cap tivity N ebuc h a dn ezzar s p ent t h i rt een y ears wit h
”
.

o u t succ ess trying t o c o nqu er t h e littl e island Of Tyr e i n

P h oeni ci a T h is lat er B abylonian k ingdo m is known as t h e

.

C op y ri ght by U n d erwoo d a nd Un d
erwoo d
R u i ns of B aby l o n .

new B a by lo ni a n ki ngdom It is s o m etim es call ed t h e Ch al

.

d ea n kingd o m b ec a u s e N ebuc h a dn ezz a r was a Ch a l de a n

,
-
’
.
1

6 2 . W h a t N eb u ch ad n e zz a r di d fo r B a b yl o n — N eb u .

ch a dnez z a r w as a man o f p eac e rat h er t h an a w a rri o r .

He aid ed indu s try and c o mm erc e r ec o nstructing m a ny Of ,

t h e o l d irrig a ti o n c a n a ls r ebuilt B a byl o n rais ed a gr ea t

, ,

dike or wall fr o m t h e Tigris t o t h e Eup h rat es by w h ic h

1 T h e C h a l d ea ns h a d b een t h e mo st a gg res si v e ra ce of B a b y l o ni a fo r
sev era l c ent u ri es b e fo re t h i s t i m e .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
he c o uld flood t h e c o untry ag a i nst en emi es and h e built ,

walls vast er t h an t h o s e o f N in ev eh His b est kno wn .

w o rk was t h e c o n s tructi o n o f t h e fam o us h anging g a rd ens ,

w h ich h e fas h i o n ed fo r h i s M edian qu een w h o l o ng ed fo r ,

h er m o unta i ns l T h es e gard ens w er e c o nsid er ed o ne o f

.

t h e w o nd ers o f t h e a nci ent w o rld T h ey w er e built a l o ng .

t h e Eu p h r a t es R iv er and c o ns ist ed o f fo ur t err a c es wit h

arc a d es fo r m erc h ants a l o ng t h e b a nk o f t h e riv er On .

t h e h ig h est t errac e a b o ut o ne h undr ed f eet ab o v e t h e

,

Eu p h rat es w er e all kind s o f wo nd erful p lants irri ga t ed

, ,

by wat er p um p ed u p fro m t h e riv er G r ea t s h eet s o f l ea d .

k ep t t h e wat er fr o m s eep ing t h ro ug h t h e brick t errac es

and und ermining t h e walls .

Aft er N eb u ch a dnez z a r s d eat h t h e B a byl o ni a n kingd o m

’

l ast ed but a s h ort tim e In a few y ea rs c a m e t h e cry

.
,

T h e M ed es a nd t h e P ersi a ns a re at y o ur g a t es
“ ”
a nd ,

t h e city f ell 5 3 8 B C fo r t h e P ersians b ec a m e t h e mast ers

,
. .
,

o f a ll w est ern Asi a 1 62 )

63 I m p o rt a n ce o f t h e Ti gri s Eu p h r a t es Civi li z a t i o n
.
-
.

B abyl o ni a s h a r es wit h Egyp t t h e h o n o r o f h a ving o ne

'

o f t h e first h ist o ric civilizati o ns Its influ enc e w as p er .

h a p s ev en gr ea t er t h a n t h a t Of Egy p t fo r t h e Eu p h r a t es ,

w a s t h e h ig h w a y fr o m t h e East t o t h e Wes t It w as a .

c entr e o f c o mm erc e ext en di ng in al l dir ecti o ns but es p e ,

ci ally t o t h e s o ut h ea st by way o f t h e P ersi a n G ul f a nd ,

n o rt h west t o t h e M edit erran ean Wh at ev er B a byl o ni a .

had w as c a rri ed by h er m erc h ants o r h er g o v ern o rs

g en er a l t o M es o p o t a mi a t o Assyria t o S yri a t o Asi a
”
, , ,

M in o r a nd even t o t h e West .

B a byl o ni a s cun eif o rm writing was at o ne tim e t h e O fficial

’

w ritt en languag e no t o nly o f w est ern Asi a but o f Egyp t

, ,

as w ell T h is w a s b efo r e t h e tim e o f R a m es es I I

.

Her r eligi o n influ enc ed t h a t o f As syria P h oenici a f ar a way , ,

-

C art h ag e a nd ev en G r eec e Her m et h o ds o f fo r et elling

.

1 M e di a wa s ea s t o f t h e T i g ri s R i v er a nd As sy ri a .
 I
AS S Y R A AN D C H A L D EA

e vents by divin a ti o n w er e b o rro w ed by G r eec e and R o m e ,

a nd t h e su p erstiti o n o f h er a s tr o l o gy d esc end ed t o still

l a t er tim es We still s p ea k o f s o o t h s a y ers as Ch a l

.

d ea ns ”
. Her l aw c o d es r eap p ea r in t h e laws o f t h e
H ebr ews and o f m a ny o t h er west ern p eo p l es S h e divid ed .

h er d a y int o tw enty fo ur h o urs wit h t w o s ets o f tw elv e

-

h o urs ea c h Her week h ad s ev en d a ys n a m ed as o urs are

.
, ,

a ft er t h e g o ds o f t h e sun m o o n a nd p l a n ets ,Her sci enc e .

,

es p eci a lly t h a t o f t h e h ea v ens w as b ett er d ev el o p ed t h an

,

t h a t o f t h e Egyp ti a ns Her l eg en ds h a v e b een c o p i ed

.

in t h e l eg ends o f o t h er p eo p l e We s h o uld n o tic e fo r .

ex a m p l e t h e d elug e st o ry a nd t h e l a b o rs o f G i l

g am es h (H ercul es ) 1 00) in t h e n ext c h ap t er B aby .

l o ni a n syst em s o f w eig h t a nd m ea sur e w er e us ed ev ery

w h er e i n t h e West T h e B a byl o ni a ns w er e t h e first
.

p eo p l e t o t ea c h t h e wo rld c o nstructi o n by m ea ns o f t h e
a rc h a nd t h e u s e Of dr a in s Wit h o ut qu esti o n t h e wo rld s
.
’

d ebt t o B a byl o ni a is gr eat and B a byl o ni a s influ enc e o n ’

t h e W o rld un fo rtun a t ely h as b een ev en gr eat er

, , ,
.

T H E EA S T M E D I T E R R A N E A N C OA S T

64 . r ap h y
G eo g Wh er e t h e gr eat b end o f t h e Eu
.

p h rat es o ccurs t h e Ea st t h a t is t h e Tigris Eu p h r a t es

’
-

, , ,

v a ll ey j o ins t h e M iddl e West t h at is t h e ea st M edi t er

, , ,

ranea n c o a st T h is ea st M edit erran ea n c o ast c o nsists

.

o f t h r ee g eo gr a p h ic a l a r ea s t h at w er e t h e h o m es o f t h r ee

imp o rt ant p eo p l es in a ntiq u ity Th is c o a st a ls o furnis h ed

.

t h r ee h ig h w a ys b etw een t h e Ea st and t h e Wes t and w a s

t h e di s p ut ed gr o und b etw een t h e em p ir es o f t h e Egyp ti a ns
a nd o f t h e Tigri s Eu h r a t es v a ll ey T h e n o rt h ern p art
p
-

o f t h is ea s t M edit err a n ea n c o a st w e c a ll S ri a a nd in
y ,

a nci ent tim es it w a s o ccu i ed by t h e Hi t ti tes a p eo p l e ’

p ,

wh o b el o ng ed r ea lly i n t h e ea st ern h a lf o f As i a M in o r . .
.

Al o ng t h e c o a st s o ut h o f S yri a t h er e w er e s ev eral ent er ‘

E
 T HE N EAR EAS T

p rising c o mm ercial citi es in h a bit ed by t h e P hoe ni cia ns

,
-
’
.

Inland fr o m P h oeni ci a a nd s o ut h o f S yria is t h a t l a nd

t h ro ug h w h ich t h e river J o rd a n fl o ws first int o t h e S ea ,

o f G a lil ee a nd l a t er int o t h a t gr ea t salt sink 1 300 f eet ,

b el o w s ea l evel t h e Dea d S ea T h is c o untry w e call

,
.

P a l es ti ne a nd it w a s in h a bit ed by t h e Hebrews
’
-
.
,

6 5 T h e H ittit e s
. T h e nam e Hi tti te is usu a lly ap p li ed
.

t o a l l t h o s e trib es t h a t o ccu p i ed t h e t errit o ry fr o m t h e

B l a ck S ea s o ut h t o t h e
b o rd ers o f P a l estin e .

Littl e is kno wn a b o ut
t h em alt h o ug h w e ,

h a v e u n c o v er ed a
gr ea t m a ny ruins o f
t h eir buildings a nd
citi es in Asi a M ino r .

S o m e o f t h em w er e
alli ed in rac e t o t h e
Ass y rians a nd P h ae
ni ci a ns a nd lik e t h e ,

Ass y ri a ns a nd P h oeni
ci a ns t h ey b o rro wed ,

m o st o f t h eir d eiti es ,

t h eir cultur e a nd t h eir

lat er writings fro m t h e
B a byl o ni a ns T h ey .

a dd ed n o t h ing t o t h e

E t M di t
as en n C
erra t ea
civiliz
o as .
a ti o n of t h e

h um a n r a c e a nd y et
t h ey h el p ed t o p a s o n th e B abyl o nian cultur e to p eo p l es
s

fart h er west .

In t h e d ays aft er T h o t mes II I wh en t h e Egyp tians ,

b eg a n t o l o s e t h eir h o ld o n S yri a a gr eat Hittit e king ,

1

unit ed u nd er h is rul e t h e eas t ern h a lf o f Asia M in o r ,

1
S u bb il u l i u m a .
 T HE N EAR E AS T
was built o n an island s o t h at it c o uld no t ea ily b e ca p s

t u r ed as N ebuc h a dn ezzar disc o v er ed

, T h er e w as f o u nd .

n ea r t h e city a s h ell fis h t h at gav e a b ea uti ful p urp l e dy e ,

w h ic h was us ed fo r fine fabrics and w as s o exp ensiv e t h at

it was b o ug h t c h i efly by kings T h is is kno wn as t h e .

Tyrian or r o yal p ur p l e Tyr e h a d gr eat fl eets v ery .

,

ext ensiv e tr a d e and larg e f a ct o ri es i n w h ich h er p eo p l e

m a n uf a ctur ed t h e raw mat erials that t h ey gath er ed o n

t h eir trading v o yag es .

68 T h e P h oeni ci a n s a s C a r ri ers o f Civili z a ti o n

. .

T h e P h oenicians w er e no t an inv entiv e p eo p l e F ro m t h e .

B abyl o ni a ns t h ey b o rr o w ed
t h eir d eiti es a nd m o st o f t h eir
civili zati o n B u t t h ey did .

mor e t h a n t h at ; fo r t h ey
c a rri ed t h is civiliz a ti o n wit h
t h em w h en t h ey s ail ed a l o ng
t h e s h o r es o f t h e M ed i t er
r anea n Usu ally t h e nativ es .

w ere m o r e int er est ed in ex

c h anging iv o ry o r g o ld o r ,

silv er o rs o m e o f t h e n a tural ,

p r o ducts w h ic h t h ey c o uld n o t
u s e fo r glass b ea ds o r brac e
,

Th e M bi t S t n
oa (en o lee ts or
a stri
ex p s o f brig h t c o l o r ed -

l y P h ni c i “ w i t
a mp l
m g)
e r o e ar oe
cl o th
a
but
r
t h e P h oenici a ns
”

n ev ert h el es s s p r ead t h e Old er

.

cultur es a go o d d ea l as t h e wind c a rri es s eed .

In tr a ding t h e P h oeni ci a ns us ed a set o f writt en c h a ract ers

c a ll ed letters Wh er e t h ey fo und t h em w e do no t y et k no w
.
,

but t h ey c a rri ed t h em a ll o v er t h e civiliz ed w o rld and g a ve

t o t h e w o rld t h e first a lp h a bet .

69 Ea rl y H i s t o ry o f t h e H e b r ew s
. Inl a nd fro m .

P h oenici a li es P a l estin e t h e h o m e o f a S emitic p eo p l e

,

c a ll ed t h e H ebr ews T o P a l estin e in t h e tim e o f Ham

.
 T HE EAS T M EDITER R AN EAN C OAS T

mu ra bi cam e A bra h a m an Arab s h eik o r p atriarc h

5 6)
’
-

, ,
”
w h o h a d j o urn ey ed fr o m Ur o f t h e Ch a ld ees Abra .

h a m s gr ea t gr a nds o n J o s ep h w a s s o ld int o cap tivity

’
, ,

by h i s j ea l o us br o t h ers a nd w as tak en t o Egyp t w h er e ,

h e r o s e h ig h in t h e es teem o f t h e P h a r a o h T h en cam e .

years o f famin e in P a l estin e w h ich dr ew J o s ep h s br o t h ers ’

and m any o t h ers t o t h e st o r e h o u ses o f Egyp t S o m e -

.

c enturi es lat er w e find t h e c h ildr en o f Israel in b o nd ag e

“ ”

in Egy p t m a king bricks wit h o ut straw and o p p r ess ed

,

by t h e Egyp ti a ns .

Und er t h e l ead ers h i p o f M o s es t h e H ebr ews mad e an

ex o dus fr o m Eg yp t p er h ap s und er R a m es es II
,
.

Aft er w a nd ering fo r a g en er a ti o n in t h e d es ert w a st es

s o ut h o f P al estine t h ey s ettl ed in P a l estin e F o r s ev eral
,
.

c enturi es t h ey liv ed und er ju dges figh ting ag a inst t h eir ,

n eig h b o rs in o rd er t h at t h ey mig h t k eep t h is land o f milk

a nd h o n ey fo r t h ems elv es .

7 0 T h e U ni t e d H eb r ew K in g d o m
. T h e H ebr ews .

w er e still lik e b a nds o f wand ering Ar a b trib es T h ey .

n eed ed a n ati o n a l o rganizati o n and a n a ti o n a l l ea d er s o ,

t h ey c h o s e a ki ng a t a ll h a nds o m e man nam ed S au l

, ,
.

S a ul w as no t a g o o d l ea d er but h i s succ ess o r Da vi d w h o

, , ,

h a d g a in ed a r ep utati o n by killing t h e gi a nt c h am p i o n
o f t h e P h ilistin es G o li a t h w a s no t o nly a g en er a l but was
, ,

t h e l ea d er t h at t h e H ebr ews n eed ed He built u p a king .

d o m w h ic h und er h i s s o n S o l o mo n ext end ed fr o m t h e

’
-

R ed S ea t o t h e Eu p h r a t es T h at is it c o v er ed t h e w h o l e
.
,

ea s t M edit err a n ea n coast Und er D avid t h ere w er e

.

c o ll ect ed and p erf ect ed a l arg e numb er o f h ymns o f '

p r a is e t h e P sa lms a nd und er S o l o m o n t h e wisd o m o f

, , ,

t h e ag es w as gat h er ed in P roverbs T h is H ebr ew king .

d o m w as cr ea t ed a b o ut 1 000 B C ab o ut 2 50 y ea rs a ft er . .
,

t h e ex o dus and a b o ut t h e s a m e tim e b ef o r e t h e ris e o f t h e

gr ea t As syri a n em p ir e .

7 1 T h e H i s t o ry o f I s r a el a nd J u d e a
. Att er S o l o .
-
 T HE N EAR EAS T

mon s d eat h t h e H ebr ew kingd o m was divid ed int o t w o

’

kingd o ms I s ra cl in t h e n o rt h wit h h er cap ital S a

.
’
-

ma ri a was c o nqu er ed by t h e Assyrians in 7 22 a nd many

’
-

fro m its t en trib es wer e carri ed int o exil e J u de a -

’

in t h e s o ut h r emain ed fr ee until N ebuc h adn ezzar c ap tur ed

h er c ap ital J e r u s a l em 6 1 ) (5 8 6 B C ) and t o ok m a ny o f
’
- -
. .

its in h abit a nts to B abyl o n a p eri o d c a ll ed t h e B a byl o ni a n

,

c ap tivity o f t h e J ews as w e h av e no tic ed Aft er t h e

, .

r eturn o f t h e exil es a nd t h e r ebuilding o f J erus a l em t h e ,

p pro h e ts w er e t h e nati o nal l ea d er s Jud ea was t h en und er .

t h e rul e o f G r eek ki ngs fo r c enturi es until t h e R o m a ns

o ccu p i ed P al estin e b ef o r e t h e birt h o f C h rist and lat er ,

m a d e P a l estin e into a R o m a n p r o vinc e .

7 2 T h e R eli gi o u s Ex p eri enc e o f t h e H eb r ew s

. Until .

l o ng aft er t h e kingd o m o f David and S o l o m o n t h e H ebr ew

p eo p l e did no t h av e a radic a lly di ff er ent r eligi o us b eli ef
fr o m t h eir n eighb o rs T h e gr eat im p o rt a nc e o f t h e
.

H ebr ews in t h e h ist o ry o f t h e w o rld d o es no t consist in

t h eir b eing at a v ery ea rly dat e m o n o t h eists t h at i s , ,

p peo l e w h o b e li ev e in o ne G o d M any o f t h eir l ea d ers

.

w er e m o no t h eists but t h e H ebrews as a p eo p l e at firs t

,

b eli ev ed in many g o ds Only gradu ally did t h e p eo p l e .

r ea liz e t h a t J e h o va h wa s th e o nly God T h ey did no t

-
’
.

und erstand t h a t God i s a u ni versa l omni p otent s p i ri t , ,

a nd no t as t h eir n eig h b o rs b eli ev ed a n enl a rg ed h u man

, ,

b eing wit h h um a n p a ssi o ns a nd w ea kn ess es .

T h e p r o p h ets tri ed t o t ea c h t h e p eo p l e t h a t t h e o ne
G o d w a s no t a divi n e h ero lik e t h e g o d s o f t h eir n eig h b o r s .

Alt h o ug h th e Hebrew p eop l e ca me to B E L I E VE i n one God

wh o w a s S p i ri t it c a nn o t b e s a id t h a t t h e w h o l e p eo p l e
,

l ea rn ed t o W OR S H I P a s well a s beli eve i n one tr u e God until

, , ,

aft er t h e B abyl o ni a n cap tivity T h is t h en is t h e gr eat .

c o ntributi o n o f t h e H ebr ews t o t h e wo rld s p ro gr ess : t h a t ’

t h ey aband o n ed p o lyt h ei s m fo r a b eli ef in o ne tru e G o d ,

a nd t h eir b eli ef gr ew int o a N A T I O N A L W O R S HI P O F T HAT

 T HE EAS T M EDITER R AN EAN C OAS T

G OD Ot h er p eo p l es h a d i s o l a ted l ea ders w h o b eli ev ed

.

i n m o n o t h eism a nd s o m e t h a t ev en liv ed u p t o t h eir b e

li ef T h e Hebrew na ti on wa s the only monoth ei s ti c N AT I ON
.

f
o a nti qu i ty .

73 . S u mm a ry .
— Anci ent Egy p t
gr eat p r o g o wed h er
r ess p artly t o h er is o l at ed p o siti o n and p a rtly t o t h e
exc ep ti o n a l fertility c a u s ed by t h e inund a ti o ns o f t h e N il e .

Hist o ric a l Egyp t m ay b e divid ed int o t wo gr eat p eri o ds I ,

t h at o f Egyp ti an ind ep end enc e fr o m 3 400 B C t o 5 2 5 B C ,

. . . .

I I t h a t o f d ep end enc e 5 2 5 B C t o t h e p r es ent In 3 400

, ,
. . .

B C M en es unit ed u p p er a nd l o w er Egyp t
. . T h e p eri o d .

o f t h e p yr a mid build ers is c a ll ed t h e Ol d Kingd o m T he .

feud a l p eri o d w h en t h e n o bl es rul ed is c a ll ed t h e M iddl e

Kingd o m Aft er t h e Hyk s o s rul e w e h a v e t h e Em p ir e
.
,

wit h T h o t m es I II ruling fr o m N ubi a a nd Lydi a t o t h e

Eup h r a t es R iv er a nd R a m es es I I t h e M a gnific ent
,
T h en ,
.

fo ll o ws a peri o d o f d eclin e .

Egyp t w as first a dd ed (t em p o r a rily ) t o t h e Assyri a n

em p ir e It t h en b ec a m e in turn subj ect t o t h e P ersi a ns
.
,

t o t h e G r eeks t h e R o m a n s t h e M o h a mm ed a ns t h e Turks
, , ,

a nd fina lly t o t h e Engli s h Egyp t s civiliz a ti o n w a s no t

’
.

o nly t h e ea rli est but o ne o f t h e b est in t h e a nci ent Ori ent ,

a nd exc ep t t h a t o f B a byl o ni a t h e m o st influ enti a l o f t h e

, ,

civiliz ati o ns o f t h e a nci ent n ea r Ea st .

T h e l o w er Tigris Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey o r B a byl o ni a is
-

, ,

very fertil e Int o B a byl o ni a t h e S um eri a n s bro ugh t t h e

.

rudim ent s o f a lm o st al l o f t h e art writing a nd cultur e o f ,

t h is wh o l e a r ea T h e B a byl o ni a ns Assyri a ns Hittit es

.
, , ,

P h oenici a ns a nd H ebr ews m o st o f w h o m w er e S emit es , ,

i n t h eir tur n c o p i ed t h i s cultur e F o r a summ a ry o f t h is .

civiliz ati o n c o nsult

T h e B a byl o ni a ns h a d t w o gr ea t em p ir e build ers S a rg o n
o f Ag a d e (a b o ut 2 6 5 0 B C ) a nd H a mmur a bi o f B a byl o n
. .

(ab o ut 1900 Ha mm u rab i s em p ir e l a st ed s ev er a l cen ’

t u ri es T h e Assyri a n em p ir e w a s d ev el o p ed by a succ es
.
 T HE N EAR EAS T
si o n w a rri o r kings fro m a b o ut 7 50 t o 6 50 B C T h e
of . .

new B a byl o ni a n kingd o m und er N ebuc h a dn ezz ar fo ll o w ed

t h e dow nfall o f Assyr i a T h e Hittit e em p ir e p r ec ed ed .

t h e first Assyri a n em p ir e but surviv ed until t h e s ec o nd .

T h e P h ce ni ci a ns w er e int er est ed in trad e w h ic h t h ey ,

carri ed o n wit h t h e Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey wit h Egyp t a nd wi t h ,

t h e w h o l e M edit err a n ea n a r ea T h ey p lant ed tr a ding .

p o sts s o m e o f w h ic h gr ew int o col o ni es a nd t h ey c a rri ed

, ,

t h e al p ha b et t o a l l anci ent p eo p l es .

T h e H ebr ews w er e a p a s t o r a l p eo p l e w h o liv ed in P a l es

tin e T h ey w er e a t first rul ed by j udg es Und er Da vid
. .

and S o l o m o n ( 101 5 9 3 5 B C ) t h er e w as a uni t ed H ebr ew

—
. .

kingd o m str etc h ing fr o m Egyp t t o t h e Eu p h r a t es R iv er .

T h is k ingd o m was divid ed int o Isra el and Jud ea Isr a el .

was c o nqu er ed by t h e As syri a ns in 7 22 B C a nd J erusal em . .

was c ap tur ed in 5 8 6 B C by N ebuc h a dn ezzar t h e gr ea t . .

,

rul er o f t h e l a t er B a byl o nian (C h a ld ean ) em p ir e T h e .

J ews struggl ed u p fr o m p o lyt h eism t hr o ug h b eli ef in o ne

Go d to a nati o nal w o r s h i p o f a tru e G o d .

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
G o o d s p eed , Hi s to r y of t h e A nc i ent Wo rld , 5—60 .

W es t , A nc i ent Wo rld R ev i s ed
, , 1 1 —8 1 .

Du P o nt et , T h e A nci ent Wo rl d ,
1 —1 1 5 .

S a y c e , A nc i ent E mp i r es of t h e Ea s t .

B a i k i e, T h e S to r y o f t h e P h a ra o h s .

B rea s t ed H i s to r y , of th e A nc i ent E gy p ti a ns .

G o o d s p eed , A Hi s to r y of t h e B a by l o ni a ns a nd As s y r i a ns .

W i nc kl er H i s to r y of , B a by l o ni a a nd A s s y ri a .

S t o ry of th e N a t i o ns : V olu m es o n A nci ent Egy p t , Ch a l d ea ,

A s s y ri a , P h azni ci a , T h e J ews , a nd M edi a B a by l o ni a ,
a nd P ers i a .

C u nni ngh a m , Wes ter n Ci vi l i za ti o n, I , 1 0—7 0 .

Ha l l T h e A nc i ent Hi s to r y of th e Nea r Ea s t 17 0 2 1 2 —3 2 5
, , ,
.

M a s p er o T h e Da wn of Ci vi l i z a ti o n
,
.

M a c a l i s ter Ci vi l i za ti o n i n P a l es t i ne
,
.

M o ret I n t h e T i me of t h e P h a ra o h s
,
.

Ha nd co c k M es o p ota mi a n A rc h eo l o gy
, .
 T HE D AW N OF H S I T OR Y 57

Top i cs
T HE T EL EL AM A R N A TA E S BL T : B rea s t ed , A Hi s tor y of
Egy p t , 33 2 —337 , 38 2 —38 9 ; M o r et , I n t h e T i me of th e P h a ra o h s ,
5 5 9 8 ; Wil s o n
— E gyp ti a n L i ter a t u r —
e, 1 9 1 3 1 4 .

T H E C O DE O F HAM M U R AB I : a v i s , R ea di ngs i n A nci ent Hi s D

tor y , I
N O 2 0 ; Ha ndco ck M es o p o ta mi a n Ar c h eo l o gy 3 7 5 —38 6 ;
, .
, ,

B o s c a w en T h e F i rs t of E mp i res 1 9 5 —2 63
, , .

S tu d i es
T h e nu da
1 . i n ti o ns o f th e Nil e . M a s p ero T h e Da wn of Ci vi l ,

i za ti o n, 2 2 —2 6 .

2 . T h e i nfl u ence of v ery ea rl y Egy p t i n t h e M ed it err a nea n

a nd in w es t ern Eu ro p e S m i t h T h e A nc i ent Egy p ti a ns 1 6 1 —1 83
.
, , .

3 . T h e b u i l d i ng o f t h e p y ra m i d s Wh eel er B I i n Centu ry .
, . .
, ,

34 —
1 07 1 09 .

4 . T he r i se o f Th eb es . R a g o z i n, Ea r l y E gy p t , 7 4—80 .

5 . T he em p i r e u nd er Am enh o ep t
B a ki e, S tor y III . i of th e
P h a ra o h s , 1 53 —1 6 8 .

6 . T he w ars of R a m es es II . B rea s t ed , Hi s to r y of t h e Anc i ent

Egy p ti a ns , 303 —
3 13 .

7 . Egy p i a n t a rch i t ec u r e t . B a i k i e, J i n N a ti o na l Geo gra p h i c

IlI a ga zi ne, 2 4 9 9 2 —1 02 0 .

8 T h e geo gr a p h y o f t h e i gr i s Eu p h ra t es b a s i n
. T -
. G o o d s p eed ,
H i s to r y of th e B a by l o ni a ns a nd A s s y ri a ns , 1 —1 3 .

9 . T he S u m eri a ns . K i ng , H i s to r y o f S u mer a nd A c ca d ,
5 6—8 3 .

10 . T h e w o rk of La y a rd . R o ger s , H i s tory f
o B a by l o ni a a nd

As s y ri a , I , 1 38 —1 5 9 .

11 .
T i gl a t h P i l eser -
I . D i av s , R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent H i s tor y ,
I , No 1 1 . .

12 . C o mm er c e , b u s i nes s a nd i nd t u s ry i n B a b y l o ni a . W i nek
l er , Hi s tor y o f B a by l o ni a a nd A s s y ri a , 1 60—1 64 .

13 . T h e As s y r i a n ar my a nd m et h o d s . M a s p ero , T h e S tru ggl e

of th e N a ti o ns , 6 2 6—64 2 .

14 . T he city of S a rg o n II .
“

M a s p ero , A nc i ent E gyp t a nd

A s s y ri a , 1 9 4 —2 14 .

15 . T he ci v i l i z a t i o n of As s y ri a . Wi nck l er , Hi s to r y of
B a by l o ni a A s s y r i a 2 8 6—3 1 0
a nd , .

16 . J o na h a t i nev eh N
T h e B i bl e B o o k .
, of J o na h , ch ap s . III
a nd IV .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
T h e h a ng ng g a rd ens
17 . i of Ba by lon . Wh eel er , B . I .
, in
Centu r y , 34 2 20 2 2 2 -

18 . D a ni el a nd t h e fa l l of Ba by lon . T h e B i bl e, Book of

D a ni el , c h ap V . .

19 . C o nq u es t s of t h e gr ea t es t Hi t t i t e k i ng . G a rs t a g n , T he
S t or y of th e H i tti tes ,
2 —
3 5 3 39 .

20 . P h oeni c i a n sh i p s a nd c o mm er c e . M a s p ero , Anc i ent

Egy p t a nd As s yri a , 1 6 5 —1 68 .

21 . T he c o nq u es t S a m a ri a b y As s y r i a
of . T h e B i bl e, S ec o nd
Book of t h e K i ng s , chap X c h ap X
. VII , . VIII , 1— 1 2 .

22 . A p sa l m of
p ra i s e . T h e B i bl e B o o k , of P s a l ms , c h a p CH I . .

23 . T he d ev el o p m en t of Heb rew m o no th ei s m . M a c a l i s t er ,

Ci vi l i z a ti o n of P a l es ti ne, ch a p . V II .

Q u e sti o n s
i s Eg y p
1 . Wh y t h e g if t o f t h e le t Ni ” ?

2 Exp l a i n t h es e t er m s : d y na s t y
.
p r ed y na s t i c p y ra m i d , , ,

sph i x n
P h a ra o h M i dd l e K i ng d o m , t h e Hy k s o s feu d a l p eri o d
, , , ,

m u mm y h i ero gl y p h i c s,
.

W h y d i d t h e P h a ra o h s b u i l d p y ra m i ds ? Ho w d i d t h ey
3 .

a
p y t h e l a b o rers ? Ho w c a p a b l e w ere t h e engi neers t h a t b u il t
t h e p y ra m d s ?
i Ho w s k ul w e e t h e s t e a o
i l f r o n m s ns ?

4 W h a t i s a k i ng d o m ?
. W h a t i s a n em p i r e ? W h y s h o u l d
w e c a l l t h e Egy p t o f M enes a k i ng d o m a nd t h a t o f T h o t m es I I I
an e m p ir e ?
5 S h o w w h y t h e Hy k s o s ru l e l ed t o t h e em p i re
. G ive th e .

ex t ent o f t h e em p i re Ho w l o ng d i d i t l a s t ? a m e a nd d e
. N
s c ri be its ca p i t a l .

6 . Wh at was t h e i mp o rt a n e o f c Egy p t
’
s i s o la t io n ?
G i v e t h e p eri o d s i n Egy p t i a n h i s t o ry fro m M enes t o t h e
7 .

co nq u es t s b y P er s i a i n 5 2 5 B C a m e i n o rd er t h e e m p ir es t h a t . . N
h ave r ul ed Egy p t fro m 5 2 5 B C . . t o t h e p resent d a y .

8 . G i v e s i x na m es t h a t a re d i s t i nc t i v e o f Egy p i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n t .

9 . Wh a t do w e t o Egy p t
owe .

10 . C o m p a re i n res p ec t t o s i z e, l o c a i o n, t cc a es s i b il i t y
g en a nd

era l res o u r es , c th e N il e v a ll ey , the ea s t M dit e erra nea n c o a s t a nd

the Ti g ri s -
E u p h ra t b es a sin .

11 . Wh y Sh ou ld the w o rl d ’
s ea rl i es t c i v i l i z a t i o ns h av e b een
d ev el o p ed i n t h e D el t a o f th e N il e a nd i n B a b y l o ni a
12S h o w t h e i m p o rt a nce o f t h e Eu p h r a t es ri v er : ( 1 ) a s t h e
.

s ea t o f a n ea rl y em p r e ; i
(2 ) a s a ra d e ro u t e b et w een Ea s t a nd t
W es t .
 C H AP T ER I I I

C IVI L IZ ATI ON OF T HE N EAR EAS T

T HE R UL I N G CLA S S E S

74 . n a nd hi s G o v ern m ent
T h e Ki g In anci ent tim es .

t h er e was a v ery s h arp distincti o n b etw een t h e ruling

class es and t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e T h er e was a n equ ally .

s h arp distinction b etw een t h o s e w h o b el o nged t o ro y a lty

and t h e o t h er p rivil eged class es n o bl es a nd p ri ests ,

and p ossibly s o ldi ers o r scrib es .

At t h e h ead o f eac h g o v ernm ent was a king In Egyp t .

t h is king was call ed a P h a r ao h Wh et h er h e rul ed a tiny .

city o r a migh t y em p ir e t h e king w as a d es p o t Ev en if

, .

h i s kingd o m was insig nific a nt h e a ssum ed a h ig h s o unding

,
-

titl e as King o f t h e fo ur qu a rt ers o f t h e Ea rt h o r

,
”
,
“
King o f t h e Wo rld ”
S ucc essi o n t o t h e t h r o n e was
.

h er editary t h at i s o ne o f t h e king s s o ns succ eed ed h i m as

’
, ,

king .

T h e kings liv ed in p a lac es

’ —
7 5 T h e K i ng s P al a ce
. .

w h ic h w er e buildings o f brick o r s t o n e o f o ne o r t w o st o ri es .

Outsid e o f t h e Tigris Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey a nd t h e i s l a nd o f
-

C r et e t h es e p al a c es w er e far l ess p r et enti o us t h a n t h e

t emp l es built t o t h e go ds T h er e w er e s ep a r a t e ap a rt
.

m ents fo r t h e wiv es o i t h e king fo r ev ery o ri ent a l p o t en

'

t a t e o f im p o rt a nc e marri ed a sist er o r d a ugh t er o f ev ery

ot h er king wit h w h o m h e w a s a lli ed T h es e wiv es w ere .

o f un equal rank t h eir rank d ep ending o n t h e im p o rt a nc e

,

o f t h e kingd o m fr o mw h ic h t h ey c a m e Only o ne o f t h es e .

wiv es w as c a ll ed qu een and n aturally o ne o f h er s o ns

,

succ eed ed t o t h e t hr o n e .
 T HE R U L IN G C LAS S ES

T h e Egy p ti an p a l a c es a re no t b u il t fo r et er n i ty l i k e th e
t em p l es h ey . T a r e l i g h t c o ns t ru c t i o ns of woo d ,
b ick
r , or un

dres s ed frees t o ne , b u t ra rel y b l end ed with gr a ni t e excep t fo r t h e

i
d ec o ra t o n o f t h e grea do o rwa y s t . Th ey reca l l th e v i ll a of

N a kh t mi no u (a no b l e) o n a l a rge s c a l e : i s o l a t ed p a v il i o ns fo r t h e
h a rem s t o reh o u ses fo r t h e p ro v i s i o ns b a rra c k s a nd q u art ers fo r
, ,

th e ro y a l g u a rd a nd fo r t h e p er s o na ges a t t a c h ed t o t h e h o u s e
h old ; l a rg e c o u rt s t i
p l a n ed w t h t rees , ga r d ens w t h k o s k s a nd i i
p ools , w h ere th e w o m en ca n a m u s e t h em s el v es . A s t ro ng

c renell a t ed i
w a l l g v es t h e d w ell ng t h e a p p ea ra nce i of a fo rt res s
or t
o f a n en rench ed ca m p , a nd a t i m es , i n c a se o f t ri o t s o r co n

s p i ra ci es , the ro y a l go d h a s o w ed h i s s a fet y to th e so l i d ity of h is

do o rs a nd th e h ei gh t o f h i s w a ll s . T h e g a l l ery w h ere t h e ,

k i ng s it s d u ri ng t h e au d i c
en e , is p l a ced exa c t l y o p p o s i t e t h e
ent ra nce ga t e , p ro j cti ng f
e ro m th e w all t h e fa ca de , a nd co m 4
of -

mu ni ca t i ng d i rec t l y w i t h t h e p ri v a t e t a p a r t m en s I t i s ra i s ed
.

fo u r o r fiv e y a rd s a b o v e t h e gro u nd o rna m ent ed b rea s t h i gh ,

-

w i t h a c u s h i o n o f s tuff em b ro i d ered w i t h red a nd b l u e a nd sh el ,

t ered b y a c a no p y o f c u r i o u sl y c a rv ed p l a nk s s u p p o rt ed b y t w o ,

sl end er w o o d en p i l l a r s p a i nt ed i n b r i gh t c o l o ur s a nd o rna m ent ed

at th e top by m a ny -
co l o ur ed s rea m ers t .
”

l B el o w t h e king i n s o cial p o siti o n

T h e No b es — .

were t h e n o bl es wh o liv ed at t h e king s c o urt o r culti

,
’

v a t ed t h e gr ea t est a t es o f t h e r ealm a nd l ed h i s forc es in

b attl e T h eir birt h and t h eir w ealt h g av e t h em m a ny

.

p rivil eg es a n d y et t h ey w ,
e r e t h e subj e cts o f a gr ea t m o n
a rc h fo r t h e king mig h t d ep riv e t h em o f t h eir liv es t h eir
, ,

lands o r t h eir p rivil eg es T h e king did no t o ft en do t h is .

,

fo r a lt h o ug h h e was a bs o lut e a nd all p o w erful h e n eed ed -

t h e h el p o f t h e nobl es a nd c o uld no t a ffo rd t o m a k e t h em

en emi es 1
.

T h e h o us es o f t h e n o bl es w er e c o m p a r a tiv ely c o m fo rt
l ess In Assyri a and in s o m e o t h er c o untri es t h er e wer e
.

b edst ea ds wit h t h e m attr ess es r a is ed a b o v e t h e fl o o r

,
.

1
N ev ert h el es s , ex ep c t i n E gy p t a ft er the bu i l d i ng of t h e p y ra m i d s ,
mo s t of b
t h e no l e fa m i l i es d i d no t p o s s es s t h e sa m e e s t a t es fo r m a ny cen

t u ri es . W h en a k i ng of a new d y na s t y cam e t o t h e t h r o ne, h e u su a ll y

ga v e t h e l a nd s a nd th e o ffi c es a nd t h e p ri v i l eges t o his ow n fav o ri t es .

 T HE N EAR EAS T

T h ere was littl e furnitur e in t h e r o o ms a few stool s o r

p lain c h airs c o ff ers fo r st o ring articl es
, p er h ap s a c o u p l e
,

o f dining c o uc h es

o n w h ic h t h e n o bl e

and h i s gu ests re
cli ned a b o ut t h e

c o mm o n dis h fr o m
w h ic h t h ey at e .

Wh en a gr eat V i c
t o ry h a d b een
gain ed o r an i m
p o rt a nt feast was
c el ebrat ed ev ery ,

o ne at e and dr a nk

to exc ess the ,

w h o l e city giving
A n Eg yp t i n H a o use .
its elf o v er t o t h e
o rgy M o r e t h an .

o ne city o w ed its d estructi o n t o i t s h el p l ess stat e aft er suc h

a b a cch a na li a n ri o t as w a s t h e cas e in B abyl o n a ft er

l
,

B els h azz a r s f east

’
.

7 7 Dr e s s o f No b l em en a nd W o m en
. T h e n o bl es did
.

no t S p ar e exp ens e o n dr ess for t h eir r o b es w er e o ft en

,

embr o id er ed wit h gold l a c e and t h ey w o r e m a ny p r eci o us

st o n es T h e h ea d g ear was fr equ ently a r o und ed cap o f

.

gaudy c o l o r and exp ensiv e m a t eri a l T h e men wo re .

S h o rt br eec h es o r a tunic a nd t h e w o m en a p lain tunic

,

o r sh eat h g a rm ent t h a t c a m e t o t h e a nkl es B o t h men a nd .

wo m en o f h ig h d egr ee wor e o ver t h e s h o uld er a nd a ro und

t h e b o dy a m a ntl e t h a t c o uld be arrang ed a cc o rding t o t h e
w eat h er o r t o suit t h e t a st e o f t h e wea r er T h e Egyp ti ans
,
.

w ere fo nd o f linen o f p lain c o l o rs but t h e Asi a tics f a vo red

,

w o o ll en p laids o f gaudy ap p ear a nc e H eell ess s a nd a ls .

w er e worn on t h e f eet and o rn a m ents o f all kinds o n t h e

,

1
F ro m B a cc h u s t h e g o d
, of wi ne .
 T HE R U L IN G C LAS S ES

n eck wrists and a nkl es T h e w o m en p owd er ed and

,
.

p a in ted o utrag eo usly but t h e h ig h er class w o m en r a r ely

,

a p p ea r ed in p ublic unl ess t h ey w er e v eil ed and att end ed ,

by s erv a nts .

7 8 T h e P ri e st a s P ri e st B u s in e s s M a n a nd S ch o l a r
.
, .

T h e p ri est w as a man o f as gr ea t im p o rt a nc e as t h e n o bl e ,

fo r r eligi o n w as m o r e im p ort a nt t h a n g o v ernm ent t o t h e

o ri ent a l o f t h e a nci ent w o rld Cert a in fa mili es wer e .

usu a lly s et asid e fo r t h e p ri est h oo d a lt h o ug h m emb ers o f ,

o t h ers mig h t b ec o m e p ri est s i f t h ey s h o w ed skill in t h e ,

p erfo rm a nc e o f rit es o r in t h e l ea rning o f t h e p ri ests We .

s h all c o nsid er t h e p ri ests a g ain und er t h e subj ect o f r eligi o n .

T h e p ri est w as no t o nly t h e gu a rdi a n o f t h e t em p l e a nd

t h e r ep r es ent a tiv e o f t h e go d He w as a m erc h a nt as .

well He h a d c h a rg e o f t h e v ery ext ensiv e l a nds b el o ng

.

ing t o t h e t em p l e and dis p o s ed o f t h e c a ttl e a nd t h e s h eep ,

t h e d o v es o r t h e win e t h e gr a in o r t h e fruit w h ic h w o r
,

s h i p p ers br o ug h t as o fferings t o h i s go d He w as h ead .

m ast er o i t h e num er o us sl a v es t h a t did fine m et a l wo rk

o r c a rving fo r t h e alt a rs o r walls o f t h e t em p l e o r fo r s a l e ,

t o cust o m ers .

T h e p ri ests m o n o p o liz ed t h e l ea rning o f t h e Ori ent .

T h ey studi ed t h e st a rs T h ey a l o n e kn ew t h e s ecr et .

m eaning o f t h e h ea v ens Und er t h eir guid anc e w er e t h e .

s o o t h s ay ers t h e a str o l o g ers w h o fo r et o ld t h e futur e by

,

watc h ing t h e st a rs t h o s e w h o by divin ati o n as in exami

, , ,

n ati o n o i t h e flig h t o f birds o r t h e b o di es o f a nim a ls p re ,

dict ed ev ents and t h o s e wh o cast o u t evil s p irits and

,

p ractis ed m edicin e
1
.

1 “
T h e m edi c i nes u s ed i n Egy p t w ere o f fo u r ki nd s — dr au gh t s ,
bl i st ers , po wd ers a nd c l y s t ers , m i nera l s a s w el l a s v eg et a bl es b ei ng em
p l o y ed i n t h eir c o mp o sit io n
B u t p r o gr es s i n . m ed i c a l k no wl ed g e a s ,

c c
i n a rt w a s h e k ed i n t h e t i m e o f t h e M i dd l e Em p i re b y t h e ru l e t h a t
,

c
new m edi i nes a nd t rea t m ent w
ere a d o p t ed b y t h e d o t o r a t t h e ri s k o f c
b ei ng p u t t o d ea t h if t h e p a t i ent d i ed . S ay c e , T h e Anci ent Emp i res
of th e Eas t , p . 27 .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

LI F E OF T HE P E OP L E

79 . The P r o fes s i o n al Cl a s s es T h e p rivil eg ed class es

.

includ ed t h e m emb ers o f t h e ro y a l fa mily t h e n o bility a nd ,

t h e p ri ests . B etw een t h em and t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e w er e

t h o s e p ers o ns o f
wea lth and educa
ti o n t h at we ca n
c a ll t h e p r o i es
s i o u a l c l a s s es .

T h es e w er e t h e
scri bes and t h e
m erc h ants Wh en .

a b o y s h o w ed ex

cep t i o na l t a l ent ,

h e was s ent t o a
sc h o o l fo r a few
m o nt h s o r y ears
in o rd er t o get a n
educ a ti o n He be .

c a m e a cqu aint ed
wi t h a few Of t h e
figur es and t h e
T h S c ib
e r e .
signs us e d in writ
ing and in makin g
accounts Wit h t h is sl end er fo und a ti o n o f g en er a l kn o wl
.

edg e h e w as a p p r entic ed t o a scrib e und er w h o m h e c o p i ed

,

bills o r manuscri p ts B y dilig ent p r a ctic e a nd by mem

.

o ri z i ng t h e symb o ls t h at h e us ed h e gain ed in tim e a wid e

,

v o c abul a ry s o t h at h e was abl e t o write l ett ers and p re

,

p ar e m a nuscri p ts
T h e m erc h an t was no l ess im p o rtant t h an t h e scrib e ,

and in fact a mong t h e c o mm erci a l B a byl o ni ans t h e mer

, ,

ch a nts fo rm ed p ractic a lly o ne o f t h e p ri v il eged cl ass es ,

for t h e p ro s p erity o f t h e l o wer Tigris Eup h r a tes v a ll ey -

 I
L F E OF T HE P EOP L E

d ep end ed larg ely o n tr a d e We s h a ll study t h e m erc h ant

.

and h i s m et h o ds m o r e fully l at er
8 0 T h e L o t o f t h e P ea s a nt
. T h e c omm o n p eo p l e
.

w h o liv ed in t h e citi es o r o n t h e estat es o f t h e n o bl es o r

o n t h e lands o f t h e t em p l e ma y b e c a ll ed p easants T h ey .

wer e rud e un educat ed h ard wo rking p eo p l e w h o liv ed

, ,
-

in p o v erty h ad no s h ar e in a nyt h ing exc ep t t o il and w er e

,

tr ea t ed littl e b ett er t h an sl a v es As t h e o l d Egy p tian

.

p rov erb exp r ess ed it M an h as a b a ck and o nly o b eys

,

T h e B as t i na d o .

wh en h e i s b eat en T h e p ea sant t o o k t o il a nd b ea tings

.

fo r gr a nt ed sm ee t h at w as t h e ap p r o v ed ord er o f t h ings
,
.

Was it no t h i s p l ea sur e as w ell as h i s duty t o w o rk fo r t h e

mast er ? Wh y s h o uld t h e m ast er l o o k aft er h i m unl ess
h e did t h e m a st er s w o rk ? T h e m a n w h o tri ed t o get
’

al o ng wit h o ut a m as t er and p r o t ect o r was s o o n an o utlaw ,

wit h h i s h a nd against ev ery man and ev ery m a n s h a nd ’

ag a inst h i m .

T h e fo ll o wing p o em s h o ws t h at li fe was full o f t o il

ev en fo r t h e artisans w h o felt t h ems elv es t o b e ab o v e t h e
,

p easant

Ih v a n th
e s ee b l ck m i t h t h i w k i n t h h t f h i
e a s a s or e ea o s An an ci ent
fo rge ; h e h a s t h e fi ng er s o f a c ro c o d il e a nd i s b l a ck as fish s p a w n.
p o em o n
,
t h e h a rd
i
T h e art i sa ns o f a l l k nd s t h a th c h i s el h a v e t h ey m o re l o t o f t h e
a nd l e the ,

res t t h a n t h e p ea sa nt ? Th ei r fi el d s a re t h e w o o d t h ey s h a p e wo rk ers , .

th eir p ro fessi o n i s t h e metal ; even i n t h e ni gh t t h ey a re c al l ed ,

 T HE N EAR EAS T
a nd th y w k aga in f t t h i l b
e or f th d y ; a v n in t h er e r a or o e a e e e

ni gh t th ir h e i li gh t d u p a nd th y a e w k e T h ton
e ou s s e e r a a . e s e

ma o n s k h i w o k i n ev e y k ind f h d t o n
s ee s s r Wh en h r o ar s e . e

h as c mp l t d h i d
o e e nd h i h nd s ort i ed d ers a h t s a s a re r , o es e res

H m t b i n t h w ky d t
e us e ni e n if hi kn
or a nd p i n
ar a su r s e , ev e s ees s e

b k wi t h hi t il T h b b
rea sh o . n in th ni gh t ; t
e ar er s a v es ev e e o

b e abl t t t b
e o b l t li d w n h m t g f m di t i c t
ea ,
o e a e o e o , e us o ro s r

t odi t i c t s r c hi ng f c t m
s ea r ; h m t v w k hi m l f
or us o ers e us o er or se ,

as w ll hi t w h nd t fil l hi b ll y ; t h
e as s o a th h n y i s,
'
t n o s e us e o e s ea e

o nl y b y t h wh o m k it o se T h dy hi fi ng a t i nk w i t h
e . e er , s ers s

th d
e o f d c y d fi h hi t w
or o y
e a c h wi t h w i n hi
e s , s o e es a e ea r es s , s

h nd n
a n wi ng p i c
ev er cea s es re f t ff nt il h ed t t th e es o s u , u e e es s e

s i gh t f t ff o Th h
s u m k i v y mi
. e s bl nd i f
oe -
a er s er s era e, a s o rev er

co m p l a i ni ng ; hi s h ea l t h i s li k e t h a t of a d ea d fi s h , a nd h e h as
n o t hi ng t o ea t b u t hi s l ea t h er .

81 . T h e P ea s a nt s H o m e T h e h om e o f t h e p eas ant
’
.

was not a t h ing o f b ea uty It was a littl e h u t o f r eeds .

T h e P eas a nt
’
s H ou se .

p las t er ed wit h mud o r built o f h a lf dri ed bri cks of mud

-

fr o m t h e near est river o r irrigati o n ditc h T h e Egy p ti an .

was a s h o rt man but h e wo uld t h rust h i s h ead t h ro ug h

,

t h e r o o f if h e sudd enly st o o d er ect As th er e w as littl e .

rain in eit h er t h e N il e o r t h e Eu p hrat es vall ey ro o fs ,

w er e mad e chi efly t o k eep o ff t h e burni ng sun T h is .

h u t did not n eed windows and t h e d o o r n eed ed no l o ck ,

for t h ere was l ittl e to st eal as t h er e was littl e furniture , ,

 T HE N EAR EAS T

to grind t h e grain usu a lly w h eat o r barl ey T h is w as

,
.

do n e o n a h o ll o wed st o n e by using a p estl e o f h ard st o n e .

An h o ur s l a bor wo uld suffic e p artially t o m ash t h e gr a in

’

and br eak Off a few s p lint ers o f ston e Having b een .

m o lded t o g et h er into a p a t e t h es e w o uld b e p lac ed in h o t

s
,

as h es t o bake T h e c a k e w a an unl ea v en ed h alf b a ked

.
s
,
-

badly s corc h ed and unw h o l es o m e m ess .

T h e su p p ly o f fruit cak es a nd o t h er fo o ds w a k ep t in
,
s

eart h en j ars Wat er w a br o ug h t fr o m t h e n ea r est

.
s

river o r p o o l in similar j ars T h e p r ep ar ati o n o f fo o d

.

and t h e c a r e o f t h e c h ildren and t h e gard en t h e mark eting ,

and a h undr ed o t h er duti es ag ed t h e w o m en quickly .

Wo m an m a ki ng B rea d .

83 it n o f W o m T h e o ri ental w o man
—
“

. T h e P os i o an

did no t h av e an envi a bl e l o t Exc ep t in Egyp t s h e was

.

abs o lut ely und er t h e c o ntro l Of t h e h ea d o f h er fa mily .

e mig h t b e s o ld o r b ea t en o r kill ed In Egyp t t h ere was

S h .

s o m et h ing lik e equ a lity a m o ng men a nd wo m en but in ,

Egy p t t h e l o t o f a p o o r man w as h ard and t h at o f a w o man

,
 I
L F E OF T HE P EOP L E

was h a rd er .b est h er lif e was a life o f drudgery

At t h e ,

a nd at t h e wo rst t h at is in o t h er c o untri es s h e was littl e

, , ,

b ett er t h an a slav e In fa ct f emal e slav es wer e a drug

.
,

o n t h e m a rk et b eing s o ld a t ab o ut o ne t h ird o f t h e p ric e

,

o f m en fo r sinc e all w o m en w er e lit t l e b ett er t h an slav es

, , ,

ev en in ex p ensiv e slav e w o m en w er e d ear er t h an wiv es .

8 4 M a rri a g e a nd Div o r ce i n t h e An ci ent O ri ent

. .

T h e gr eat maj ority o f all c h ildr en b o ys and girls di ed , ,

in i nf ancy fo r unwh o l es o m e fo od l a ck o f car e and filt h y

, , ,

surr o undings caus ed a h ig h d eat h rat e M edical S kill -

.

was unkno wn exc ep t am o ng t h e ric h magic b ei ng us ed t o ,

drive a way evil s p irits fro m t h e sick body If a girl .

surviv ed t o h er fift eent h year s h e b egan t o l o o k f o rward ,

t o marriag e Ordinarily t h e f a t h ers o f t h e brid e a nd

.

gr o o m cam e t o g et h er and m a d e a b a rgain in w h ic h t h e ,

p ric e o f t h e girl was a gr eed u p o n a nd t h e a m o unt o f h er

d o wry was s p eci fied In t h e Tigris Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey
.
1 -

t h is agr eem ent was usually r ec o rd ed o n a clay t a bl et

Am o ng t h e l o w er cl a ss es v ery few men h a d m o r e
t h an o ne wi fe and m a rriag es w er e ordinarily fo r life .

Wealt h y no bl es o ccasi o nally h ad t w o o r mor e wiv es ,

but monogamy wa s th e ru le a nd not the excep ti on i n the

a nci ent Ea s t M en mig h t divo rc e t h eir wiv es at will
.
,

but wo m en c o uld s ecur e a divorc e o nly fo r t h e v ery b est

r easons In Egy p t w o m en h ad s p ecial p r o p erty rights
.
,

as wo m en h av e in m o st of t h e st at es o f o ur Unio n ;
but els ewh er e a marri ed woman h ad o nly t h at p r o p erty
w h ich s h e o wn ed b efo r e marri a ge o r wh ic h s h e h ad bo ugh t
wit h t h e m o n ey h er h usb a nd h ad p aid fo r h er Even t h en .

s h e mig h t h av e m o r e p ro p ert y rig h ts t h a n s o m e m o d ern

Euro p ean wom en .

1 It i s r ep o r t ed by H er o do t u s t h at a t o ne b
t ime i n B a y lo n i t w a s t h e
c u st o m to o ff er b ri des a t au c t i o n o nc e a y ea r T h e m o s t ea u t i fu l
. er e b w
o ff ered fi rs t a nd t h e l ea s t a t t ra c t i v e l a s t . Wi t h t h e l a t t er w a s gi v en a

d o wry m a d e u p of the m o ney p a i d fo r t h e fo rm er .

 T HE N EAR EAS T

85 l av es
. S T h er e w as no t a gr eat d ea l o f sl a v ery in
.

t h e a nci ent East As t h e c o mmon p eo p l e w er e num erous

.

and t h eir p o siti o n w as littl e b ett er t h an sl a v ery slaves ,

w er e l ess n ec ess a ry t h a n in l at er tim es In Egyp t t h er e .

s eems t o h av e b een alm o st no slav ery b efo r e t h e em p ire

was ext end ed und er T h o t mes I I I In B a byl o ni a sl a v ery .

was muc h m o r e c o mm o n fo r trad ers bro ugh t sl a ves ,

t o t h e l a rg e citi es a nd t h e c o nqu ests o f t h e kings mad e

many c ap tives int o sl a v es In t h e ea rly h ist o ry o f w a r
.

far e t h e in h a bitants Of c a p tur ed citi es w er e usu a lly p u t

,

t o d eat h T h en f o llow ed t h e p ra ctic e o f killing t h e men

.

and s a ving t h e wo m en a nd c h ildr en F in a lly men as .

,

w ell as o t h ers w er e s p a r ed .

T w o o f t h e gr ea t es t sl a v e mark ets w er e t h e t w o gr ea t est

c o mm erci a l citi es o f anci ent tim es B a byl o n and Tyr e ,
.

T h e o ne r ec eiv ed a nd s o ld t h e sl a v es o f t h e Eas t t h e o t h er ,

t h o s e o f t h e West Wo m en w er e s o ld at a b o ut fo ur
.

s h ek els o f silv er ab o ut t h r ee d o llars o f o u r m o n ey but

, ,

equ a l p er h a p s t o fif ty d o ll a rs in p urc h asing v a lu e M en .

w er e s o ld a t fro m t en t o twelv e s h ek els T h e sl a v e b ec a m e .

t h e abs o lut e p o ss essi o n o f h i s m a s t er a nd w a s usu a lly ,

tr eat ed wit h c o nsid er a bl e cru elty unl ess h e was a trust ed ,

h o us e s ervant o r a n educat e d p ers o n wh o l o ok ed aft er

h i s mast er s busin ess
’
.

R E L I G I ON

86 r t v e S p irit R eli gi o ns
. P i mi i T o p rimitive man .

t h e w o rld w a full o f invisibl e s p irits

s T h e r o ck a nd t h e .

tr ee t h e str ea m and t h e m o unt ains w er e d eiti es but t h e

, ,

gr ea t g o ds w er e t h o s e no t o f t h e eart h but o f t h e h ea v ens

, ,
.

T h e sun a nd t h e m o o n a nd t h e st a r s w er e t h e g o ds t h at
h ad p o w er and s a v ed o r wr eck ed t h e liv es o f m eri T h es e .

go ds must b e ap p ea ed l est in t h eir a ng er t h ey d estro y

s
, ,

men T h es e id eas may s eem c h ildis h but t h e r a c e was

.
,

still in its i nfancy s o far as int ell ectual and s p i ritual p rog
,
 R EL G O I I N

r ess was conc ern ed T h es e b eli efs also wer e wid es p r ead .
,

and w e see t h em p er h ap s m o st cl ea rly among t h o s e

c o mp ar ativ ely lat e and emin ently p r a ctical p eo p l e t h e ,

R om a ns .

8 7 P a t r o n D eiti e s o f Ci t i es a nd Co u ntri e s
. Alt h o ugh .

all anci ent p eo p l es h ad m a ny o f t h es e b eli efs in c o mm o n ,

s o m e w o rs h i p p ed o ne p o w er m o r e t h an ano t h er Usu a lly .

it w as t h e sun go d t h a t w as t h e gr ea t est o f t h e l o ng list

-

of d eiti es fo r t h e sun r ep r es ent ed t h e gr ea t est p o w er in

,

natur e R a t h e Egyp ti a n sun go d and M ar—duk t h e sun

.
,
-

, ,

go d o f B a byl o n h a d unusu a l p o w er fo r m a ny c enturi es

,
.

M a ny st o ri es w er e t o ld o f t h es e g o ds t h e B abyl o ni ans ,

h a ving v ery ext ensiv e l eg ends o f t h e cr eati o n o f t h e w o rld

by M ar duk T h es e go ds w er e o rigin a lly t h e g o ds o f o ne
-
.

city fo r ea c h city h a d its o w n s ets o f d eiti es but as t h at

, , ,

city b ecam e p o werful t h ey w er e wo rs h i p p ed t h r o ug h o ut ,

t h e c o untry o f w h ic h t h at city b ecam e t h e c a p it a l .

8 8 T h e L egen d o f O siri s
. T h e Egy p ti a ns w er e t h e .
-

first p eo p l e t o d ev el o p a r eal r eligi o n o u t o f t h es e b eli efs

i n t h eir d eiti es fo r t h ey cam e t o b eli ev e t h at s o m e o f
,

t h eir g o ds w er e sp iritual p o w ers r a t h er t h an m a nifest a ti o ns

o f n a tur e One o f t h e m o st b ea uti ful o f t h eir l eg ends t ells
.

o f O si ri s w h o was a sun go d t h a t h a d t a k en t h e p l a c e
’
- -

of R a Osi ri s w as marri ed t o h i s sist er I si s t h e d a wn and

.
, ,

t h eir s o n was c a ll ed Ho ru s Osiris was a tt a ck ed by S et ’

t h e en emy Of m
.
,

a nkind a nd by m a ny o f h i s f o ll o w ers , ,

dis eas e famine dr o ugh t S et succ eed ed in S l aying Osiris

, ,
.
,

but t h e f a it hf ul Isis a ft er a l o ng s earc h finds t h e b o dy , , ,

brings it back to Egyp t w h er e s h e emb a lms it a nd p a rtly ,

r est o r es it t o life Osiris cann o t r emain on eart h as o ne

.

o f t h e g o ds but h e p ass es t o t h e a b o d e o f t h e d ead w h er e

, ,

h e sits in j udgm ent o n t h e s o uls o f t h e d ep art ed H o rus .

fo ll o ws S et and conqu ers hi m and h ence is call ed t h e ,

r ed eem er T h e P h arao h s c o nsid er ed t h ems elv es s o ns o f

.

Horus .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

89 . Egyp ti a n B eli ef
in I m m o rt al ity o f th e S o u l T he .
—

Egyp tian b eli ev ed t h at ev ery p ers o n h a d a d o ubl e ”

,

o r s o ul S o l o ng .

as t h e body was
k ep t fro m d ecay ,

s o l o ng t h e s o ul

lived and p ro s
p er ed If t h e .

b OCly was de
str o y ed t h e s o ul ,

di ed also .

T h er ef o r e a t .

d ea t h ev er y
c o rp s e was em
balm ed as t h e ,

body of Osiris
h a d b een em

balm ed B y t h e .

u s e o f p erfum es

and c h emicals de
cay was st o p p ed ,

and t h e body was

wr ap p ed in lin
ens c o ars e o r
,

fine a cc o rding to
t h e w ealt h o f t h e
family T h es e .

mummi es as w e ,

call t h em h av e ,

scar c ely alt er ed

in fo rty c enturi es
M m my nd M m my C
u a u
and w e can l o o k
as e

u p o n t h e almost u nc h ang ed feat u r es of many early P h a

rao h s .

90 .
J u dg m ent of th e D ea d (Egy p tian) . If the body
 R EL G O I I N

was p r es erv ed t h e s o ul p a ss ed int o t h e a b o d e o f t h e d ead

,

to b e j udg ed by Osiris Judgm ent was p ro no unc ed o n

.

t h e s o ul by Osiris acc o rding t o t h e life t h at t h e d ead ma n

h a d liv ed . T h e qu esti o ns a sk ed o f t h e s o ul d eal wi t h
c h aract er a nd no t wit h f o rms o f c er em o ni es or eart h ly
rank or p o siti o n H er e are s o m e o f t h e f o rty answ ers
.

t h a t an u p rig h t s o ul c o uld giv e I h av e no t d o n e iniquity ;

I h a v e no t utt er ed fa ls eh o o d ; I h a v e no t utt er ed evil

T he J u dg m ent of t h e S o ul at t h e T r i b u na l of Os i ri s .

wo rds I h av e no t p ri ed int o m a t t ers (t o m a k e misc h i ef )

I h a v e no t b een a m an o f ang er ; I h av e no t stirr ed u p
stri fe ; I h a v e no t j udg ed h astily ; I h av e no t s o ugh t
for distincti o ns ; I h a v e no t incr eas ed my wea lt h exc ep t ,

with suc h t h ings as a re min e o wn p o ss essi o ns Of c o urs e .

,

t h e o rdinary Egyp ti a n did no t und erst a nd t h e m ea ning

o f t h is ex a lt ed r eligi o n In f a ct t h e o rdinary Egyp ti an
.
,

was no t a ll o w ed in t h e t em p l es S inc e h e h a d no o ffering

,

fo r t h e t em p l e g o ds a nd must wo rs h i p t h e min o r g o ds a s
,

b est h e c o uld .

9 1 T h e B a b yl o ni a n S t o ry o f t h e D el u g e
. Ot h er .

early p eo p l e h a d st o ri es o f t h eir g o ds and t h e gr eat d eeds

t h at t h ey p erfo rm ed but no o t h er v ery early p eop l e

,

h a d suc h n o bl e r eligi o us id eas as t h e Egyp ti a ns Am o ng .

t h e multitud e o f s t o ri es o f t h e B abyl o nians t h at o f t h e ,

d eluge m a y b e c o nsid er ed b ecaus e it b ecam e p art of

,

t h e r eligi o us fait h o f w est ern Asia

“

.
 T HE N EAR EAS T

T he art h was fill ed wi t h wick ed men w h o n egl ect ed

e

t h e g o ds At a c o uncil o f t h e go ds it w as d ecid ed t o s end

.

a d elug e u p o n t h e ea rt h One of t h e g o ds warn ed a

.

fa it h ful foll o wer urging h i m t o c o nstruct a wo od en

,

h o u s e build a s h i p aband o n t h y g o o ds s eek li fe ; t h ro w

, , ,

away t h y p o ss essi o ns s a v e t h y life a nd p l a c e in t h e

,

v ess el a l l t h e s eed o f life T h is B a byloni a n

.

”
“
N o ah warn ed t h e p eo p l e w h o ridicul ed h i m but h e
, ,

c o nstruct ed an ark 1 40 cubits long a nd 1 00 cubits br o a d

,
.

T h en cam e t he rai n go d in a ng er and fo r six d a ys t h e st o rm

-

r ag ed On t h e s ev ent h t h e st o rm ab a ting t h e w a t ers

.
, ,

b eg a n t o s ubsid e On t h e twelft h day t h e ark r est ed

.

on a mountain and a few days lat er all t h at w ere in t h e

,

ark c a m e fo rt h t o r ep l enis h t h e ea rt h .

9 2 T h e T e m p l e s o f t h e G o d s i n Egyp t
.
— All o f t h e .

gr eat est m o num ents o f t h e anci ent w o rld d ea lt wi t h r eli

gi o n In Egyp t t h e gr ea t p yr a mids w ere o nly t o mbs o f
.

is ?

Lu xo r R es t o red .

P h a ra o h s w h o p r eferr ed s p l endid t o mbs fo r t h eir b o di es

aft er d eat h rat h er t h a n fine p alac es w h il e t h ey w er eliving .

T h e fin es t r eligi o us structur es w er e o f c o ur s e t em p l es , ,
.

T h e Egyp ti a n t em p l es o f Lux o r a nd of Karnak are fam o us ,

a lt h o ug h t h ey l a ck t h e sim p licity a nd styl e o f ear l i er

c o l o nnad es T h ey wer e c o mp l et ed at a tim e w h en Am o n

.
,

t h e gr eat go d of T h eb es was t h e m o st p o w erful d eity

,

o f Egyp t and c o ntr o ll ed m o r e t h an o ne t ent h o f t h e

 T HE N EAR EAS T

a nd the latt er in p ers o n o r t h r o ug h n o bl es controlling t h e

, ,

r est .

94 . yth ei s m a nd t h e P eo p l e
P ol
‘

To t h e p eo p l e .
,

I gn o r ant a nd st eep ed in su p ers titi o n t h is r eligi o n o f ,

m a ny g o ds ex p ensiv e t emp l es and w ealt h y p ri ests was a

,

nec essity a lt h o ug h it did n o t h ing for t h em exc ep t incr ea s e

,

t h eir alr eady h eavy burd ens T h ey s eldom ent er ed t h e

.

t emp l es and l ess o ft en ask ed aid o f t h e p ri ests Y et .

t h e p eo p l e gav e fr eely o f t h eir tim e T h ey did no t .

b egrudge to t h e t em p l es t h e r ents o f t h e god s lands ’

.

In fact t h ey b eli ev ed muc h m o r e t h a n did t h e p ri ests i n

,

t h e gods and in t h eir p o w er .

T h e p eo p l e of anci ent tim es exc ep t a few l ead ers and ,

t h ink ers b eli ev ed in p o lyt h eism In g eneral ov er w est ern

, .
,

Asia t h e r eligi o ns w er e muc h alik e T h e gr ea t go d mig h t .

b e call ed M arduk o r B el (B a a l ) o r As s h ur t h e gr eat go d

’
,

d ess was usu ally Is h t a r (As ta rot h ) but t h er e w er e o t h er

’ ’
-

maj o r d eiti es and h undr eds o f mino r g o ds and g o dd ess es .

T h e wors h i p o f t h es e g o ds w as c o a rs e brut a l a nd r ev o lting ,

.

No t o nly did it d o littl e t o u p li ft t h e p eo p l e but it i re ,

qu ently d egrad ed t h em Human sacrific e w as by no

.

m eans unkn o wn .

9 5 M o n o th ei s m
. Alt h o ugh p olyt h eism was t h e rul e
.
,

mo n o t h eism was an exc ep ti o n In alm o st all p eriods .

,

es p ecially am o ng t h e Egy p tians a nd t h e H ebr ews t h ei c ,

w er e s o m e t h a t b eli ev ed in o ne Go d One o f t h e P h a r a o h s .

tri ed to m a k e m o n o t h eism t h e stat e r eligi o n in Egyp t ,

but t h e p ri ests h ad t h e su p p o rt o f t h e p eo p l e and h e fail ed ,

.

S o littl e did t h e H ebr ews b eli ev e in o ne Go d at t h e tim e

of t h e Exo dus t h a t t h ey a d o p t ed t h e wo rs h i p Of t h e go ld en
c a lf as s o o n as M o s es l eft t h em F o r c enturi es aft er t h ey
, .

s et tl ed in P a l esti ne t h e p eo p l e ran aft er fals e go ds that is , ,

many go ds .

It r equir ed a l o ng and s ev ere tr aining b efo re t h is

c h o s en p eo p l e cam e t o b eli ev e as a p eo p l e in o ne Go d , ,
 W R ITIN G AN D L ITER AT U R E

wh o was a n o mni p o t ent o mni p r es ent Sp irit It t o o k

,
. T h e He

t h em still l o nger t o l ea rn t o w o rs h i p Him and Him a l o n e b rew s b e

co me a
.

B u t t h ey l earn ed t h e l ess o n fin a lly a nd t h ey l earn ed it m o no t h e

i s t i c p eo p l e
w ell and t h ey mad e t o t h e wo rld t h is o ne gr ea t co nt ri b u
,
.

ti o n t h e gr eat est o f t h e a nci ent wo rld m o n o t h eism

,
.

WR I T I N G A ND L I T E R AT U R E

96 . D eci p h erin g An ci ent

In s cri p ti o n s T h e R o s ett a
.

S to ne We m a k e s o m e rat h er a ccurat e gu ess es a b o ut t h e

.

h ist o ry a nd li fe o f a nci ent p eo p l es but w e r ea lly kn o w v er y

,

littl e ab o ut t h em and t h a t littl e we h a v e l ea rn ed rat h er

,

r ec ently S o m e d a y p er h ap s in t h e n ea r futur e w e s h a ll
.
, ,

b e a bl e t o r ea d t h e inscri p ti o ns o f t h e Hittit es 6 5 ) a nd
t h e C r et a ns 1 2 5 ) and t h e Etruscans We s h a ll
t h en kno w a lm o st
as muc h a b o ut
t h em as we do
a b o ut t h e Egy p
t i a n s a nd t h e
Babylonians ,

W h ose writings w e
ca n r ea d .

Wh en G eo rg e T h e R o set t a
Wa s hingt o n di ed S t o ne .

a littl e m o r e t h an

o ne h undr ed y ea rs

ago , no m o d ern
m an h a d r ea d any
a nci ent o ri ental

i ns c ri p t i o n I n .

Th R tt St n
e o se a o e
fa ct exc ep t
.

, in
Egyp t m o d ern men did no t kn o w t h at t h er e w er e any
,

anci ent inscri p ti o ns It w as t h r ee years aft er Wa s h ing

.

to n s d eat h in 1 8 02 t h at a bl o ck o f bl a ck basalt ab o ut
’
, ,
 T HE N EAR EAS T

t h r ee a nd a h alf f eet h ig h w a s broug h t from Egyp t to

t h e B ritis h M us eum .T h is bl o ck c o ntai ned thr ee s ets
o f inscri p tions : o ne in G r eek o ne o f c h aract ers a nd o ne
, ,

o f p ictur es As t h ey r ep eat ed t h e sam e st o ry by m eans

.
,

o f t h is R o s et ta s to ne it h a s b een p ossibl e to r ead t h e t w o

’
-

fo rms o f Egyp tian inscri p ti o ns

9 7 T h e B eh i s t u n R o ck
. N ea rly a h alf c entury a ft er
.

t h e R o s etta st o n e h a d b een r ea d t h er e w as disc o v er ed

,

h ig h u p o n a cli ff in w est ern P ersi a a h ug e inscri p ti o n o f t h e

a cc essi o n o f King D a rius o f P ersi a Aft er y ears
o f w o rk t h is w a s c o p i ed and f o und t o b e in t h r ee languag es

a nci ent P ersi a n ,

M edi a n a nd B a byl o ni a n L at er t h e
.

finding o f tabl ets in b o t h B abyl o nian and Assyrian and ,

in Assyri a n a nd S um eri a n m a d e it p o ssibl e fo r sc h o lars

t o r ea d a ll Of t h e inscri p ti o ns o f t h e Tigris Eu p h rat es -

vall ey S o w er e th e d o o r s t o t h es e a nci ent lit er a ry

.

tr easur e h o us es unl o ck ed
-
.

9 8 Egy p ti a n W ri ting
. .We ca n tr a c e t h e d ev el o p
m ent o f Egy p ti a n writing fro m its early fo rm as p ictur es
t h ro ugh its lat er sim p lific ati o n
in w h ic h t h e p i ctur es a re rep
r es ent ed b y s ym b o ls eac h ,

symb o l st anding fo r a w o rd
o r a syll a bl e S inc e t h e wri t
.

ing w a s sup pos ed t o b e o f di

vin e o rigin and w as us ed a l
most excl usiv ely by t h e p ri ests
a nd t h eir scrib es it w as c a ll ed
,

hi erogly p hi c t h e G r eek w o rd
,

h i ero s m ea ning sacr ed T he .

Egy p ti n H i
r u nning h and w as call ed
a gl y p hi c
ero s

hi era ti c and c o uld b e wri tt en

.

r at h er ra p idly by o ne acc ust o m ed t o its u s e .

99 W ritin g M a t eri a l s and B o o k s

.
T h e Egy p t i ans
.

c h i s ell ed t h eir p ictures o r t h eir c h ar a ct ers o n t h e buildings

 T HE N EAR EAS T

II . We l earn t h is fact fr o m wo nd erful discov ery mad e a

a littl e m o r e t h a n a qu a rt er o f a c entury a go S o m e w o rk .

men w er e s ea rc h ing fo r building mat eri a l a t T el el

A mar na ab o ut 2 00 mil es s o ut h o f M em p h is in Egyp t
’
-

.
,

Disc o v ering som e tabl ets wit h inscri p tions t h ey t o o k t h em ,

t o C a ir o fo r s a l e T h e t a bl ets w er e o f clay flat a nd a b o ut

.
,

t h e siz e of a small b oo k o r in t h e f o rm of cylind ers wi t h , ,

w edge s h ap ed (cun ei fo rm ) c h a r a ct ers H er e sur ely w as

-
.

a fr a ud C un ei form writing in middl e Egyp t ! It w a s

.

im p o ssibl e said t h e sc h o lars B u t t h e m o r e t h ey inv esti

,
.

gat ed t h e m o r e w o nd erful did t h e fr a ud a pp ear

,
” “
.

H er e was a p erf ect tr easur e h o us e o f l ett ers writt en by or

t o an Egyp ti a n king ; fr o m P a l estin e asking fo r tr o o p s ,

t o h el p a g a inst en emi es fr o m t h e Hittit es wit h nego t i a ,

ti o ns fo r a r o yal marriage c o rr esp o nd enc e wit h t h e p eo p l e

o f t h e far o ff Eu p h rat es vall ey M ost of w h at w e kn o w .

ab o ut t h at c entury in Egyp t and in Asia w e h a v e l earn ed ,

fro m t h e T el el Am arna t a bl ets And p er h ap s t h e m o st .

w o nd erful fa ct o f a ll is t h e fact t h at o ne l a ngu ag e and

o ne scri p t t h e cun eifo rm w er e us ed t h r o ug h o ut m o st
, ,

o f t h e civiliz ed w o rld o f t h a t d a y v ery muc h as F renc h ,

was us ed as an int ern ati o n a l langu a g e fo r s ever a l cen

t u ri es .

1 02 . i r ary o f As s h u rb a ni p al
The L b In t h e city Of .
—

N in ev eh work ers h a v e found a c o ll ecti o n o f clay b o o ks

ev en m o r e valuabl e t h an t h e T el el Amarna t a bl ets .

S ev er a l kings h a d r o y a l librari es but t h e l ast im p o rt a nt ,

Assyri a n king As s h ur ba n i p al w h o liv ed in t h e s ev ent h

’
- - -

, ,

c entury B C m a d e an unusu ally fine c o ll ecti o n M o r e

. .
,
.

t h an t h irty t h o u s and bo o ks h a v e b een fo und in t h is library .

S o m e w er e v ery o l d , and h a d b een g a t h er ed fr o m h undr eds

o f p l a c es M a ny w er e new h a ving b een writt en a t t h e
”
.
,

o rd er o f t h e king T h ey w er e w ell a rrang ed cl a ssifi ed and

.
,

c a t a l o gu ed s o t h a t t h e r ead ers c o uld find w h at t h ey

,

want ed T h ey w er e c o v er ed wit h cun eifo rm c h ar a ct ers

.
 W R ITIN G AN D L ITER ATU R E

imp r ess ed u p o n t h e d a mp cl a y wit h a p o int ed stylus Or

stic k T h e cl a y w a s t h en b a k ed F o r f ea r t h a t s o m e o ne
. .

migh t alt er t h e writing es p ecially w h en t h e b o o k r ec o rd ed

,

a c o ntr a ct t o buy a nyt h ing o r t o p a y a sum o f m o n ey in

t h e futur e m a ny o f t h e b o o ks h a d t w o coats an o ut er and

, ,

an inn er Wh en t h e inn er c o at h ad b een baked t h e b o o k

.
,

w a s c o v er ed wit h an o t h er c o a t o f cl a y a nd a du p licat e o f
t h e encl o s ed inscri p ti o n w a s writt en o n t h e o utsid e In .

c a s e o f d o ubt o r dis p ut e t h e o ut er c o at was r em o v ed and

,

t h e o rigin a l writing w as ex a min ed Of c o urs e no c h ang e

.

c o uld h av e b een mad e in t h at S o m etim es additi o nal .

f a cts w er e add ed o n t h e o ut er c o at S o m e o f t h e b o o ks .

w er e writt en no t in t h e o l d cun eifo rm c h a ract ers but in

, ,

a new form in letters ,

.

1 03 T h e Al p h a b et
. S o m e fo ur o r fiv e c enturi es
.

b efo r e As s h u rb a ni p a l m a d e t h is c o ll ecti o n o f b o o ks s o m e ,

p ers o n o r p eo p l e w h o m w e d o n o t kn o w b e g a n t o u s e

writt en c h ar a ct ers fo r s ep arat e s o unds inst ea d o f for s y l f

l a b l es and w o rds Inst ea d o f t h e h undr eds o r t h o us ands

.

of c h a ract ers t h a t t h e Egyp ti a ns a nd t h e B abyl o nians

us ed t h ey us ed twenty t wo wh ic h w e call l ett ers Wh o
,
-

, .

ev er m a y h av e inv ent ed t h es e l ett ers w h ic h w e call ,

c o ll ectiv ely t h e a lp h a bet t h eir u s e was ad o p t ed by t h e

,

P h oenicians and t h e P h oenicians c a rri ed t h e a l p h a b et

,

wi t h t h eir c o mm erc e o v er t h e Tigris Eu p h r a t es vall ey -

and t h e wh o l e M edit err a n ea n wo rld Until r ec ent y ea rs .

it was t h o ugh t t h at t h e a l p h a b et was t h e cr eati o n o f t h e

P h oenici a ns but t h er e can no w b e littl e d o ubt t h at t h ey
,

b o rr o wed it as t h ey did all o f t h eir o t h er id ea s fro m s o m e

, ,

ot h er p eo p l e .

1 04 P o s s i b l e O ri gi n o f t h e Al p h a b et
. It is int er esting .

to n o tic e in t h is c o nn ecti o n t h at t h er e h av e b een fo u nd

in Cr et e marks o n mas o nry p o tt ery t h e r evers e si de
“
, ,

o f iv o ry b o n e and p o rc el a in inl ays T h es e l a st are o f

, .

t h e s a m e c h a ract er as t h e Egyp tian tr a d e sign a ry a nd , ,

G
 T HE N EAR EAS T

although of p ictorial origin t h ey were early r educ ed to

,

a S i ngl e scrip t and ap p ear to hav e b een al p hab etic Of

, .

t w enty o ne vari eti es on t h e backs of inlays whic h w er e

-

found at Knos sos (in Cr et e) t en marks are p ractically

’

d
C op y ri gh t b y U n erwoo d a nd Un d d
erwo o

I rri ga t i on o n t h e Eu p h ra t es .

i d entical
wit h fo rms of t h e lat er G reek al p h ab et It .
” 1

would c ertainly b e o ne of t h e ironi es of fat e if we s h ould ,

1 H a wesCrete th e F o reru nner of Gr eece

, , . T h i s i d ea of t h e t ra d e -
m a rk
o ri gi n o f t h e a l p h a bet i s end o rsed b y su c h a bl e a rc h eol o gi s t s as F li nd ers
P et ri e a nd Art h u r J Ev a ns. .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

Wh eat barl ey and mill et w ere am o ng t h e comm o n grai ns

, ,

w h il e o ni o ns a n d l entils fu rnis h ed v eg etabl e fo od .

1 06 U s e o f I rr i g a ti o n i n An ci ent Ti m es — As t h er e
. .

was littl e rain in eit h er r egi o n t h e farm ers d ep end ed ,

o n t h e co ns t ru ct i o n o f c a nals w h ic h dr a in ed t h e swam p y
'
,

land o r broug h t t h e wat ers o f t h e riv er t o t h e fi elds .

M en es H a mmur a bi a nd R a m es es I I w ere am o ng t h e
, ,

gr ea t build ers o f t h es e us eful ditc h es If t h e ditc h was .

too h ig h fo r t h e wat er t o flow fr o m t h e riv er t o t h e m a i n

c a n a l t h e p ea sant us ed a wat er sweep t o lift it j ust as t h e
,
-

fellah d o es t o d ay a l o ng t h e N il e A cl a y lin ed basket

-
.
-

was attac h ed t o a l o ng p o l e w h ic h r est ed up o n a p o st wit h ,

a h ea vy cl a y w eig h t a t t h e o t h er end T h e b ask et was .

l o wer ed int o t h e riv er and t h en r a is ed t o t h e l ev el o f t h e

ditc h int o w h ic h t h e wat er t h at h a d no t b een s p ill ed was
,

t h en em p ti ed .

One o f t h e great est o f t h e irri gati o n und ertakings in

Egy p t w a s t h e c o nstructi o n o f a w a ll tw enty s ev en m il es -

l o ng wh ic h k ep t t h e w a t ers o f t h e N il e fro m p o uring int o

L ak e M oe ris (t h e F ay um ) exc ep t t h e qu a ntity n eed ed fo r
’ ’
,

irrig ati o n T h is v a ll ey and t h at of t h e m a in s tr ea m w er e

.

s o f ertil e t h a t in C a es a r s tim e a gr eat d ea l o f t h e grai n

’

us ed in R o m e cam e fr o m Egyp t .

1 07 T h e Art s
. T h e U s e o f To o l s
.
—
Wh il e s o m e .

p eo p l e w er e r a ising f o o d o t h ers w er e cutting o u t st o n es

,

fo r building m a king bricks c a rving st a tu es fo r t em p l es

, ,

o r st o n e v ess els fo r p a l a c e h a lls making p o tt ery w ea ving, ,

fine clot h o r m a nuf a cturing a ny o f t h e h undr eds o f dif

ferent a rticl es t h at t h e p o o r o r rich us ed o r t h at w er e ,

exp ort ed in exc h a ng e fo r t h e gr a ins o i l o r p o tt ery t h at ,

t h e p eo p l e did no t rais e o r m a k e fo r t h ems elv es .

S t o n e cutting a nd c a rving was o ne o f t h e gr eat est o f

t h e a rts T h e m a ssiv e structur es o f t h e P h a r a o h s a nd
.

t h e small er p al a c es o f t h e C r et a n kings would h av e b een

al most im p o ssibl e but fo r m eta l t o ols Co p p er w as kn o wn .
 T R AD E AN D IN DU STR Y

fro m a dat e long b efo r e the dawn of h istory , but cop p er

too l s were not u sed u nti l al wh en

mos t th e ti me of M enes ,
c o p p er w as o bt a in ed fr o m t h e o re and h ard en ed Lat er .
,

s o m e o ne p er h ap s in Eur o p e disc o v er ed t h at i f a littl e

, ,

tin w er e add ed t o c o p p er a h ard al lo y wo uld b e mad e . .

T hi s a ll o y o f co p p er a nd up i s ca lled bronze . A new a ge

in t h e arts as well as a new p eri o d i n t h e h ist o ry o f war

f a r e was intr o duc ed by t h is disc o v ery fo r br o nz e t o o ls and ,

br o nz e weap o ns w er e su p eri o r t o c o p p er instrum ents .

Tw enty c enturi es l a t er n ea r t h e cl o s e o f th is p eri o d

,

t h at w e a re studyi ng l l o l l w ea p o n s a nd t o ols cam e into

,
'

c o mm o n u s e Iro n bro ugh t an ev en gr eat er r ev o lution

.

in wa rfa re and industry t h an bro nz e h a d caus ed .

1 08 W o o d w o r k in g a nd o th e r In d u s t ri al Art s
. Wo o d .

working was an imp o rt a nt art and it w as d ev el o p ed in ,

t h e making o f c h airs c o uc h es c h ests d oo rs buildings

, , , ,

and s h i p s T h e B a byl o ni a ns imp o rt ed a gr ea t d eal o f

.

t h eir w oo d fro m Lebano n and t h e H ebr ews s ent t o Leb

,

an o n fo r c ed a r and t o Tyr e fo r carp ent ers A car .

p ent er s kit fo und in Cr et e s h o ws t h e t o o ls us ed by a

’
, ,

Cr et a n build er He us ed saws l o ng and s h o rt h ea vy

.
,

c h is els fo r st o n e a nd ligh t fo r w o od awls n ails fil es a nd , , ,

ax es muc h b att er ed by u s e and wh at is mor e imp o rtant ,

t o n o t e t h ey r es embl ed i n s h ap e t h e t o o ls o f t o day so
,
-

clos ely t h at t h ey furni s h o ne o f t h e str o ng est li nks b etween

t h e first gr ea t civiliz a ti o n o f Eur o p e a nd o u r o w n .

F in e cl o t h dy ed p er h ap s by t h e Tyri a n exp erts wit h t h a t

,

b eauti ful p urp l e wh ic h w e call r o yal p ur p l e n ecklac es ,

and a mul ets v a s es o f st o n e and c h o ic e p o tt ery gl a sswa r e

, , ,

c arv ed b o n e o r ivory are a few o f t h e o t h er a rt p r o ducts

t h at w e h a v e tim e o nly t o m enti o n in p a ssing .

1 09 Tr a d e i n a Ci ty M a r k et Ea c h city h a d many
‘

. .

l o cal m ark ets wh er e go o d s wer e exc h anged fo r m o n ey w a s ,

no t in u s e T h e cust o m ers str o ll p a st a nd l eisur ely

“
.

ex a min e t h e quality o f t h e c o mm o diti es o ff er ed fo r s a l e ;

T HE N EAR EAS T
 T HE N EAR EAS T

articl es that t h ey c o uld not p roduc e fo r t h ems elv es T h e .

P h a r ao h in Egyp t d esir ed t h e b eaut i ful la p is lazuli o f

0

Asia t h e iv o ry o f t h e u p p er N il e and t h e s p ic es fr o m t h e
, ,

s h o r es o f t h e Indian Oc ean T h e Assyrian l a dy must h a v e

.

a c h est o f c edar fr o m Leban o n fo r h er cl o t h es ostric h

,

p lum e f a ns and n ecklac es fr o m t h e N il e .

1 1 1 Tr a ns p o rt a ti o n o f G o o d s i n t h e Anci ent O ri ent

. .

Di ff er ent m et h o ds w er e us ed t o car ry t h es e g o o ds fr o m
t h e p erso n w h o mad e t h em to t h e buy er C aravans of .

An Eg y p t i a n S h i p .

cam els wand er ed u p and do wn t h e N il e ab o v e t h e first

cataract o r acro ss S yria n o rt h of t h e Arabi a n d es ert
, .

Tiny b o ats p li ed al o ng t h e N il e o r t h e Eu p h rat es using ,

sails o r oars but usuall y p ro p ell ed by p o l es S l o w mo v

, ,
.
-

ing o xcarts w it h t wo o r fo ur w h eels trundl ed o v er t h e u n

, ,

ev en p at h s m eeting m ess eng ers o n h o rs eb a ck o r drawing

,

t o o ne sid e t h at a n o bl e in a c h ari o t wit h h i s r etinu e o f

fo ll o w ers mig h t no t b e d etain ed .

F r o m t h e p o rts o f t h e Delt a a nd fr o m t h e P h oenician

c o a s t t h er e s ail ed sm a ll v ess el s wit h h ig h p o o p s and p er
h a p s as m a ny a s fift een r o w er s o n a s id e T h e C r et a ns
.

and t h e P h oenici a ns dar ed t o s ail a t nig h t a nd fearl essly ,

cr o ss ed b etween isl a nds wit h no l a nd in sig h t b u t t h e ,

 T R AD E AN D IND U S TR Y

Egyp tians usually clung t o t h e s h o r e In t h e days o f o ne .

o f t h e l a st P h ara o h s an exp editi o n s a il ed t o t h e w est

, ,

p ast t h e G at es o f H e rcul es ( G ibraltar ) and t h en sout h t o

t h e ends o f t h e ea rt h T h r ee y ea rs lat er t h es e daring

.

s ail o rs cam e u p o n t h e ea st c o ast o f Egyp t H er o d o tus

, .
,

wh o t ells us t h e st o ry says t h a t it c a nn o t b e tru e b ec a us e

, , ,

w h en t h ey w er e s ailing east o n t h e s o ut h sid e of Africa , ,

t h e sun w a s o n t h eir l eft h a nd On t h e c o ntrary t h is .

,

o bs ervati o n p r o v es to us t h at t h es e sail o rs did circum

navig at e Africa .

1 1 2 I mp o rt a nt Tr a d e R o u t es
. A glanc e at t h e m ap .

s h o ws wh at t h e tr a d e r o ut es must h a v e b een One .

foll o wed t h e Eup h rat es t h enc e by caravan trail t o Dam a s

,

cus Tyr e o r Si d o n o r t h r o u gh J erus a l em and a cr o ss S u ez

, ,

t o M emph is ; an o t h er fo ll o w ed t h e N il e and a caravan

trail t o t h e R ed S ea C ana ls w er e c o nstruct ed fr o m
.

t h e Delt a to t h e R ed S ea a nd acr o ss t h e ist h mus o f

S u ez t h u m
, p at m g o u r p r es ent S u ez s h i p can a l
by m o r e t h an tw enty c enturi es T h e [ Egean basi n .

'
and t h e B l a ck S ea furnis h ed a fine ni ark et fo r ‘

Cr et a n a nd lat er fo r P h oenici a n a nd G r eek trad ers .

Ev en m o r e p r o fit w as m a d e in t ra di r g wit h t h e distant
i

w est ern c o l o ni es o f P h oeni c i a a nd G r eec e o r t h eir b ar

bari a n n eigh b o rs Sp a in wit h its ric h silv er min es a nd
.
,

abundant p r o ducts was w o rt H ,

and B rit ai n
must b e r ea c h ed a cr o ss G aul if no t by s ea if o nly fo r t h e ,

tin wh ic h w a s n eed ed fo f b f o nz e T h e u s e o f t h es e i mp o r
‘
’

t a nt h igh way S t h e exc h ang e o f p r o ducts and t h e int er

—
F “

c h ang e o f id ea s h el p ed t o r a is e t h e st a ndard o f civiliz a ti o n

t h r o ugh o ut t h e anci ent w o rld .

P R OG R E S S OF TW E NT Y -
F I V E CE N T U R I E S

1 13 n er al P r o gr es s
. Ge . We h a v e no w c o m e m o r e t h a n
h a lf way fr o m t h e dawn of h ist o ry t o t h e p r es ent tim e
.
 T HE N EAR EAS T

Let us c o nsid er a few o f t h e gr eat c h ang es t h at mankind

h as mad e In 3000 B C o nly o ne p eo p l e t h e Egyp ti ans
. . .
, ,

h a d em erg ed from t h e mists o f p r eh ist o ric barb a rism a l ,

t h ough t h e S um erians h a d a fair civiliz a ti o n i n t h e Ti gris

Eup h r a t es vall ey . In tw enty fiv e c enturi es bot h of th es e
-

civilizations h a d d ev elo p ed w o nd erfully and h a d s p read

ov er t h e anci ent w o rld fr o m P ersia t o It a ly Wh er e th er e .

onc e h a d b een t wo el em ent a ry syst ems o f p ict u r e writing ,

t h er e cam e t o b e an a l p h a b etic languag e for ev ery p eo p l e ,

and ext ensiv e l it eratur es from Gr eec e ea stw a rd T h e .

crud e p ott ery and drawi ngs o f t h e early Egyp ti a n dynas

ti es h ad giv en p lac e t o fine war e Gr eci a n a rc h it ectur e a nd
.

scul p tur e a lr ea dy b eg a n t o giv e p r o mis e o f t h a t p erf ection

t h at it r eac h ed o nly a c entury l at er In 3 000 B C c o p p er
. . .

was j ust c o mi ng int o u s e am o ng t h e m o st civiliz ed p eo p l e ,

but wit h in a few c enturi es br o nz e h ad r ep l a c ed c o p p er ,

b ecaus e o f its gr eat er effici ency and aft er 1 2 00 B C bro nz e

,
. .

w as r ep l a c ed by t h e still m o r e effici ent iro n t o ols a nd

w eap o ns .

1 1 4 P o l iti cal P r o gr es s
.
— S o cial ec o n o mic and p oli ti
,

cal p rogr ess h a d b een gr ea t i n t h es e tw enty fiv e cen -

t u ri es
. I n 3 000 B C t h e Egyp tians w er e t h e o nly p eo p l e
. .

w h o w er e living und er a r ea l g o v ernm ent Al l o f t h e o t h er

.

g o v e rnm e nts w er e sim p ly l o c a l g o v ernm ents and t h e s e ,

w er e no t num ero us S o o n aft er 3 000 B C h o w ever an

. . .
, ,

ext ensiv e a r ea was br o ug h t und er o ne g o v ernm ent by

S arg o n o f Agad e and lat er by Hammurabi T h es e early

,

B abylonian em p ir es and t h at of t h e Eg y p ti a ns a nd t h e
Hittit es w er e l o o s ely organiz ed a ff airs and it was no t until
,

t h e tim e o f t h e Ass y rians t h a t t h e em p ir es o f t h e East

w er e r eally c o ns o lid a t ed und er a singl e go v ernm ent .

M or e im p o rt ant from t h e p olitical p o int o f vi ew t h an

t h e consolidation of vas t ar eas und er a d es p otic ori ent a l
ru l er was t h e p rogr ess whic h had alr eady b een mad e in t h e
G r eek citi es in c entral G r eec e a nd in sout h ern Italy
 T HE N EAR EAS T

t h at t h eir fo r earms w er e o ft en bro k en ; as t h oug h t h ey h ad

b een o bliged t o d ef end t h em s elves ag ai nst t h eir brutal
l o rds a nd m ast ers T h e ext ent Of t h e s o cial p r o gr ess
.

c a nn o t b e d escrib ed eas i ly b u t it is indicat ed fo r exam p l e ,

.
, ,

by a c o m p aris o n o f t h ree c o d es o f laws w h i ch are dir ectly

c o nn ect ed t h e S um eri a n l a ws o f abo ut 2 800 B C t h e
,
. .
,

Hammurabi c o d e o f a b o ut 1 9 00 B C and t h e M o s a ic c o d e . .

o f about 1 2 00 B C Alt h o ug h in m a ny r es p ects t h e l a ws

. .

a re t h e s a m e in t h es e t h r ee c o d es w e find t h a t t h e lat er ,

cod es sh o w a gr ea t er r es p ect fo r h uman life and p r o vi d e ,

lig h t er p enalti es for o rdinary o ff enc es In h i s tr eatm ent .

o f his f ellows m a n is b ec o ming mor e h uma ne

, .

G ene r al R ef e r ences
Bo t sfo rd , A S ou r c e B o o k of A nc i ent Hi s to r y 5—54 , .

D i av s , R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s tor y 1 —44 , .

S a y c e, A nc i ent Emp i res of t h e Ea s t , 58 —8 9 1 4 5—1 7 8 , 194 —2 09 , ,

2 2 1 —2 33 .

B rea s ted A Hi t y f
, s or o th e Anc i ent Egy p ti a ns , es p . ch a p t ers

IV V
, , I X X III X VIII
, ,
.

Ta b r A Hi s to ry of Greek Art 1 5 —7 6
ell , , .

M a s p ero , Art i n Egy p t .

t
P e ri e T h e Arts a nd Crafts i n A nci ent Egy p t
,
.

M as p ero M a nu a l of Egy p ti a n A r c h eo l o gy
,
.

S a y c e , S o c i a l L i fe a mo ng th e A s s y ri a ns a nd B a by l o ni a ns .

Say cA s s y ri a I ts P ri nc es P ri es ts a nd P eo p l e
e, , , .

i
W nc kl er , Hi s tor y of B a by l o ni a a nd A s s y ri a , 1 2 7 — 1 64 .

M a s p ero L ife i n Anc i ent Egy p t a nd A s s y ri a

,
.

t
M a c a l i s er , A Hi s to r y of Ci vi l i z a ti o n i n P a l es ti ne .

Ha w es Crete , , t h e F oreru nner o f Gr eec e, 22 —4 5 , 1 1 4—1 54 .

To p i cs
G
E Y P T I A N R E L I I O N I N T H E OL D K I N G GD M B t O : rea s ed , Hi s tor y
of t h e A nc i ent Egy p ti a ns 5 5—7 3 ; B a i k , i S t y f th
e, or o e P h a ra o h s ,
2 —
3 9 3 45 ; M o o re Hi s tor y of R el i gi o ns
, , I 1 44—1 66
, .

G
E Y P T I AN S CU L P T U R E : T
b ell Hi s tor y of Greek Art
ar , , 2 0—2 4 ,
30—3 5 ; P et ri e , .
Ar ts a nd Cr afts i n A nc i ent Egy p t 2 9 —4 7 , ; M as
p ero , M a nu a l of Egy p ti a n A r c h eo l o gy 2 3 1 —2 7 3 , .
 P R OG R ES S OF TW ENT Y—F IV E CE NT U R I ES 93

S tu d i es
1 . T h e h o u se a nd ga r d ens of an Egy p ti an n o ble. M a sp ero;
L ife i n A nc i ent Egy p t A s s y ri a 9 3 —101 a nd , .

2 . Wo r sh i p o f a n Egy p a n d e y M a sp ero , Anci ent Egy p t ti it .

a nd A s s y ri a , 62 —7 2 .

3 Ho w t h e p eo p l e l
. iv ed in th e Tigri s -
Eu p h r a t es va ll ey .

S a y ce , S o c i a l L ife, —
18 29 .

4 T h e h o m e o f t h e Egy p
. ti an p ea sa n t . M a s p ero , Anci ent
Egy p t a nd As s y r i a 2 —6 .
,

5 . Wo men of th e a nci nt e Ea s t . R e ch , i Wo ma n th ro u gh t h e
Ages , 1 —15 , 2 1 —3 4 .

6T h e l gh
. i th -
ea r ed t Egy p ti a ns . Wei gall , T rea s u ry f Anc i ent
o

Egy p t , 8 1 — 9 0 .

7 . S l a v ery in th e a nc ent i w o rl d . S a y ce, S o ci a l L i fe, 7 5—8 5 .

8 . Egy p t i an p recep t s . B o t s fo r d . S ou r c e B oo k of A nci ent

Hi s to ry 1 1 5—2 0 , .

9 . T h e Ch a l d ea n s t o ry of th e flo o d . Bo t sfo r d , S o u r c e B oo k f
o

Anc i ent Hi s tor y , 3 3 —3 8 .

1 0 Cre a n rel gi o n
. t i . Ha w es Crete , , t h e F o reru nner o f Greec e ,

1 39 — 1 43 .

11 . T he t
s o ry of th e B eh i st u n ro ck . R o gers , H i s tory f
o

B a by l o ni a a nd A s s y ri a , I , 17 7 et s eq f
12 . T he t i
ra ni ng o f an Egy p t i a n s cri be . M a s p ero , Anc i ent
Egy p t A s s y ri a 8 1 1
a nd ,
-
.

13 . An As s y r a n l i b ra ry i . M a s p er o , A nc i ent Egy p t a nd As
s y ri a , 2 8 7 — 3 02 .

14 . Cret a n Le t ers t
S ea K i ngs of Crete, 2 3 2 —243 . Ba k i i e, .

1 5 M et al w o
. rk i ng
a m o ng t h e Eg y p t i a ns P et r e , Ar ts a nd . i
Cr afts of A nc i ent Egy p t 98 — 1 06 , .

1 6 Arch i t e c t u re u nd er t h e Egy p t i a n em p i re
. a r b ell , Hi s . T
G A —30
tory o f r eek r t ,
2 5 .

17 . M y c enea n Art . T s o u nt a s a nd M a na tt , T he M y cenea n

Age 2 17 —2 55
, .

18 . An a nc en i t t ik s r e . M a s p ero A nci ent Egyp t , a nd As s y ri a ,

3 36
2 —
.

19 . C o mm er c e i n t h e A nc i ent Or i nte . Cu nni ngh a m , Wes tern

Ci vi l i za ti o n, I , 6 2 —7 0 .

Q u es ti on s
1 . N a me th e i m p t nt c i l cl
or a so a a s s es of th e a nci en t w o rld .

Wh a t w ere th e s p ci l p i i l g
e a f r v e es o ea ch cl a s s
 T HE N EAR EAS T

2 . Wh o ow n ed t h e l a nd i n v nci ent ti m
ery a es ? Ho w w a s it
irri ga t ed ? h ow c l tiv t
u a ed ? W th
ere p nt e ea sa s on the t
es a t es

as w ell t h e d a y l a b o rers o
o ff a s e es -
f t h ci t i ?
3 . Ho w w a s t h e a n ent l a b o rer d res sed ? ci Wh a t di d h e ea t ?
Ho w w a s h e b et t er o ff than th e m o d ern l a b o rer ? Ho w w a s h e
w o rs e Off

4 . W ere sl a ves nu m er o u s ? Ho w were th ey trea ted ? Wh y

were w o m en ch ea p er th a n m en a s sl a v es ?
5 . C o m p a re t h e l o t o f w o m a n in a nc i ent Egy p t i n B a b y l o n i a , ,

in Engl a nd t o d a y a nd i n h s co u ry t o d a y
-
t i nt -
.

i
6 Wa s rel i g o n m o re m p o r a nt t o p r m i v e m a n t h a n
. i t i it it i t o s

n
m o d er m a n ? Wh a t w a s t h e na t u re o f t h e rel i gi o o f a n n c i ent
ma n in g n e era l in Egy p t in P a l es t i n e

7 T ll t h
. e Os i ri s ; o f t h e d el u ge ; o f G il ga mes h
e s t o ry o f .

8 W h a t i s m ea nt b y t h es e w o rd s o r t er m s ? p o t ent a t e d y
.
,

n t
a s y rep res ent a t i v e s o o t h s a y er m a nu s c ri p t s d ru d g ery d o w ry ,
, , , , ,

s ep a r a t e p ro p ert y ri g h t s R a M a r d u k , H o ru s Am o , em b a l m , , , n
i ng , p y r a mi d P h a ra o h p o l y t h ei s m m o no t h ei s m
, , ,
.

9 S h o w t h e di ff erenc e b et w een t h e t em p l es o f t h e Egy p t i a ns

.

a nd t h e B a b y l o i a ns ; n
b et w een t h e h i ero gl y p h i c a nd hi era t i c
it
wr i ng ; b et w een t h e hi era t i c a nd t h e c u nei fo r m w ri t i ng .

1 0 S h o w t h e i m p o r t a n e o f t h e R o s et t a s t o ne ; o f t h e T el
. c el

Amarn a t a b l ets W h a t m a t eri a l s . w ere u sed fo r b o o ks by t h e

Egy p ti a ns b y t h e As s y ri a ns ?
11 Wh a t w ere t h e c hi ef s tep s i n t h e d ev el o p ment o f t h e
.

al p h a b et ? Wh y i s i t ea s i er t o h a v e a li t era t u re wi t h a n a l p h a
b et t h a n wi t h c h a ra c t ers fo r w o rd s o r s y ll a b l es
1 2 Co mp a re t h e u s e o f st o ne c o p p er b ro nz e a nd i rOn t o o l s
.
, ,

as i ns t ru ment s i n t h e p ra ct i a l a r t s ; i n t h e fi ne a rt s Ha s t h e c .

p ro gres s o f m a nki nd b een m u c h nfl u enc ed b y t h e ki nd o f t o o l s i

men h a v e h a d ?
1 3 C o m p a re t h e t o o l s ( Cret a n)
.
, t h e fur ni t u re, a nd o t h er m a nu
fa ct u red ar ticl es of the an c i ent s wi t h t h o se of t o day -
.

14 . N a me the ch efi t ra d e ro u t es of the a n i ent c ea r n Ea s t .

Wh a t p ro d u ct s w ere u s ed in t ra d e ? Wh y w a s i nt er n ti a o na l

t ra d e p o s s i b l e b efo re mo ney w a s i nv ent ed ?

15 . M ake a su mma ry of the p ro gr es s fro m M e es t o
so c ial n
t h e P ers i a n w ars ; of th e n
i d u s t ri a l p ro gres s ; o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
p ro gres s .

16 . T ell the chi f c e o nt r ib ti n

u o s to civi li za t oi n o f ea c h cou ntry
t h a t we h a v e s t u di ed . Were t h ere a ny p eri o d s of e xc p t i n l
e o a

p r o gres s ? If so , w h i ch ? Exp l a i n th e ch a ng es of th ep io d er .
 C H AP T ER I V

T HE ZEG EAN AR EA

(T o 55 0 B C
. .
)

T HE G EOG RAP H Y OF T HE ZEG EAN AR E A

1 17 . r ea a nd It s H a r b o r s
T h e E g ea n A T h e [ Egea n . I rregul a r
ar ea includ es t h e l a nds aro und t h e E gean S ea T o t h e .
c o a st li ne ,

fi ne h a r
east is Asi a M i nor t o t h e nort h t h e B a l ka n cou ntri es
’
, , b o rs a nd
T h e n ean
s m a ll v a l
t o t h e w est Greece and o n t h e s o ut h Crete .

l ey s o f t h e
S ea is surround ed by irr egul a r c o a sts and is d o tt ed wit h [ Eg ea n

t h o usands o f isl ands It is a lm o st a salt w at er lak e an c o a st .

,
.

arm of t h e M edit erran ean fl o o ding a m o unt ain c o untry

,

w h o s e p eaks and h eadlands and kno lls stand u p abov e

t h e surf a c e o f t h e wat er giving t h e E gea n S ea a v ery
,

l a rg e numb er o f islands and t h e m o st irr egul a r and t h e

l o ng est c o ast lin e o f any s ea o f equ a l siz e o n t h e surfac e
o f t h e gl o b e Ev eryw h er e w e find an a bundanc e Of
.

h a rb o rs attr a ctiv e h ill sl o p es o cc asi o nal mountain p eaks

, ,

and n a rr o w c o astal p lains o r vall eys .

Wit h its cl ea r ski es and warm dry summ ers t h is is an I m p o rt a nc e

of the
attractiv e c o rn er o f t h e wo rld but o ne in wh ic h t h e making
, in the
s ea

o f a living o n l a nd is a di fficult t a sk Ev eryw h er e t h e land. [ Egea n

li es o p en t o t h e s ea a nd t h e s ea c a lls Ev en in early
,
.
a rea .

d ays it was easy t o go fr o m m a inland t o isl a nd and fro m

isl and t o t h e o t h er mainland Amo ng t h e p eo p l e o f .

anci ent tim es t h e in h abit a nts o f t h e ZEgean ar ea w er e t h e

first t o build s h i p s and c a rry p r o ducts by s ea .

1 1 8 T h e Th r e e G eo gr a p h i ca l Divi si o n s o f G r eece
. . T h e t h ree

T h e most imp o rt a nt c o untry b o rd ering o n t h e n ean is

d i v i s i o ns .

P el o p o n
.

G r eec e .T h e p eni nsu l a of Gr eece i s di vi ded i nto th ree p a rts . nesu s .

95
 T HE N EAR EAS T

T he s o ut h ern t h ird is a lmo st a n isl a nd b eing c o nn ect ed ,

wit h c entral G r eec e by t h e v ery n a rro w ist h mus o f Co rint h .

T h is squ a r e m o untain o us p eninsula is c a ll ed P el o p o n - -

ne s u s a nd includ es S p a r ta n ea r t h e s o ut h ern end and

’ ’
, , ,
'
in t h e w est O ly m p i a w h er e t h e fa mous Gr eek gam es
,
- -

w er e h eld ev ery f o ur y ea rs .

Central G r eec e is l o ng a nd n a rr o w str etc h ing fr o m w es t ,

to east Alm o st in t h e c entr e o f G r eec e is Del p h i sacr ed

.
’
,

t o Ap o llo go d o f t h e sun,
F art h er ea s t a nd a lm o s t n o rt h
.

Of Co rint h is t h e B oe o t i a n p lain w it h T h eb es a nd P l a
’
-

t aa a S till f a rt h er ea st is t h e city st a t e o f At ti ca o n t h e
’ ’
- -

,
.

sout h ern sl o p e o f w h ic h li es t h e G r eek city Athens ,

.

N ort h ern G r eec e is s ep a r a t ed fr o m c entr a l G r eec e by

mountai ns Al o ng t h e east ern c o a st t h er e is o ne narrow
.

p as s t h at j o ins n o rt h ern a n d c entr a l G r eec e call ed T h er ,

mop y lte (h o t gat es )

’
-
Hist o ric a lly n o rt h ern Gr eec e is
.
,

no t im p o rt a nt but if w e go a littl e fa rt h er n o rt h o u t
, ,

sid e o f G r eec e p r o p er w e c o m e t o a m o unt a in o us sl o p e

,

c a ll ed M a c e do n w h ic h was t h e h o m e o f Al ex and er t h e
’
-

G r eat .

1 1 9 I nfl u ence o f t h e G eo gr a p h y o f G r ee ce o n Lo cal
.

D ev el o p m ent — T h is G r eek p eninsul a is m a d e u p o f

.

m o untain ridg es no t rang es running in di ff er ent di rec

, ,

ti o ns T h es e ridg es fo rm num er o us p eninsul as s ep arated

.
,

by d eep gul fs wit h num ero us h arb o rs Al o ng t h es e

,
.

s h o res t h er e are a few rat h er st eep s l o p es and inl a nd t h er e ,

are a few s h o rt riv er vall eys and small b a s ins surr o und ed

by h ills T h e s o ut h ern sl o p e o f Attic a o n w h ic h At h ens is

.
,

l o cat ed giv es us a g o o d exampl e o f a sl o p e and t h e m o un

, ,

t a in encl o s ed p l a in o f S p arta (in P el o p o nn es us ) and o f

-

B oeo ti a in c entr a l G r eec e a re go o d exam p l es o f t h e bas i ns .

S inc e G r eec e was alm o st surr o und ed by w a t er s h e ,

was is o lat ed fro m h er n eig h b o rs T h e littl e S l o p es and .

basins w er e alm o st as muc h is o l at ed fr o m ea c h o t h er

becaus e o f t h e h ills and m o untai ns t h at cam e b etw een
 T HE N EAR EAS T

In summ er t h e Gr eek was abl e t o liv e out o f doors with

cons id erabl e c o mf o rt and h e wor e c o mp arativ ely littl e
cl o t h ing In wint er h e still liv ed out o f d o ors fo r his
.
,

h ous e w a s un h eat ed but h e could no t be said to b e v ery

,

c o mf o rt a bl e sinc e h e did no t w ear warm clothing T h is

, .

life m a d e t h e G r eeks h ardy .

EAR L Y E G EAN CI V I L IZ AT I ON S

1 22 . s s i o n o f Ea rl y Ci vili z a ti o n s i n th e E gea n
S u cce
Ar ea .T h er e w er e s ev eral civilizati o ns w h ic h in succ es
sion o ccup i ed t h e ZEgean ar ea T h e earli est o f t h es e w as
.

t h e Cre ta n civiliz a ti o n ; t h e n ext is c a ll ed t h e M y cc

’
-

e a n civilizati o n ; t h e t h ird is c a ll ed Ho mer i c

’ ’
nc a nd t h e -

fourt h t h e ea r ly Greek civilizati o n We s h a ll study eac h .

o f t h e first t h r ee bri efly und er t h is t o p ic and s h all ex a min e

t h e l a st m o r e in d et a il in t h e r est o f t h e c h a p t er .

1 2 3 Ea rly H i s t o ry o f t h e Cr et a ns
. T h e l o ng n a rrow
.

isl a nd o f Cr et e li es a cr o ss t h e s o ut h end o f t h e n ean

ar ea li k e a h a lf wa y s ta ti on bet ween Egyp t a nd Greece
,
-
.

In t h e h ist o ry o f m a nkind it w a s a lm o st t h a t fo r w h at ,

C r et e h a d S h e p a ss ed o n t o G r eec e a nd Cr et e o w ed muc h
o f h er p r o gr ess t o h er int erc o urs e by s ea wit h Egy p t and ,

t o a l ess ext ent wit h t h e east M edit erran ea n c o ast

,
In .

f a ct t h e p eri o ds o f Cr et a n p ro s p erity s eem t o r efl ect t h e

p eri o ds o f Egyp ti a n s p l end o r .

T h e p eri o d o f r eal C r etan glory c o rr es p o nds a lm o st

ex a ctly wit h t h e r eign o f T h o t m es I I I s h owing t h at t h e
,

Cr et a ns r efl ect ed Egy p tian p r o s p erity .

1 24 T h e Cr et a n Em p ir e At t h is p eri o d t h e
”
. .

Cr etans ext end ed t h eir p o w er and influ enc e o v er t h e w h ol e

o f t h e [ Egea n ar ea T h ey no t o nl y tr a d ed wit h t h e citi es
.

o f G r eec e a nd Asi a M in or and t h e B lack S ea but t h ey ,

m a d e m o st o f t h es e citi es t h eir d ep end ents a nd subj ects .

T h e kings at Kn o s s o s w er e c a ll ed M i n o an kings and

’
-

, ,
 EAR L Y ZEG EAN C I V I LIZ ATI ON S

accordi ng to At h enian l eg end s ev en yo ut h s and s ev en ,

maid ens w ere ea c h year s ent by At h ens t o Cr et e as a

'
s a crific e to t h e M i n o t au r T h rough t h e aid o f a Cr et a n
-
.
l

p rinc ess A ri ad n ,
e a courag -
eo-
us ’
A t h eni
,
a n y o ut h ,
'
T h e s e u s p en etrat ed t h e p al a c e at Kn o ss o s t h e laby
-

, ,
2

ri nt h kill ed t h e M in o t a ur and fr eed t h e At h en i ans fr o m

, .
,

t h e o p p r essiv e rul e o f t h e Cr et a ns T h is st o ry l eg end .

,

a s it is indic a t es t h at Cr etan rul e did ext end o v er t h e

,

[ Egean a r ea a nd t h a t t h e Cr et a n s p r o b a bly b o rr o w ed fr o m
west ern Asi a (B abyl o ni a n s o urc es ) s o m e o f t h e r ev o lting
r eligi o us cust o ms o f h um a n sacrific e t h a t w er e us ed in
Assyri a and P h oenici a L a t er .

t h e Cr et a ns no t o nly l o st t h eir
d ep end enci es in t h e n ean
a r ea but t h ey w er e driv en o u t
,

o f Cr et e by inv a d ers .

1 2 5 Cr et a n Civiliz a ti o n
.
?

T h e Cr etans w er e t h e f o r em o st
n avig at o rs and trad ers at t h e
d awn o f h ist o ry T h ey h ad .

t w o writt en l a ngu a g es w h ic h ,

w er e d ev el o p ed first in t h e fo rm
o f p ictur es a nd lat er in c h a rac ,

t ers w h ic h w e h av e no t b een
a bl e fully t o d eci p h er T h ey C t n V .
re a a se .

1 M i no s -
t a ur u s ; t a u r u s mea ni ng b u l l
H
.

'
2 I t i s t hi s p al ac e t o whi c h omer refers as B ro a d K no s sos .

3 T h i s c i v i li z a t i o n w a s
c h i efl y o f o ri ent a l o ri gi n b u t i t w a s es s ent i a l ly ,

mo d i fi ed b y t h e C ret a ns w h o w ere p eo p l e o f i nt elli g enc e I t w a s s c a t

, .

t ered b y p eo p l e w h o w ere t r a d ers a nd p i r a t e s l i k e t h em s el v es K no s s o s .

seem s t o h a v e b een d es t r o y ed i n a p i ra t e ra i d a nd w h e n l a t er g rea t b a nd s

, ,

o f Ac h aea ns c a m e d o w n i nt o G reec e a nd l a t er i nt o C ret e t h e C ret a ns

were dri v en t o t h e fo u r q u a rt ers o f t h e ear t h
,

T h e I s l e s were res t l es s
“
.
,

di s t u r b ed a m o ng t h em s el v es a t o ne a nd t h e s a m e t i m e i n t h e d a y s o f ”

R a mes es I I I S o me o f t h e C ret a ns p r o b a bl y s et t l ed o n t h e c o a s t o f
.

P al es t i ne wh ere t h ey w ere k no w n a s P h i l i s t i nes

, Ot h er s w ent t o A s i a .

M i no r a nd st i ll o t h ers t o t h e c o a s t o f G reec e .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
l earn ed to mak e a fine grad e of p ott ery and to work
m etals S o m e of t h eir silv er v as es and bowls s h ow gr eat
.

s kill .One votive o ffering of v ery el egant fem lik e s p r ays -

of t h in go ld p lat e and wir e is a work of r eal art T h eir .

figures are unlike t h e Egyp tian and t h e Assyrian for th ey ,

a re full of lif e and action and in that r es p ect r emind us

,

Of t h e lat er G r eek statu es

T h e L i o n G a t e, M y c enae
.

1 26 . The M ycene a n Age .

—
T h e Cr etans s h ar ed t h is
civilizati o n w it h t h eir n eigh b o rs o f t h e ZEgean As w e .

first l earn ed o f t h is l a t er E gean culture fro m excavati o ns

'
at M y ce naz a city s o ut h west o f At h en s w e usually s p eak
-

, ,

o f it as M yc en aean civilizati o n and w e r efer t o t h e p eriod

,

fro m t h e Go ld en Age o f Cret e t o t h e Tro j an War as t h e

M y cc naz a n Age
- -
’
We find trac es o f t h is M yc en aean
.

cultur e in T h r a c e and in S icily and in sout h ern Italy .

 T HE N EA R EAS T

e xc ep t o n t h e h eel t h e s p o t w h er e h i s mot h er h eld him

, .

Ulyss es no w sugg est ed t h at t h ey build a holl o w w o od en

h ors e T h is w as d o n e and t h e h o rs e fill ed wit h sol
.
, ,

di ers was l eft o utsid e o f a gat e o f Troy t h e G r eeks p re

, ,

t ending t o l ea ve Tr o y alt o get h er Wh en t h e Troj ans h ad .

m o v ed t h e sacr ed h o rs e int o t h e city t h e G r eek soldi ers , ,

w h o cam e o u t o f t h e w o od en h ors e o p en ed t h e gat es t o t h eir ,

c o mr a d es a nd Tr o y was sack ed T h is st o ry h as b een p re

, .

s erv ed fo r u s by H o m er in t h e gr ea t ep ic p o em t h e I l i a d
’
,
’
-
.

1 2 9 T h e W a n d ering s o f Ul y s s es
. T h e wr a th o f t h e .

g o ds t h a t h a d h el p ed Tr o y was es p eci a lly dir ect ed a g a ins t

Ulyss es fo r h i s p a rt in t h e cap tur e o f Tr o y T h ey dr o v e .

h i m fr o m p l a c e t o p l a c e fo r t en y ea rs b efo r e h e was a ll o w ed
to r eturn h o m e He was im p ris o n ed in a cav e by a h ug e
.

giant wi t h o ne ey e T h is gi a nt w as kn o wn as a cycl o p s
. .

Ulyss es es c a p ed aft er blinding t h e giant La t er h e cam e .

'
t o t h e h o m e o f Cir c e t h e enc h antr ess w h o turn ed h i s , ,

c o m p ani o ns int o swin e but r el eas ed t h em a nd ent ertain ed

,

t h em r o y a lly fo r a y ea r T h en t h ey p as s ed b etw een .

S cyl la and Ch a ry b dis w h ic h w er e in h a bit ed by S ir ens

’ ’
-

w h o s e a p p eal no man c o uld h ea r and r es i s t Ulyss es .

fill ed h i s f o ll o w ers ea rs wit h wax and h a d t h em las h

’

h i m t o a m a st No t l o ng a ft erw a rd h i s m en a t e t h e
.

c a ttl e o f t h e sun (A Al l o f t h em w er e drowned

by Ju p i t er but Ulyss es was c a st u p o n t h e i s land o f a
’
-

s ea nym p h Aft er eig h t y ea rs h e man a g ed

’
-
Ca ly p so ,
-
.

t o r eturn t o G r eec e w h er e h e f o und h i s h o m e fill ed wit h

,

s uit o rs o f h is w ife t h e f a it h ful P e n el o p e P en el o p e

’
- -
.
,

fin a lly a gr eed t o marry t h e o ne w h o c o uld b end Ulyss es ’

b o w but n o n e c o uld exc ep t Ul yss es h ims elf w h o m

, ,

P en el o p e h a d giv en u p fo r l o st H o m er h a d p r es erv ed .

fo r us t h is st o ry in a s ec o nd gr ea t ep ic p o em t h e Od y s s ey
’
-
.
,

1 3 0 T h e W a n d e ri n gs o f E n ea s
. T h es e great G r eek .

ep ics t h e I liad a nd t h e Odyss ey c o nt a in t h e st o ry o f t h e

, ,

G r eeks in t h e H er o ic Age Wh en t h e Ro mans in t h e .

,
 T HE H OM ER C A G E I

d ays o f t h e early em p ir e wis h ed t o find fo r t h em

s elv es an anc est o r w h o h a d a s h a r e in t h es e h er o ic struggl es ,

t h e R o m a n p o et V ir gil wr o t e h i s gr ea t L a tin ep ic t h e
’
,

T h e ZEnei d t ells o f t h e w a nd erings o f fE ne as

’ ’
zE ne i d
-
.
-

o f Tr o y w h o carri ed h i s a g ed fa t h er o u t o f t h e burning city

,

and wit h h i s s o n Iu lus w a nd er ed a b o ut t h e M edi t er ’ 1

ra nea n c o asts fo r y ea rs At C a rt h a g e h e w a s d et a in ed b y
.
,

Di d o t h e f o und er o f t h at city
’
,
Wh en fEneas l eft Dido .
,

s h e d estr oy ed h ers elf o n a gr ea t fun er a l p yr e fEneas .

cro ss ed t o It a ly w h er e h e m a d e h i s h o m e in Latium
, .

'
Acc o rding t o t h e st o ry o ne o f h i s d esc end a nts B o m u lus, ,
-

f o und ed R o m e i n 7 53 B C T h es e t h r ee l eg ends t ell us t h e . .

c h i ef st o ry o f t h e H er o ic Age as r ep r es ent ed in t h e ep ic
p o ems o f t h e t wo classical p eo p l es t h e G r eeks a nd t h e ,

R o mans .

1 3 1 Li f e i n t h e H o m eri c Age
.
— T h e G r eek p eo p l e
o f w h o m H o m er t ells us liv ed a b o ut 1 2 00 B C s o o n aft er . .
,

t h e tim e o f R a m es es I I in Egy p t T h es e A c h ae ans do ’

-
.

no t b el o ng t o t h e s a m e r a c e as t h e Cr etans and M y ce
naea ns fo r t h eir a nc est o rs h a d migrat ed int o G r eec e p r o b
, ,

a bly fr o m t h e n o rt h T h e l ea d ers w er e t a ll wit h lig h t

.
,

h air and f a ir skins p eo p l e v ery di ffer ent fr o m t h e S h o rt

, ,

swart h y Cr etans .

T h es e Ac h aea ns as H o m er calls t h em w er e g o v ern ed

,

by kings but ea c h king call ed t o h i s c o uncil t h e n o bl es

,

w h o w er e l ea d ers o f t h e tr o o p s T h e p eo p l e w h o m t h es e .

kings go v ern ed wer e a p a st o r a l and a n a gricultur a l p eo p l e ,

wit h s ettl ed h o m es T h e h o us es o f t h e kings w er e v ery

.

sim p l e c o m p a r ed wit h t h e p al a c es at Kno s s o s o r M yc en ae ,

a nd t h e li fe o f t h e p eo p l e w as sim l e a nd rud e T h y h ad
p e .

s o m e o rc h ards but t h ey c ar ed c h i efly fo r h erds of cattl e

,

o r swin e o r fo r fl o cks o f S h ee T h w m n l ok d ft r
p e o e o e a e .

t h e grinding o f t h e c o rn t h e s p inning a nd t h e w eaving ,

1
Ju l i u s , w t h a t t h i s w a s a fa mil y na m e fro m t h e b egi nni ng t h e
to sh o

em p ero r b ei ng t h e nep h ew a nd a d o t ed s o n o f J u l i u s C aes ar

, ,

rei g ni ng
p .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

and num ero us h o us eh o ld duti es Th er e wer e s o m e

the .

s erv a nt s a nd a few sl a v es but w o rk w a s no t d es p is ed exc ep t ,

am o ng t h e no bl es B o t h H o m er a nd a l a t er p o et H esi o d
.
, ,
1

S h o w us t h e m o r e a ttr a ctiv e sid e o f t h is early G r eek p eo p l e ,

wh o s e w a nts w er e few and w h o s e lif e c o nsist ed in t o il and

S im p l e p l easur es T h ey giv e us glim p s es h o wev er o f t h e
.
, ,

crud en es s a nd t h e b a rb a rism o f t h is life and t h e cru elty ,

of t h e l ead ers .

T HE U N IT Y OF T HE G R EEK S

1 32 . y T h e p eo p l e wh o m w e
G r e ek Ol m p i c D ei ti es L —

know as r ks w r k wn in a nci ent tim es no t a s

G ee e e no
G r eeks but a s H ell en es T h e Hel l e n es in t h e H o m eri c
’
-
.

Age a nd i n t h e h ist o ric p eri o d h ad a larg e numb er

o f d eiti es in t h eir p a nt h eo n T h ey imagi n ed t h at t h e .

go ds dw elt o n M o unt Olym p us o n t h e no rt h ern bord er ,

o f G r eec e H er e J u pi ter (Z eus ) t h e fath er Of t h e gods

.
, ,

p r esid ed o v er t h e s a cr ed c o uncil He was t h e gr eat est .

am o ng t h e go ds fo r h e rul ed t h e h eav ens and c o ntro ll ed

,

t h e t h und erb o lt At b a nqu ets o n O lym p us f o o d was

’
-

,
.

s erv ed fit fo r t h e go ds a mbr o sia and n ect a r T h e g o ds ,

.

o f t h e ea rly G r eeks w er e a ft er a l l men o f h er o ic st a tur e

and p o wers w h o l ev ed and f o ugh t and f eas t ed but wh o

, ,

w er e imm o rt a l .

Ot h er ma j o r B esid es Ju p it er ( Z eus t h e G r eek call ed h i2

m ) t h er e , ,
d ei t i es
.

w er e many m aj o r d eiti es J u ne t h e wif e o f Ju p it er , , ,

Ap o ll o t h e go d o f lig h t M i ner va t h e g o dd ess o f wisd o m

, , , ,

w h o w as said t o h a v e s p rung full a rm ed fr o m t h e h ea d o f -

Ju p it er T h e go dd ess o f l o v e w as V enu s w h o s e littl e

.
,

son Cu pi d s h o t arrows int o t h e h earts o f susc ep tibl e

, ,

m o rt a ls M a rs w as go d o f w ar N ep tu ne rul ed t h e s eas
.
,
’
,
'
Di a na was t h e c h i ef h untr ess a nd M er cu ry was t h e mes
’
- -

1 H esi o d s
’
Wo r k a nd Da y s .

2
It see m s w i se i n a ,
c o u rse o f t h i s k i nd , to u s e o nl y t h e L a t i n na m es of

t h e d ei t i es, ex ep c t i n a few i ns t a nc es .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

lik e all t h e G r eeks w er e rat h er giv en to quarr elling T h er e

.

,
.

wer e t wo p rinci p a l amp h ictyo ni es o ne wit h its c entr e at ,

Del p h i in c entr a l G r eec e a nd t h e o t h er wit h its shri n e

, ,

a t De l o s o ne o f t h e c entr a l isl a nds o f t h e [ Egea n S ea

’
.
,

Ea c h o f t h es e c o nf ed erati o ns h a d an am p h icty o nic c o uncil

mad e u p o f d el eg a t es fr o m t h e m emb ers o f t h e amp h icty o ny .

1 3 5 T h e O r a cl es
.
— At Del p h i t h er e was a s h rin e o f
.

Ap o ll o a nd a n o r a cl e whic h a ll G r eeks ev en t h o s e from ,

n o rt h ern G r eec e t h e JEgean islands P el o p o nn esus o r

, ,

S ic i l y fr equ ently s o ug h t fo r a dvic e T h is r eligi o us i n

-
'
.

s t i t u t i o n was d evis ed t o h el p m en w h o h a d ang er ed t h e

go ds T h e o r a cl es t o ld t h em h o w t h ey mig h t ap p eas e
.

t h e d eiti es T h e a dvic e o f t h e o racl e was s o f a m o us t h a t

.

no city built a fl eet o r mad e w a r o r c h ang ed its go v ern

m ent o r s ent o u t a c o l o ny wit h out consulting t h e o r a cl e .

T h e qu esti o n er br o ug h t h i s r equ est t o t h e p ri est o f

Ap o ll o a nd was t o ld w h en h e s h ould r eturn fo r h i s answ er .

T h e r ep ly was gi v en by a p ri est ess call ed a P y t h i a

’
-

sitting o n t h e s a cr ed tri p o d Answ ers w er e fr a m ed b y a

.
-

b o dy o f p ri ests am o ng wh o m w er e no t o nly s o m e o f t h e
,

wis est men o f Gr eec e but men w h o k ep t info rm ed ab o ut

ev eryt h ing t h at w ent o n An answ er was giv en in suc h
.

g en eral langu a ge and w as s o a mbigu o us in m eaning t h a t

it migh t ea sily b e constru ed by a n int ellig ent p etiti o n er
t o indors e any p o ssibl e c o urs e H enc e w e call an exp r es
.

”
si o n t h a t may m ea n m o r e t h an o ne t h ing o r a cul a r .

T h e oracl e must b e c o nsid er ed no t only o ne o f t h e c h i ef

b o nds o f unity am o ng t h e G r eeks but o ne o f t h e m o st ,

imp o rt a nt influ enc es in G r eek h ist o ry .

1 3 6 T h e G r eek G a m es
. T h e G r eeks h a d many l o cal
.

festiv a ls to t h e p a tron d eity of eac h city One o f t h es e .

,

w h ich was h eld at Olym p ia in west ern P elo p o nn esus ,

d ev elo p ed i nto a great ass embly of all Gr eeks h eld ev ery ,

four years We s h o uld b e car eful not to c o nfus e

.

Olym p i a wit h M t Olym p us o n w h ic h t h e g o ds dw elt

.
,
.
T HE U NIT Y OF T HE G R EEK S
 T HE N EAR EAS T
T he r eligi o us f estival w as lat er sub o rdin a t ed t o at h l etic
c o nt ests t h e first a nd m o st imp o rt a nt o f w h ic h was t h e
,

running r a c e o f 600 Olym p ic feet As t h e G r eeks ab o v e .

ev eryt h ing els e admir ed swiftn ess t h ey d ev elo p ed t h eir ,

b o d i es as no o t h er p eo p l e h av e d o n e b efo r e o r sinc e b ecaus e ,

a p erf ectly d ev el o p ed a gil e b o dy w a p l easing t o t h e go ds

,
s
.

Aft er a tim e t h e fo o t r a c e w a s fo ll o w ed by t h e P en
-

t a t h l o n ; t h at is by j um p ing running t h rowing t h e

’
, , ,

discus h urling t h e j av elin a nd wr es tli ng Lat er b o xi ng

, .
,

c h a ri o t racing a nd p o etical c o nt ests w er e introduc ed .

Only a G r eek c o uld tak e p a rt but w o m en f o r eign ers and , ,

slav es w er e all o w ed t o w a tc h t h e g a m es T h e vict o r .

was cr o wn ed wi t h a wr ea t h o f laur el and h e w as r ec eiv ed

wit h gr eat h o nor es p eci a lly in h i s h o m e city Wit h in re
, .

c ent y ears w e h a v e r eviv ed int ern a ti o na l athl etic c o nt ests

on t h e G r eek m o d el T h es e are h eld ev ery four yea rs a nd
.

a re call ed t h e Olym p ic gam es .

B esid es t h e Olym p ian gam es w er e t h o s e l ess wid ely

att end ed call ed t h e N e me a n t h e I s th mi a n and t h e
-
’
,
’
-

’
P y th i -
an .

137 .Im p o r t a n ce o f t h e Na ti o n al G a m es T h e Olym .

p i c gam e s w e r e h eld first i n 7 7 6 B C t h e dat e fr o m w h ic h . .

,

t h e G r eeks r eck o n ed tim e saying t h at a n ev ent h ap p en ed

,

in t h e t h ird y ear o f t h e 4 2 d O ly m p i a d fo r instanc e -

’
-

, ,

sinc e t h e fo ur y ea r int erval b etw een t h e Olym p ic c o nt ests

-

w a s call ed a n Olym p i a d No war b etw een t wo G r eek

.

st a t es c o uld b e w a ged during t h e p eriod s et asid e fo r t h e

gam es a s a l l w er e G r eeks fo r t h e tim e T h e g a m es
,
.

stimulat ed t h os e virtu es t h a t ap p eal ed es p eci a lly to t h e

G r eek : p h ysic a l b ea uty and str engt h swi ftn ess musical , ,

ski ll a nd p o etic a bility T h e G r eek l o ved t o exc el and

.
,

t h e c o nt ests o n t h e track o r b etw een art ists o r p o ets

bro ugh t o u t t h e b est t h at Gr eeks c o uld do Gr eek st a tu .

ary c o p i ed t h e w ell d ev el o p ed b o di es of t h e at h l et es
-

for G r eek scul p tur e gl o rifi ed t h e body i n action At .

 T HE N EAR EAS T

of t h e ZEgea n in Asia M in o r T h es e Asiatic Gr eek citi es

.

w er e br o ug h t easily int o c o nt a ct with t h e h ig h ly d ev el o p ed

civilizati o ns of t h e Ori ent T h ey occup i ed f ertil e vall eys
.

t h a t p r o duc ed fruits and gr a ins a nd w er e n ear ext ensiv e

h ill S id es u p on w h ic h t h o us a nds o f cattl e and sh eep w er e
-

grazing Co ns equ ently t h es e As i a tic citi es h a d go o ds to

.

exc h ang e and c a rri ed o n ext ensiv e tr a d e wi t h p o rts of

,

t h e east ern M edit erran ea n One o f t h es e citi es M i te tu s

’
-
.
, ,

was fam o us fo r its m a nu fa ctur es its tr a d e in w o o l its , ,

w ealt h and its cultur e l o ng b efo r e At h ens and Corint h

,

b ecam e gr ea t citi es .

1 4 0 N a t u r e o f L a t e r C o l o n i z ati o n — T h e lat er co l
.

o ni z a t i o n m o v em ent p eo p l ed wit h G r eek coloni es o r

tr a ding p o sts t h e n o rt h s h o r es o f t h e JEgea n S ea t h e ,

P ro p o nt u s a nd t h e B l a ck S ea o n t h e n o rt h a nd east In .

t h e West c o l o ni es w er e f o und ed c h i efly in Italy in S icily ,

a nd in G a ul .

T h e m o st im p o rt a nt c a us es o f t h e c o l o niz a ti o n m o v e
m ent w er e und o ubt edly ec o n o mic T h e G r eeks w ere .

gr a du a lly driving t h e P h oenicians o u t o f t h e E gean S ea

and a dj a c ent w a t ers a nd t h ey d esir ed t h e tr a d e o f t h e
,

West Alm o s t a s im p o rtant w er e t h e a ttr a cti o ns o f

.

f ertil e l a nds es p eci a lly in Italy and G a ul fo r t h es e c o un

, ,

tri es w er e muc h m o r e f ertil e t h a n G r eec e T h e o v er .

p o p ul a ti o n o f t h e h o m e city was a n im p o rtant caus e o f

c o l o niz a ti o n At t h is tim e als o t h e g o v ernm ent o f t h e
.

citi es w as c h a nging fr o m m o n a rc h y as in H o m er s tim e ,

’
,

t o rul e by t h e a rist o cr a cy F r equ ently di ffer ent fa cti o ns

.

o f n o bl es quarr ell ed wit h o ne a n o t h er a nd t h e l ea d er o f

,

o ne o f t h e f a cti o ns w o uld b e f o rc ed t o l eav e t h e h o m e city ,

o r w o uld d o s o v o luntarily wi t h h i s fo ll o wers

,
.

1 4 1 M eth o d o f C o l o niz a ti o n
. T h es e great m i grati o ns
.

o ccurr ed during t h e eig h t h and s ev ent h c enturi es b efor e

C h rist Wh en a city in G r eec e d ecid ed t h at it wis h ed

.

t o fo und a c o l o ny it l o o k ed aro u nd for a favorabl e sit e

,
.
 T HE N EAR EA S T

y ears t h e b o ys w er e c a red fo r by t h eir m o th ers Aft er

that t h ey wer e b roug h t u p by t h e stat e b eing fed at p u b ,

lic tabl es and at p ublic exp ens e T h e fo od w a s not o nly .

coars e but limit ed in am o unt In o rd er t o get enough to .

eat t h e b o ys w er e enc o urag ed t o st eal fo r s o ldi ers must ,

forag e but t h ey must no t b e caug h t S t ealing was h o n

, .

o ra b l e t o t h e S p artan but b eing c a ught w as a crim e

,
.

As t h e y o ut h s b ec a m e Old er t h ey w er e enr o ll ed in co m
p ani es w h ich ex ercis ed a t e sl ep t and f o ug h t t o g et h er
, ,
.

Courag e endur a nc e and h ardn ess w er e t h e S p a rt a n v i r

,

tu es a nd no S p a rt a n c o uld exc el w h o g a v e way und er t h e

,

sc o urging b efo r e t h e statu e o f Ar t e mis o r w h o s h owed ’

-

t h e w h it e f ea t h er und er any circumst a nc es .

1 48 T h e F r e e a nd S i mp l e Li f e o f t h e S p a rt a n s
. T he .

S p a rta n w o m en w er e a ctiv e h a rdy and c o ur a g eo us lik e , ,

t h e m en T h ey did no t go t o w a r but t h ey s ent t h eir

.
,

h usbands and t h eir s o ns wit h t h e war ning t o c o m e b a ck

wi t h t h eir s h i elds o r o n t h em ; t h a t is t o c o m e b a ck co n ,

q u ero rs o r d ea d h er o es T h ey liv ed a free a nd o p en

.

life s o m et h ing quit e unusu a l a m o ng G r eek w o m en T h eir

,
.

advic e was soug h t and giv en o n a ll m att ers o f imp o rtanc e .

As was fitting fo r s o ldi ers t h e S p a rtans k ep t luxuri es ,

o u t o f t h eir c o untry Th ey did t h is by using o nly i ron

.

mo ney fo r trad e wi t h in Lac o ni a T h e S p a rt a ns d es p is ed .

talkers Wh en t h ey h a d any t h ing t o say t h ey did it in

.
,

o ne w o rd o r in a few w o rds We call a sayi ng l a coni c if .

it is v ery bri ef and t o t h e p o int .

1 4 9 S p a rt a : G o v ern m e nt a nd L e a d ers h i p
.
J —
T h e S p ar
t a ns did no t b eli ev e in p o p ular g o v ernm ent and t h ey did ,

T h e g o v ernm e nt
1
of S p a rt a i n ea rl y h i s t o ri c a l t i m es c o ns i s t ed of t wo
ki ngs , o f fi v e ep h o rs , o f a co u nci l o f the el d er s , a nd o f t he a sse mb l y o f a ll

S p a rt a n m en . T h e k i ng s were t h e l ea d er s i n w a r a nd the c hi ef p ri e s t s
of t h e S p a rt a ns T he ep h o r s su p erv i s ed a l l S p a rt a n a ff a i rs , a nd , wi t h
c o u nc il d ec i d ed a l l i m p o rt a nt q u es t i o ns
.

t h e h el p of the , , b u t t h e m emb ers

o f t h e a s se m b l y c o u l d o nl y exp res s t h ei r wi s h es b y “ ”
v o t i ng y es or

o n q u e s t i o ns s u b mi t t ed t o t h em
“ ”
no .
 T
A HE NS

not adop t c h anges readily It was b eli ev ed that t h eir .

early g o v ernm ent was giv en to t h em by L y cu r gu s w h o

’
-

mad e t h em p r o mis e not t o c h ang e it wit h o ut h i s c o ns ent ,

and t h en di ed in exil e Lycurgus lived b efor e h ist o ry was.

writt en so t h at w e must no t b eli ev e v ery muc h a b o ut h i m

,
.

S p a rt a no t o nly rul ed h er citiz ens s ev er ely but s h e

c o nqu er ed h er imm edi at e n eig h b o rs and s h e o rg a niz ed ,

t h e o t h er city st a t es o f P el o p o nn esus int o t h e P el op on

- - -

'
ne s ta n L ea gu e T h r o ugh h er o wn milit a ry ability and t h e
.

sup p o rt o f t h e P el o p o nn esi a n Leagu e S p a rt a tr a in ed t h e ,

o t h er G r eeks S h o wing t h em h o w t o o rg a niz e t h eir s o ldi ers

,

int o c o mp ani es and t ea c h ing t h em h o w t o figh t S h e

,
.

a r o us ed in s o m e o f t h e o t h er bity st a t es s o m et h ing o f h er -

o w n ind o mit a bl e s p irit In t h is way S p arta p r o t ect ed .

and p r es erv ed Gr eek civiliz ation .

AT HE N S

Ath en s ,
ti o n a nd Ea rly G o v ern m ent
' '

1 50
. L o ca .

At h ens is l o c a t ed at t h e f o o t o f a st eep h ill o f r oc k th e ,

A cro p o lis t h a t ris es abru p tly a b o v e t h e p l a in o f Attica

’
- -

, .

It is a b o ut fiv e mil es fr o m t h e s ea and fr o m an exc ell ent ,

h a rb o r t h e P i r se u s
, T h e city w a s t h er efo r e w ell l o cat ed
-
’
.

fo r d ef enc e a gainst en emi es a nd h a d an o p p o rtunity t o

d ev el o p c o mm erc e T h e o nly w ay t h a t G r eeks ev er
.

g ain ed any r ea l w ea lt h was t h r o u gh c o mm erc e o r co n

quests .

In an ea rly day At h ens was rul ed lik e all t h e o th er ,

G r eek citi es by a ki ng , Aft er a tim e t h e n o bl es d ecid ed

.
,
“

t h a t t h ey wis h ed t o h av e o ffici a ls c h o s en by t h ems elv es .

T h er e were nin e o f t h es e m a gistr a t es c a ll ed a r chons ,

’
.

T h e first arc h o n was a j udg e t h e s ec o nd call ed t h e king , ,

arc h o n was a p ri est a nd t h e third was t h e gen er a l

, , .

T h is r ep r es ent ed t h e aristocratic stage o f t h e go v ern

m ent o f At h ens .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

1 51 . A W ritt en L a w i n At h e ns T h e At h enian p eo p l e
.

w er e not cons ervativ e like t h e S p art ans T h ey wer e fo nd .

o f s p eec h es and w elc o m ed c h ang es As t h ey w er e dis .

satisfi ed wit h many t h ings t h at t h e ar c h o ns did t h ey ,

Obtain ed (62 1 B C ) a writt en law T h es e l a ws w ere

. . .

call ed t h e c o d e o f Dra c o fr o m t h e nam e o f t h e l ead er wh o

’
,

had c h arg e of t h e c o dificati o n Draco s laws wer e v ery

.
’

T h e Ac ro p o l i s , At h ens P res ent C o nd i t i o n

, .
( F or res t o r a t i o n,

s ee fro nt i s p i e c e ) .

h arsh , d ea t h b eing t h e p uni s h m ent for m a ny mino r o f

fenc es suc h as st ea ling and ensl a vem ent b eing t h e p u n
,

i s h ment o f a p ers o n w h o got in d ebt and c o uld no t p a y t h e

d ebt w h en du e Alt h o ug h t h e p eo p l e h ad m a d e s o m e p rog
.

ress in obt a ini ng a writt en l a w t h ey fo und t h at t h ey wer e

,

no t muc h b ett er o ff b ecaus e t h e l a ws w er e s o s ev er e

,
.

1 5 2 T h e R efo rm s o f S o l o n — Ab o ut t h i s tim e t h e
. .

p eo p l e o f G reec e b eg a n t o u s e m o n ey B efo re t h is w h en .
,

a m a n w a nt ed t o buy anyt h ing h e trad ed s o m et h ing els e

,

fo r it. If p o ssibl e t h e s ell er as ked a b a r o f c o p p er o r a ,

bit o f go ld o r silver fo r it b ec a us e t h er e w as a gener a l

,

dema nd for go ld si l ver a nd co p p er

, Now t h e Lydians .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

1 54 . rm s o f Cl ei sth en e s
T h e R efo As s o on as Hi p p ias .

was driv en out t h er e ar o s e a c o nflict a m o ng t h e arist o

One Of t h em C l ei s t h e nes gain ed c o ntrol of t h e
’
cra t s.
,
-

g o v ernm ent t h roug h t h e aid o f t h e p eo p l e and i mmedi ,

a t ely intr o duc ed c h ang es in t h e l a ws by w h ic h A th ens

beca me th e firs t rea l democr a cy i n th e hi s to r y of th e wo r l d .

C l eist h en es all o w ed m a ny f o r ei gn ers a nd fr eedm en to

b ec o m e citiz ens a nd h e c h a ng ed t h e g o v ernm ent so that
,

t h e o ffici a ls and c o uncils w er e no l o ng er c h o s en by t h e

w ealt h y citiz ens but by a ll o f t h e a dult m a l e citiz ens
,
.

Alm o st a l l Am erican st a t es h av e t h e s a m e r egulati o ns i n

r egard to voti ng We c a ll t hi s man h ood su ffrag e
.
“ ”
.

As At h ens lik e ev ery o th er G r eek city h a d su ff er ed gr ea tly

, ,

fr o m t h e qu a rr els o f t h e l ead ers h e d evi s ed a sc h em e by ,

w h ic h t h e p eo p l e mig h t k eep t h e l ead er t h at t h ey wis h ed

a nd s end h i s o p p on ent int o exi l e In t h is way t h e a c .

cep t ab l e l ea d er h a d a fr ee h and in m a naging t h e a ff a irs o f

t h e city T h e p eo p l e did t h is by writing t h e n a m e o f

.

t h e r ej ect ed l ead er o n a bit of p o tt ery and t h e p roc ess ,

was call ed os tra ci s m T h is p o p ul a r g o v ernm ent und er

’
-
.

arist o cratic l ea d ers was muc h ap p r eci a t ed by t h e At h e

ni ans . T h ey b ec a m e int ens ely int er est ed in p ublic aff airs ,

and t h ey d efend ed At h ens and t h eir new d em o cr a cy wit h

a gr eat d ea l o f s p irit .

1 5 5 S u mm a ry
.
— T h e n ean a r ea w as t h e s eat Of
.

t h e t h ir d gr eat civiliz a ti o n of antiquity t h e o t h er t w o ,

b eing Egy p t and B abyl o nia M uc h o f t h is Cretan o r .

n ean civiliz a ti o n h o w ever w as d erived fro m Egy p t

, ,
.

T h e G o ld en Age o f Cret e c a m e a b o ut 1 5 00 B C ab o ut t h e . .
,

tim e o f T h o t mes I I I in Egyp t T h en Cr et a n a rt was a t .

its b est and C ret e p r o b a bly rul ed m o st o f t h e n ean a rea .

C r et a n civiliz ati o n was s p r ea d o v er t h e w h o l e [ Egean b a si n

‘

and w est i nto S icily and It aly It s u rviv ed in t h e M y .

c en aean ci v iliz ati o n o f t h e age j ust b efo r e t h e Tro j an war .

T h e Troj an w a r and t h e w a nd erings o f Ulyss es are t h e

 T
A HE NS

c h i ef ev ents in w h at w e c a ll t h e H o m eric Age b ecaus e ,

w e r ea d o f t h em in H o m er s t w o gr eat ep ic p o ems t h e
’
,

Ili a d and t h e Odyss ey Life in t h e H om eric Age s h o ws

.

a crud e p eo p l e int er est ed in agricultur e a nd p a st o r a l

p ursuits ,
wit h a gr eat gulf b etw ee n t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e

and t h eir l ea d ers .

T h e G r eeks o r H ell en es w er e b o und t o g et h er by bl o o d

, ,

ti es t h at wer e very str o ng and wer e t h e basis o f r eligi o n

M ap of G reec e at t h e T i me of t h e P ers i a n Wa r .

and go vernm ent T h e g eo gr ap h y o f Greec e and t h e jeal

.

o u sy a nd t h e l o c a l p a tri o tism o f t h e G r eeks l ed t h em to

a d o p t t h e f o rm o f g o v ernm ent kn o wn as t h e city st a t e -

.

Extr em es of w eat h er m a d e t h e G r eeks h ardy t h eir p oo r ,

s o il mad e t h em industri o us and caus ed t h em to turn t o

t h e s ea for a living .

T h e G r eeks h a d many int er esting myt h s and l eg ends

of t h eir go ds Jup it er (Z eus ) was t h e f at h er o f t h e gods
.
 T HE N EAR EAS T

and t h e c h i ef o f t h e Olym p ic d eiti es T h e Gr eeks o ffer ed .

s a crific es t o get f a vo rs o r t o ward Off cal a mi ti es T h e .

G r eeks (H ell en es ) w er e b o und t o g et h er no t o nly by ti es

o f bl o o d but by r eligi o us c o nf ed erati o ns c a ll ed a mp h i ct y
,

o ni es by n a ti o n a l r eligi o us o r a cl es a nd by nati o n a l g a m es
, ,

es p eci a lly a t Olym p i a T h e vict o r o f an Oly mp i c c o nt est

.

was t h e gr ea t nati o n a l h ero w h o w as cr o wn ed wit h a

wr eat h o f l a ur el T h e larg er G r eek w o rld t h a t met at
.

Olym p i a w a s m a d e u p o f p eo p l e fr o m p eninsular G r eec e ,

t h e islands o f t h e n ea n t h e citi es o f Asi a M in o r w h ic h

, ,

w er e v ery ea rly c o l o ni es a nd t h e citi es o f S icily a nd ,

M a gna G r aaci a w h ic h w er e l a t er G r eek c o l o ni es

,
.

T h e c h i ef Do ri a n city S p a rt a w as a milit a r y c a m p, ,

rul ed by t h e a rist o cr a cy und er kings T h e li fe was sim p l e .

,

t h e disci p lin e s ev er e a nd t h e S p a rt a n virtu es w er e c o ur a g e

and endur a nc e T h e c h i ef I o ni a n city At h ens o n t h e
.
, ,

c o ntr a ry w as int ell ectual v ersatil e and c o mm erci a l

, ,
.

B efo r e t h e P ersi a n w ar it p a ss ed t h r o ug h t h e fo ur st ag es
of p o litical d ev el o p m ent t h a t c h ar a ct eriz ed t h e m o st pro
gres s i v e G r eek citi es t h at is m o narc h y a rist o cracy tyr
, , , ,

a nny and d em o cracy T h e m o st im p o rt a nt p oliti cal

.

r efo rms a t At h ens wer e t h o s e o f Dr a c o w h o g a v e t h e ,

At h enians a w ri tt en l a w ; o f S o l o n w h o a b o lis h ed d ebt ,

sl a v ery ; a nd o f Cl eist h en es w h o intro duc ed a r ea l de ,

mo cra cy .

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
B o t sfo rd , Hi s to ry of c Wo rld th e A n i ent ,
—
5 9 1 56 .

M o rey Ou tli nes of Greek Hi s to ry 6 9 — 1 64

, , .

Fl i ng S o u rc e
, of H B oo k
i s to y
r 1 —
97
Greek , .

D a v i s Rea di ngs i n Anc i ent Hi s to r y I 6 1 2 9

,
2 —
, , .

H a ll A nc i ent Hi s to ry of th e N ea r Ea s t 3 1 —7 9
, , .

C o t t eri ll A i
n c ent G reec
,
e 1 — 18 1 , .

S t o b er t , T h e Gl o r y t h a t wa s Gr eec e ,
—
1 13 1 .

H a w es Crete , ,
th e F o rer u nner of Greec e .

B ai k i e, T h e S ea K i ngs o f Crete .

H o l m Hi s to r y of Greec e V o l
, , . I .
1 22 T HE N EAR EAS T
To p i cs
T H E P AL A C E AT K N o s s o s : H a ll A nci ent Hi s to r y of th e N ea r ,

Ea s t, 42 —4 7 ; Ha w es , Crete, th e F o r eru nner of Greec e 46 7 5 ; ,

-

B a i ki e, S ea K i ngs o f Crete ,
63 — 1 1 6 .

M Y C E NE : t
C o t er l l A nc i ent Greec e 9 —1 7 ; S t o b er t i
T he , , ,

G l o r y t h a t wa s G ree c e 2 3 —24 ,
.

G R E E K C O L O N I Z A T I O N : M o r ey Ou tl i nes of Greek Hi s to r y , ,

1 3 9 — 1 4 8 ; F l i ng S o u r c e B o o k of Gr eek Hi s t o r y 2 9 —4 1 ; Ho l m ,
, ,

Hi s to r y o f Greec e, I , 1 4 0— 14 8 , 2 67 —2 9 4 .

S OLO N F l i ng , S o u r c e B oo k , 8 1 — 8 6 ;
: C u nni ngh a m , Wes tern
Ci vi l i z a ti o n i n I ts E c o no mi c As p ec ts , I , 9 9 —1 05 ; P l u t a r ch ,
“ ”
L i ves , S ol o n .

S tu di e s

1 . T he ch a r m of G reek s cn e ery . Zi mm ern, T h e Greek Co m

mo nwea l th 1 3 —1 7 , .

2 . I nfl u en e o f ct h e g eo gra p h y o f G r ee e c .

3 . T he C ret a n p a l a ce a t K no s s o s B a i ki e , J . .
, i n N a ti o na l
G eo gr a p h i c M a ga zi ne ,
23 7 15
— .

4 . C re t e a nd Eg y p t . B a i ki e T h e S ea K i ngs
, o f Crete 1 3 9 ,

1 69 .

5 C re . t e a nd G reec e . Ha w es Cr ete , , t h e F o r er u nner o f Greec e ,

1 44 —1 54 .

6 . R a mes es III a nd t h e ZEg ea n p eo p l es . C o r ma c k , E gy p t i n

A s i a 2 2 0—2 3 0
, .

7 . T he infl u en e o f c t h e Ea s t u p on t h e G reek s . Ho gar t h ,

I o ni a a nd th e Ea s t , 9 9 —1 1 7 .

8 . T he T j ro a n war . G u erb er , M y th s of Greec e a nd R o me,

—
3 05 33 6 .

9 . F a mi l y li fe i n t h e Ho m er i c a ge . F l i ng , S o u r c e B oo k of
Greek Hi s to r y ,
1 —7 .

10 . T he cit y -
stat e . B o t s fo r d , S o u rc e B o o k o f A nc i ent Hi s
t or y , 9 7 —1 01 .

11 . P a nd o ra a nd h er b o x . G u erb er , M y th s of Greec e a nd

R o me 2 8 —3 5,
.

12J a s o n a nd t h e G o l d en F l ee c e
. G u erb er , M y th s of Gr eec e .

a nd R o me 2 63—2 7 4 ,
.

1 3 T h e Lo w er Wo rld o f G reek M y t h o l o g y
. G u erb er , M y t h s .

Gr eec d R m 1 6 0—17 0
of e a n o e, .

14 T h e
. ora cl e at D el p h i . S ned e k er , T h e S p a r t a n, 34 3—3 5 4 ,
3 6 6 —37 0 .
 A HET NS 12 3

15 T h e Ol y mp c ga m es
. B l u m ner i .
(Z i mmern ) , Ho me Li fe
2 —359
of t h e A nci e t G
n r eek s , 3 5 .

1 6 T h e t ra i i g o f t h e S p art a s
. nn n . Fl ing , S o u r c e B oo k o f
Greek Hi s tor y , 66 7 6 -
.

17 T h e P el o p o nnes i a n Lea gu e
. . Bo t sfo rd , S ou rce B o o k o f
A nc i ent Hi s tor y , 1 1 9—1 2 1 .

18 . T he refo r ms of i
C l e s t h enes . D i av s , R ea di ngs i n A nci ent
Hi s t or y , I , 1 2 0—1 2 9 .

Q u es t i o n s
1 . I nt o wh at
t hr ee p a r t s i s G reece d i v i d ed geo gra p h i ca ll y ?
Sh ow h o w t h ey a r e d i ffer ent a nd na m e a c i t y o r p l a c e i n ea ch .

2 . W h a t w a s t h e na t u re o f t h e g eo gr a p h y o f G reece Ho w
d i d t h e geo gra p h y i nfl u enc e t h e p eo p l e ? P o i t o u t o n t h e m a p n
S p a r t a , Argo li s Ol y m p i a , C o r i nt h E gi na , S a l a m i s , P l a t aea ,
, ,

T h eb es , Eu b oea h es s a l y, C h a l c i di c e,
el o s T
R h o d es , S a m o s , , D ,

M i l et u s Ep h es u s S ar d i s P h o cma , Hell es p o n , P ro p o nt i s a nd
, , , t
B o s p o ru s .

3 . N a me a nd g i v e t h e d iff erence b et w een t h e fir s t t h r ee

ci v i l i z a t i o ns o f t h e ZEgea n a r ea .

4 . Wh at i
w er e K no s s o s , t h e m no t a u r , t h e l a b y r nt h , t h e l i i n o

ga t e, t h e V ap io cu p s ?
5 . Wh y w a s t h e h orse so imp t o r a nt th at i t wa s c o ns i d er ed
s a cred b y m a ny a n ci e t p eo p l es ? n
Wh y d i d t h e Ant h enia ns a o
c ep t t h e o fi er o f At h ena (M i nerv a ) t h e o l i v e , i ns t ea d o f t h a t o f ,

Ap o ll o t h e h ors e ? (Co mp ar e
,

6 . N a m e t h e t h ree grea t ep i c p o em s of t h e G reek s a nd th e

R o m a ns , wi t h th e au th o r o f ea ch . T o wh a t ex ent t d th o ey r el a e t
fa ct s , d o y o u h i nk ? t
7 W h a t w ere t h e
. th r ee h o m es of t h e G r eek s ? Wh a t w ere
th e t wo c h i ef G r eek r a ces ? Wh a t o t h er c o u nt ri es h ad u sed ci t y

s t a t es

8 . N a me a nd exp l a in t h e t h r ee c h i ef b o nd s of u n ity a m o ng
t h e G reek s W ere t h e G reek s u ni t ed o r s ep a ra t ed b y t h e geo g
.

ra p h y o f t h ei r c o u nt ry ? B y t h e t em p er a m ent o f t h e p eo p l e
9 Wr i t e a s h o rt p a p er t ell i ng a b o u t a n i m a gi na ry v i s it t o
.

eith er t h e D el p h i a n o r a cl e o r t o a n Ol y m p i c c o nt es t .

1 0 Ho w w ere G reek co l o ni es es t a b l i s h ed ?
. P o i nt o u t o n a
m a p t w o o f i m p o rt a nc e ea s t o r nor t h ea s t o f G r eece t w o i n ,

s o u t h er n I t a l y t w o i n S i c i l y o ne i n F r a nc e
, W h a t i m p o rtant , .

m o d ern ci t i es h a v e gr o w n o u t o f G reek co l o ni es
1 24 T HE N EAR EA S T
11 t
C o m p are S p a r a a nd At h e s i n rega rd t o m a
. er o f n nn
l iv n t
i g , i n er es t s o f t h e p eo p l e a nd i nfl u en e o n G ree e, c c .

t
1 2 W h a i s mea nt t o d a y b y t h e w o rd S p a r t a ?
.
-
Wh a w a s n t
t h e i m p o rt a nc e t o G ree c e of th e m i l i t a ry met h o d s of t h e S p ar
t a ns ? of t h e P el o p o nnesi a n L ea g u e ?

13 . T c ra e t h e de v el o p m ent of At h eni a n d em o c ra c y i n t h e
r efo r ms of D ra co , S olon a nd C l ei s t h enes .

14 . T o wh a t ext en t is th e ea rl y h i s t o ry of t h e ZEg ea n a rea a

p ol itic al h is t o ry ? c
a n e o no mi c h i s t o ry ? a so ci al h i s t o ry ?
 A . G REECE

CH AP T ER V

G R EEC E AN D P E R S A I
1 56 . r o f Ex p a n s i o n
T h e P e iod Alt h o ugh ,
55 0— 1 46 B C . .
-

t h er e h ad b een s ev eral sm a ll emp ir es b efo r e 5 50 B C . .

,

t h e gr ea t em p ir es o f t h e a nci ent w o rld w er e establis h ed

during t h e fo ur c enturi es fr o m 5 5 0 t o 146 B C T h e first . .

o f t h es e was t h a t o f t h e P ersi a ns w h ic h ext end ed fr o m t h e ,

[ Egean S ea t o t h e Indus R iver T h e s ec o nd w as t h a t o f

.

Al exa nder t h e G r ea t wh ic h w as larg er fo r a s h o rt tim e

, , ,

t h a n t h at o f t h e P ersians T h e t h ird was t h a t o f t h e

.

Ca rth a gi ni a ns in t h e w est It c o v er ed m o st o f t h e w est ern

.

M edit erran ea n b a sin T h e l a st and grea t est was t h a t o f t h e

.

Ro ma ns w h ic h s h o w ed t h a t it w as t o be t h e o nly em p ir e
,

o f t h e M edit erran ean w o rld by its c o nqu est in 1 46 B C

, ,
. .

o f b o t h C a rt h a g e and G r eec e .

T H E G E O G RA P HY OF AN CI E N T EX P A N S I O N
157 . Th r e e G eo gr a p h i ca l Ar ea s o f An ci ent Emp i r es
The .

In t h e s tudy o f t h e h ist o ry o f t h e a nci ent wo rld w e ,

find t h at t h er e w er e t h r ee gr ea t g eo gr ap h ical ar eas o v er

wh ic h t h e emp ir es ext end ed T h e first Of t h es e is t h a t .

i nl a nd a rea of wes ter n Asi a ext ending o n t h e w est fr o m

,

t h e gr ea t b end o f t h e Eup h r a t es ea stw a rd t o t h e Indus

R iv er a nd t h e b o rd ers o f India T h e s ec o nd a nd t h e t h ird
.

a re sim p ly subdivisi o ns o f t h at gr eat im o rtant a r ea t h e

p ,

M edit err a n ea n b a sin F o r t h e s a k e o f c o nv eni enc e in

.

t h e study o f h ist o ry h o w ev er w e m a y c o nsid er t h e M edi

, ,

t erran ea n basin a s divid ed int o t w o th e ea s tern M edi ter ,

ra nea n fro m t h e Eup h r a t es t o t h e Ad ri at ic S ea and

,
- -
’

127
 T HE N EAR EAS T

fro m t h e Danub e t o N ubia and th e wester n M edi terra nea n, ,

from t h e h eel o f Italy w est to G ibr a lt a r a nd fr o m t h e

S a h a ra d es ert n o rt h a lm ost t o t h e Englis h Ch a nn el .

1 5 8 T h e M e d it err a n ea n B a si n a s a W h o l e
. T he .

hist o ry o f t h e anci ent wo rld is p reemin ently t h e h ist o ry

o f t h e M edit err a n ea n basin We must t h i nk o f t h e .

M edit err a n ean S ea and o f t h e basin wh ic h is drain ed int o

,

t h e M edit erran ean S ea as a w h o l e fo r it is a s i ngl e geo

, ,

grap h ical area N ot only d o es t h e gr eat s ea fo rm t h e

.

c o nnect i ng link b etween S p ain and Egyp t b etween n o rt h ,

w est ern Africa and Gr eec e but t h er e is no v ery gr eat dif ,

f er enc e b etween t h e climat e o f t h e nort h and t h e s o uth

s h or es In summ er t h er e is littl e r a in in G reec e and s o ut h
.

ern Italy as t h er e is in nort h ern Af rica

, .

No t only is t h e M edit erran ean S ea t h e larg est salt

wat er lak e i n t h e wo rld but it is s h ut in o n a lm o st all sid es
,

by rat h er h igh m o untain r a ng es t h at a re no t far inl a nd

from t h e s h o res o f t h e s ea T h is m o untain b o undary s ep
.

arat es t h e s ea fro m t h e r est of t h e wo rld ; alt h o ugh t h er e

a re a few o utl ets t o t h e o ut s id e w o rld
1
.

T h e riv er vall eys o f t h e M edit erranea n basin a re sm a ll .

2

All o f t h e p eo p l e o f t h e M edit erran ean b a sin t h er efo r e

lived wit h in easy co mmunicati o n o f t h e M edit erran ea n
S ea and l oo k ed to t h e s ea rat h er t h a n inland fo r tr a d e wit h
t h eir n eig h b o rs and fo r t h e int erc h ange o f id eas F o ur
,
.

gr eat p eninsul as o n t h e n o rt h gave s o m e isol a ti on to t h e

p eo p l e t h a t in h a bit ed t h em T h es e a re Asia M in o r .
,

G r eec e Italy and S p ain

,
T h e C arthaginian p eninsula
.
,

1 T he b a si n o ff ers a few p a s sa ges t o t h e o u t si d e wo rl d

M edi t erra nea n ,

o n t h e no rt h ea s t t o t h e B l a c k S e a o n t h e ea s t b y t h e E u p h ra t es o n t h e
, ,

so u t h ea s t b y t h e R ed S ea o n t h e w es t
, a c ro s s F r a nc e a nd t h r o u g h t h e
,

s t ra i t o f G i b ra l t ar t o t h e At l a nt i c T h e M ed i t erra nea n b a s i n w a s a
.

m o u nt a i n ri m m ed b a si n wi t h sev eral go o d b u t ea s i l y d efend ed o u t l et s

-

t o t h e o u t si d e w o rl d .

2
E v en t h e N il e v a l l ey l o ng a s i t i s h a s a c u l t i v a t ed a rea o f b u t
, ,

sq u a re m il es no rt h o f t h e ro c k y b a rri er s o f t h e N il e c a t a ra c t s .
 T HE N EAR EAS T

Agad e and of Ha mmu ra bi w h ic h ext end ed n o minally t o

t h e M edit erran ea n but in r ea lity as w e h av e alr ea dy
, ,

n o tic ed w er e c o nfin ed t o t h e Tigris Eu p h rat es basin

,
-
.

T h en cam e t h e emp ire o f t h e Egy p ti a ns w h ic h l a st ed fo r

s everal c enturi es and und er T h o t mes I I I ext end ed b e
, ,

y o nd t h e gr ea t b end o f t h e Eu p h rat es but usually w as ,

limit ed t o P al estin e in Asi a T h e Hi tti te emp i r e b efo r e .

,

t h e tim e o f R a m es es II c o v er ed all o f east ern Asia M inor

,

and S yria and d o min a t ed als o M es o p o tamia and w est ern

,

Asia M in o r t o t h e ZEgea n T h e s h ort liv ed As s y ri a n .

-

emp i r e w h ic h d ev el o p ed l a t er
, w as t h e l a rg est o f t h es e
,

early em p ir es fo r it ext end ed fr o m t h e t a bl e l a nd o f I ra n

’
- -

, ,

o r P ersi a int o Egyp t o n t h e s o ut h west and int o Asi a

,

M inor o n t h e n o rt h w est .

1 6 1 T h e K i ng d o m o f t h e M e d e s
. T h e Assyri a n .

em p ir e f ell t o p i ec es w h en N in ev eh was cap tur ed by t h e

c o mbin ed a rmi es o f t h e B a byl o ni ans a nd t h e M ed es

T h e M ed es g a in ed t h e h ig h l a nds fro m t h e
C as p ian sea w est t o t h e Ha l y s riv er h a lfw a y a cr o s s As ia ,

M in o r .

T h e M ed es w er e a h ill p eo p l e unr el a t ed t o t h e S emitic ,

dwell ers in t h e Tigris Eu p h rat es v a ll ey and cl o s ely r el a t ed

-

t o t h e P ersi a ns an o t h er h ill p eo p l e w h o h a d m o v ed d o w n
,

o nt o t h e n o rt h sl o p e o f t h e P ersi a n G ul f T h es e h ill .

p peo l e S p o k e a l a nguag e w h ic h is di s t a ntly r el a t ed t o

Englis h a nd i s c o nn ect ed wit h t h e o l d cl a ssic a l l a nguag e

o f India t h e S an scrit so t h a t a ll o f t h es e r el a t ed l a n
’
, ,

gu ages S anscrit P ersi a n G r eek Latin F r enc h G erm an

, , , , , , ,

Englis h a nd m a ny o t h er s a re c a ll ed I ndo Eu r op ea n T h is -
.

d o es no t m ean t h a t t h e Indi a ns and t h e P ersian s bel o ng ed

t o t h e s a m e ra ce as o urs but it m ea ns t h a t t h e l a ngu a g es
,

of all o f t h es e p eo p l es d ev el o p ed fro m t h e sam e st o ck t h e ,

l a ngu ag e o f o ne trib e b eing b o rr o w ed by m a ny p eo p l e o f

di ffer ent rac es b ecaus e it was m o r e s atis fact o ry t h an t h eir
o wn .
 T HE N EAR EAS T
quickly l o st h is own fo r Cyrus v ery p ro m p tly c o nqu er ed ,

Lydia (5 4 6
Cyrus s o o n a ft er br o ug h t h i s armi es into t h e Tigris
Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey and in 5 3 8 B C h e cap tur ed t h e city
,
. .

o f B abyl o n a ft er a p r o l o ng ed si eg e Wh en h e a dd ed t o .

t h is S yri a a nd P a l estin e a nd t h e citi es Of P h oenici a Cyrus ,

h a d an em p ir e fa r larg er t h a n t h a t o f t h e As syri a n s fo r ,

h e h a d ext end ed h i s c o nqu ests t o t h e ea st a ls o His s o n .

C a m by s es w ent d o wn int o Egy p t w h er e h e s p ent s ever a l

’
-

y ears .

1 63 D a ri u s. t h e O rg a niz e r Wh en Cambys es di ed
, .
-

o n t h e way back fr o m Egy p t h i s a rmy s u p p o rt ed t h e ,

claims o f Da ri us t o t h e t h r o n e Aft er m a ny c a m p a igns

-
’
.

Da rius no t o nly c o nqu er ed a ll t h e r eb els but h e o rg a niz ed ,

1

suc h a n em p ir e as t h e w o rld h a d n ev er s een .

B ef or e t h is tim e t h e p r o vinc es o f t h e ea rly emp ir es h a d

b een rul ed by nativ e p rinc es w h o o b ey ed t h e c o mm a nds
Of t h eir king b ec a us e t h ey did no t d a r e d o o t h erwis e o r ,

by go vern o rs g en er a l w h o w er e g en er a ls o f t h e i m
-

p erial a rmy s ent o u t t o rul e t h e v a ri o us p r o vinc es T h es e .

g en erals w er e a lm o st a s f o nd o f r ev o lting a s w er e t h e
n ativ e p rinc es b ec a u s e t h ey w a nt ed t h e p o wer of t h e
‘

king and h o p ed t o t ak e h i s p l a c e o n t h e t h ro n e .

1 6 4 H o w D a ri u s R u l e d t h e P er s i a n Em p ir e
. Da rius .

divid ed t h e P er s i a n em p ire int o a b o ut twenty s ep a r a t e

and w ell o rg a niz ed p ro vinc es Ov er m o st o f t h e p ro vinc es
-
.

h e p l a c ed a governor c a ll ed a s a tr a p a genera l o f t h e
” ’
, ,

army a nd a s ecr eta ry As no o ne o f t h es e h a d p o wers

,
.
2

1
D a ri u s fo u nd t h a t a l m o s t ev ery p ro v i nc e o f t h e em p i re w a s i n rev o l t
a ga i ns t h i m a nd i t t o o k h i m a g rea t m a ny y ea rs t o re s t o re o rd e r t h r o u g h
,

o u t t h e em p i re H e c a p t u red B a by l o n b y m a rc h i ng a l o ng t h e d ry be d
.

o f t h e E u p h r a t e s w h e n t h e c i t y w a s i n t h e m i d s t o f a fe a s t
, .

2
O v er ea ch of t h e p ro v i n c es o n t h e fro nt i e r, w h er e t h ere w a s d a ng er
Of i nv a s i o n h e p l a c ed a g e ne ra l
, of t he ar my w h o h ad bo t h m il i t a ry an d
ci v il a u t h o ri t y T h ese g enera l s
. were t o o b u s y to r e v o l t a nd t o o fa r a wa y
t o b e d a ng ero u s i f t h ey di d ,
re b el a g a i ns t the ru l e o f the
“
G rea t Ki ng ,
 T HE P ER S A I N EM P R E I

e xc ep t in h is p a rticular lin e Of w ork t h er e was Small ,

d a ng er o f any succ essful r eb elli o ns .

In a dditi o n Da rius s ent o u t r o y a l m ess eng ers to s ee

w h et h er t h e p r o vinc es w er e b eing g o v ern ed p r o p erly a nd ,

s o m e im p eri a l j udg es He im p r o v ed t h e roads so t h at

.
1
,

o fficials and t h e a rmy c o uld trav el m o r e quickly fr o m o ne

p a rt o f t h e em p ir e t o a n o t h er T h is P ersian e m p ir e.l ast ed ,

wit h v ery sligh t c h a nges in ext ent o f t errit o ry o r in m et h o ds

o f g o v ernm ent until it was c o nqu er ed by Al ex a nd er t h e
,

G r eat t w o c enturi es a ft er Cyrus

,
P er h a p s t h e m o st .

int er esting o f t h e w o r ks o f Darius was h i s a tt em p t ed co n

qu es t o f G r eec e T h is w as t h e b eginning o f t h e
c o nflict kn o wn in h ist o ry as t h e P ersi a n Wa rs .

1 65 Ch a r a ct er o f t h e P ersi a n s
. T h e P ersi a ns brib ed .

t h eir w ay t o succ ess sinc e t h ey h a d a gr ea t d ea l o f go ld

,
.

Y et t h e m o st disgr a c eful t h ing in t h e w o rld t h ey t h ink , ,

is t o t ell a li e t h e n ext wo rs e t o o w e a d ebt b ec a us e am o ng

, , ,

o t h er r ea s o ns t h e d ebt o r is o blig ed t o t ell li es T h eir

”

s o ns are car efully instruct ed fr o mt h eir fi ft h t o t h eir tw en

.
,

t i et h y ear in t h r ee t h ings a l o n e
,
t o rid e t o draw t h e b o w ,

a nd t o s p ea k t h e trut h T h er e is no n ati o n w h ic h s o
”
.

r ap idly a d o p ts fo r eign cust o ms as t h e P ersi a n AS s o o n .

as t h ey h ea r o f any luxury t h ey inst a ntly m a k e it t h eir ,

o wn
”
. T h is t h en w as t h e r a c e t h a t cam e int o c o nflict
, ,

wit h t h e Gr eeks In m any w a ys t h ey w er e a sim p l e

.
,

h a rdy a nd c o ur a g eo us p eo p l e w h o rul ed s ev er ely a v a st

m o tl ey o f subj ect p eo p l es but t h ey w er e a p eo p l e giv en t o
,

brib ery t o h ard drinking and fo nd o f luxury

, ,
.

1 66 P er s i a n R el i gi o n — S o m e tim e b ef o r e t h e P ersians
.

c a m e int o c o nflict wit h t h e Gr eeks a gr ea t r eligi o us t ea c h er

h a d est a blis h ed a new r eligi o n am o ng t h em T h e o ld .

1 For so m e o f c ent ra l p ro v i nc es h e s ent o u t i mp eri a l ju dges

t h e m o re
w h o h el d c o u rt s a t S u s a t h e c a p i t a l a t B a b y l o n a nd i n a few o t h er i m
, , ,

p o r t a nt c i t i es D a ri u s c o m p el l ed ea c h p r o v i nc e t o p a y i t s o w n exp enses
.
,

a nd fu rni s h m o ney fo r t h e i m p eri a l tr ea s u ry a s w ell .

 G R EEC E

r eli gion was a worshi p o f t h e fo rc es of natur e and was

lo o k ed aft er by p ri ests c a ll ed m agi fr o m w h o m w e get ,

o u r w o rd magic T h e new r eligi o n was c a ll ed Z o ro a s tri

’
- -
.

a n i sm
-
It t a ugh t t h a t t h e w o rld is rul ed by t w o gr eat
.

S p irits a gr eat er S p irit o f lig h t and a l ess er s p irit o f

, ,

darkn ess T h e P ersians did no t b eli ev e in images but

.
,

t h ey wo rs h i p p ed t h e Go d o f Ligh t by p r a yer sacri fic e , ,

p u rity and t h e u s e o f t h e divining ro d As in t h e Egy p .

tian B o o k o f t h e Dead a h ig h m o r a l st a nd a rd o f living

,

w as r equir ed In f a ct t h e P er s ians a re o ne o f t h e earli est

.
,

p e o p l es w h os e r eligi o n r eally includ ed m o rality .

T HE P ER S I A N WA R S
1 67 . The v t Io n ic Am o ng t h e m o st
Re ol ,
5 00 B C
. .
—

im p o rt a nt o f t h e G r eek citi es b efo r e t h e P ersian wars w er e

t h e I o nic citi es o f As i a M in o r In t h e tim e o f Croesus .

s o m e o f t h es e citi es h ad a muc h b ett er cultur e t h a n At h ens

o r a ny o t h er city o f G r eec e M il etus w as alli ed wit h .

Lydi a a nd a few o t h er citi es w er e subj ects o f Lydi a p a y

, ,

ing tribut e but b eing l eft a l o n e by t h e Lydi a ns so l o ng

,

as t h ey furnis h ed m o n ey Wh en Cyrus c o nqu er ed Lydi a .

,

h e c o m p ell ed m o st o f t h e I o nic citi es t o p a y tribut e .

1

In 5 00 B C t h e p eo p l e o f t h es e I o nic citi es uni t cd and

. .
-

r evo lt ed against P ersi a n rul e T h ey m a rc h ed ag ai ns t .

S a r dis t h e c ap it a l o f Lydia w h ic h t h ey burn ed a nd i m

’
, ,

m ediat ely a b a nd o n ed Af t er s ev er a l y ea rs o f figh ting

.

t h e P er s i a ns cap tur ed M il etus a nd t h e o t h er citi es burn ,

ing m o st o f t h em killing m a ny o f t h e men a nd t a king as

,

slav es s o m e o f t h e w o m en a nd c h ildr en In t h e first p a rt .

o f t h e r ev o lt t h e ex p editi o n a g a inst S a rdis t h e At h eni a n s

, ,

h a d tak en p a rt fo r t h ey w er e fri endly wit h t h e I o nian

,

1 T he b o u g h t a t rea t y so t h a t t h ey m i gh t c o nt i nu e t h ei r
M il e t i a ns
T h e p eo p l e o f o ne c i t y m o v ed i n a b o d y t o S a r di n i a ra t h er t h a n
’
t ra d e .
- -

su bm i t t o t h e ru l e of a P ersi a n d es p o t .
 G R E EC E

on the n o rt h s h ore o f Attic a a t M ar a t h o n a b o ut tw enty

,
’
-

fiv e mil es fr o m At h ens T h e At h eni a ns h a d a lr eady s ent

.

o u t frantic a p p eals t o S p a rta fo r h el p but t h e S p a rt a ns ,

w o uld no t m a rc h b efo r e t h e full m o o n T en t h o us a nd .

At h enia ns su p p o rt ed by a t h o us a nd tr o o p s fr o m P l a t ma
, ,

und er t h e c o mm a nd o f M i l t i a des c h a rging d o wn t h e -

’
-

sl o p e o f M a r a t h o n u p o n t h e P ersi a n fo rc es dro v e t h em in ,

c o nfus i o n int o t h eir s h i p s l B efo r e t h is t im e no s o ldi er

.
,

G r eek o r b a rbarian h a d b een a bl e t o stand b ef o r e t h e

,

P ersi a n s .

Ev en t h e st o lid S p a rt a ns c o ming t o o l a t e by f o rc ed ,

m a rc h es 1 40 mil es i n t h r ee d ays o ver r o ug h p a t h s w a rmly

, ,

p r a is ed t h e v a l o r a nd t h e s kill o f t h e At h eni a n s Ev ery .

w h er e t h r o ug h o ut G reecc h o p e r eviv ed T h e P er s ian .

w as no t invincibl e a ft er all a nd G r eec e mig h t b e k ep t

, ,

fr ee .

1 7 0 Th emi s t o cl e s a nd Ari s ti d es
. T h e effect o f M a r a .

t h on o n At h ens w as r em a rk a bl e It g a v e t h e At h eni a n s
‘
.

new c o ur a g e It m a d e t h em c o nfid ent d et ermin ed a nd

.
,

willi ng t o und erg o a ny h a rd s h i p r a t h er t h a n s urrend er

t h eir fr ee instituti o ns At h ens w as no w c o m p ell ed t o
.

c o o s e b etween t o l ea d ers O e w a s
h w n T h —
e mi s to cles
. a
’
-

s h r ewd unscru p ul o us p o litician w h o h a d grea t p o w er o f

, ,

p e rsu a si o n a nd und e r s t o o d b o t h t h e gr ea t d a ng e r a nd t h e

n eed of t h o r o ug h p r ep a r ati o n a g ain s t t h e P ersi a ns T h e .

o t h er w a s Ar— i s ti des t h e Just a m a n s o f a ir mind ed t h a t

’
- -

, ,

h e w o uld v o t e a g a inst h i s o wn int er es t a ma n w h o was ,

s el ect ed t o s ettl e di s p ut es b ec a u s e h i s d ecisi o n w o u ld b e

b ett er t ha n t h a t o f t h e f a m o us At h eni a n c o urt s but a ,

man l ess a bl e t h a n T h emi s t o cl es Wh en t h es e t w o l ea d ers .

ask ed fo r t h e su p p o rt o f t h eir p o lici es t h e p eo p l e v o t ed ,

1 A s wi ft ru nner c a rri ed ws
f t h e g rea t v i c t o ry t o A t h ens
t h e ne o ,

wh i t h er t h e a rm y ret u rned t h e next d a y s i nc e t h e P ers i a ns h a d i m m ed i

,

a t el y se t s a i l i n o rd er t o t a k e At h ens b y su r p ri s e b efo re t h e d efend e rs ,

ret u rned .
 T H E P ER S A I N WAR S

in f a v o r o f T h emist o cl es and t h ey o str a ciz ed Aristid es s o

,

t h a t T h emist o cl es s h o uld h a v e a fr ee h a nd .
1

1 7 1 T h e N a v al P o l i cy o f T h e mi s t o cl e s
.
— B
ef o r e t h e .

b a ttl e o f M a r at h o n T h emist o cl es h a d r ea liz ed t h at At h ens ’

futur e d ep end ed o n h er b ec o ming a gr ea t n a v a l p o w er .

T o do t h is s h e must h a v e a n a vy a nd a p o rt t h a t c o uld b e
fo rtifi ed T h e P ir aeus w as t h er efo r e s el ect ed as a p o rt and
.

t h e fl eet w as d ev el o p ed until in 4 8 0 B C At h ens h a d 1 80 . .

tri r em es a trir em e b eing a w ar v ess el wit h t h r ee banks

'
,

Of o a rs .

Wh en t h e P ersi a ns m a d e t h eir gr ea t exp editi o n ag ainst

G r eec e in t h at y ea r t h e At h eni a ns a sk ed a dvic e o f t h e
,

D el p h ic o r a cl e T h ey w er e t o ld t h at t h e At h eni ans
.
2

w o uld s u ffer l o ss o f li fe a t S a l a —mis an i s land n ea r At h ens

’
, ,

but t h a t t h ey s h o uld d ep end o n t h e wo o d en w a lls fo r s afety .

T h emist o cl es p ersu a d ed t h e At h eni a ns t h a t t h e w o o d en

w a ll s m ea nt t h e S h i p s a nd t h a t t h ey w o uld g a in a gr ea t
,

n av a l vict o ry a t S a l a mis .

1 7 2 T h e Ex p e d iti o n o f Xe rx e s
. 48 0 B C M any ,
. .

t h ings h a d h ap p en ed in t h e P er s i a n em p ir e in t h e t en y ea rs
sinc e t h e vict o ry h a d b een w o n by t h e G r eeks a t M a r a t h o n .

D a rius h a d di ed a nd r ev o lts in Egyp t h a d d el a y ed t h e

ex p editi o n ag a inst G r eec e T h e new king X er x es was
’
,
.
,

muc h l ess a bl e t h a n h i s fat h er H a ving g at h er ed a gr eat .

h o st fr o m a l l t h e p eo p l es o f h i s em p ir e h e p r o c eed ed t o ,

b u ild a bridg e a cro ss t h e H el l es p o nt Wh en a st o rm ’

-
.

d estr o y ed t h e firs t bridg e h e h a d h i s att end a nts las h t h e,

w a t ers o f t h e H ell es p o nt t o p unis h t h em fo r t h eir i ns u b

o rdin a ti o n F in a lly h e cro ss ed int o T h r a c e a nd c a m e
.
,

1 T he s t o ry i s t ol d t h a t o ne c i t i z en , w h o d i d no t k no w Ari s t i d es , a s k ed

h i m t o m a rk ab a l l o t ( a bi t o f p o t t ery ) w i t h t h e na m e Ari s t i d es . A ri s

t i d es t h e c i t i e n w h a t h e h a d a g a i ns t N o t h i ng
“
a s k ed z A ri s t i d e s he
J
.
,

rep li ed ,
“
bu t I a m t i r ed of h ea ri ng h i m ev ery w h ere c a l l ed th e u st .

2
T he o ra cl e h ad b een
fa v o r a b l e t o t h e P er s i a ns t h a t y ea r fo r t h e ,

G reek s s eem ed to s t a nd s m a l l c h a nc e o f su cc es s o n a cc o u nt o f t h e l a rg e
,

nu m b er of P er si a n i nv a d er s .
 G R EEC E

d o wn t h e c o ast wit h h i s a rmy a nd fl eet until h e r eac h ed

t h e m o untain r a ng e t h a t divid ed c entr a l G reec e fr o m
n o rt h ern G r eec e .

A c o ngr ess o f men fr o m m o st o f t h e G r eek stat es had

alr eady m et a t Co r int h t o discuss p l a ns fo r t h e d ef enc e
’

o f G r eec e J ea l o u s y a nd s elfis h n es s k ep t t h e G r eeks fr o m

1
.

a d o p ting a ny d efinit e p l a n but t en t h o us a nd G r eeks w er e ,

s ent t o d efend t h e p as s a t T h erm o p yl ae a nd a fl eet w as

s ent u p t h e c o a st t o co Op era t e wit h t h is s m a ll a rmy .

1 7 3 Th erm o p yl ae
. T h e p a ss a t T h ermo p y l ze i s v ery
.

narr o w h a rdly wid e eno ug h fo r c a rt s t o p as s at its na r

,

ro w es t p o int and fo r a dist a nc e t h e r o a d f o ll o ws t h e edg e

, ,

o f t h e cli ff fa r a b o v e t h e s ea H er e t h e t en t h o us and t o ok .

t h eir st a nd und er t h e l ea d ers h i p o f Le o n i das king o f -

’
-

S p arta a nd 300 S p a rt a ns
,
B el o w t h em was s p r ea d t h e .

gr eat h o st o f t h e P ersi a ns p er h ap s s tr o ng al , ,
'
t h o ug h He r o d o tus p l a c es t h e numb er a t n ea rly t wo
- -

milli o ns Day aft er d a y t h e P ersi a ns t h r ew t h eir br a ve

.

and skill ed warriors int o t h e n a rro w p as s o nly t o b e driv en ,

back wit h gr ea t s l a ug h t er T h en a G r eek tr a it o r s h o w ed .

t h em a p at h w h ic h l ed o v er t h e m o unt a in t o t h e rea r o f
t h e p ass a t T h erm o p y l ze T h e d efend er s o f t h e p as s must
.

r etr eat o r b e tr a p p ed Leo nid a s t h e t h r ee h undr ed .

,

S p a rtans s ev en undr ed —t e a ns r efus ed t o l ea v e ’

a nd h P l a .

Ch arging t h e P ers ian a rmy t h ey s o ld t h eir liv es cl early ,

and w o n imm o rtal fa m e .

2

1 T h ere w ere t h ree m a i n p l a ns : ( 1) to c o ns t ru c t a w a l l a c ro s s the

i st h mu s at C o ri nt h so a s t o d e fe nd t h e P el o p o nnes u s , a nd l et t h e res t of

G reec e g o ; ( 2 ) t o d ep e nd c h i efl y o n t h e fl eet a nd b y d e s t ro y i ng t h e , ,

P er s i a n fl eet fo r c e X erxe s t o ret rea t ; ( 3 ) t o s t o p t h e P er s i a ns a t t h e p a s s

,

whi c h sep a ra t es no rt h ern G reec e fro m c ent ra l G reec e .

2
M ea nw hil e t h e na v y h a d k ep t t h e P ersi a ns i n c h eck . A st o r m o ff
'
Ar t e m i s i
- - -
m i nj u red m o re t h a n a t h ir d o f t h e P ers i a n v es s el s a nd i n t h e
u , ,

na rrow s t ra i t o p p o s i t e T h erm o p y l aa b et w een t h e m a i nl a nd a nd t h e i s l a nd

o f Eu b oe a m a ll fl eet like t h a t t h e G re ek s w a s b et t er l a rg er
’
-

, a s of t h an a

na v y . W h en t h e P e rsi a ns fo r c ed t h e p a ss at T h erm o p y l aa h o wev er , ,

t h e fl eet wi t h d rew t o At h e ns .
 G R EEC E

a bl est g en er al M d o ni u s in c o mmand of t h e army

,
ar -
’
-

w h ic h h e l eft fo r t h e c o nquest o f G r eec e .

1 7 5 P l a taea M y ca l e a nd H im er a
.
,
T h e n ext s p ring .
-

(4 7 9 ) M ardo ni u s c a m e d o wn fr o m h i s wint er qu a rt ers

in n o rt h ern Gr eec e t o c o m p l et e t h e c o nqu est o f t h e o h
s t i na t e G r eek s t a t es He advanc ed t o t h e p atri o tic littl e
.

city o f P l a t aea w h er e h e w as met by t h e S p art a ns a nd

,

t h eir a lli es Alt h o ug h t h e P ersians c a m e n ea r winning

.

a d ecisiv e vict o ry i n t h e end t h ey w er e ov erw h elmingly

,

d efea t ed .
1

Ab o ut t h e s a m e tim e t h e s a m e d a y t h a t t h e b a ttl e o f
,

P l a t aea was fo ug h t H er o d o tus t ells us a t M yc a—l e a c a p e

’
, , ,

o ff Asia M in o r t h e G r eek fl eet met t h e P ers i a n v ess els

,

w h ic h h a d escap ed fr o m S a l a mis T h es e w ere cap tur ed .

and burn ed It was a l o ng tim e h o w ev er b efo r e t h e

.
, ,

[ Egea n and Asiatic citi es w er e fr eed fr o m P ersi a n rul e .

Wh il e t h is gr ea t ex p editi o n o f X erx es t h r ea t en ed G r eec e ,

t h e im p o rt a nt P h oenici a n city o f Ca rt h ag e h a d b een a tt a ck

ing t h e G r eek citi es o f S icily T h e Ca r th a gi ni a ns were .

defea ted a t Hi mera by G e lo n tyrant o f S yr a cu s e (4 8 0

’
,

T h us west ern G reec e w as freed fro m d a ng er

at t h e s a m e tim e as G r eec e p ro p er .

1 7 6 T h e I m p o rt a n ce o f t h e G r e ek V i ct o ry
. T h e im .

p o rtanc e o f t h e vict o ry o f t h e G r eek s o v er t h e P er s i a n s

ca n b e und erst o o d b ett er w h en w e study c h a p t er V III

o n t h e P l a c e o f G r eec e in Hist o ry a nd c o m p a r e t h e civili

z a t i o n o f t h e Ori ent (c h a p t er I I I ) wit h t h e cultur e o f t h e

d es t ro y i ng t h e b ri d ge , b u t t h a t t h ey wo u ld no t b e a ble to do so fo r a few
w eek s . I n fa c t , a ll o f t h e G ree k s were o nl y too a nxi o u s t hat a w ay o f
ret rea t s h o u l d b e l e ft o p en to X e rxes .

1 T h ro u g h b a d m a na g em e nt t h e G reek s were a l m o s t s h u t o ff fro m a

d ec ent s u p p l y o f w a t er T h ey h esi t a t ed t o a t t a c k h o wev e r b e c a u s e t h e
.
, ,

a u s p i c es w ere no t fa v o r a b l e W h e n t h e P er s i a ns w ere a l m o s t i n t h ei r
.

m i d s t t h e a u s p i c es s u d d e nl y b ec a m e fa v o ra b l e a nd t h e P el o p o nnes i a n
H ero d o t u s t ri e s t o
, ,

s o l d i ers p ro v ed t h ei r s ki ll a s w el l a s t h ei r c o u ra g e .

m a k e u s b el i ev e t h a t t h e G reek l o s s w a s a few h u nd red a nd t h e P ers i a n

lo ss w a s a q u a rt e r m i l l i o n m en .
 T H E P ER S A I N WAR S

G r eeks . Wh a t rsian rul e did fo r t h e Asi a tic Gr eeks

the P e
w e h a v e alr ea dy n o t ed B efor e P ersi a g a in ed c o ntrol o f
.

w est ern Asia M ino r t h e Asiatic Gr eek citi es w er e t h e m o st

,

int ell ectual and t h e m o st p r o gr essiv e o f t h e G r eek wo rld .

Und er P ersi a t h ey c o ntinu ed t h eir c o mm erc e a nd s eem ed

p r o s p er o us but t h,
ey f ell b eh ind t h eir kinsm en in G r eec e ,

a nd in t h e West in a rts sci enc e and g en er a l cultur e

, ,
Al .

m o st wit h o ut exc ep ti o n t h eir abl est men migr a t ed t o fr ee

G r eec e a cr o ss t h e ZEgea n .

T h e n ati o n a l p atri o tic o utburst w h ic h G r eec e s h o w ed

in h er c o nt est wit h P ersia c a rri ed G r eec e fo rw a rd r ap idly
t o h er G o ld en Age N ev er b ef o r e and n ev er sinc e h as s o
.

brilliant a p eri o d b een f o und as t h at h a l f c entury fo ll o wing

t h e P ersi a n wars Certainly G r eec e und er P ersi a could
.

n ev er h ave b een gr eat er t h a n G r eec e h a d b een b ef o r e t h e

P ersi a n w a rs and t h e w o rld w o uld h a v e l o s t m u c h o f
,

t h a t art lit eratur e a nd p h il o s o p h y w h ic h w e no w c o nsid er

,

t h e b est t h a t t h e w o rld h a s ev er s een W h at H er o dotus .

wr o t e o f At h en s a ft er s h e rid h ers elf o f h er tyr a nts

mig h t truly b e s a id o f G r eec e during t h e Go ld en Age .

It is m a nif est t h a t no t in o ne but in ev ery r es p ect t h e

rig h t o f fr ee s p eec h is a go o d t h ing if ind eed t h e At h e ,

ni a ns s o l o ng as t h ey w er e und er t h eir tyr a nts w er e no

, ,

b ett er in w a r [and in cultur e! t h an any o f t h eir n eig h b o rs ,

w h er eas s o s o o n a s t h ey h a d go t rid o f t h eir tyr a nts t h ey

,

b ec am e a l o ng w ay t h e b est T h is mak es it p lain t h a t w h en

.
,

subj ects t h ey w er e sl a ck b ec a us e t h ey w er e o nly w o rking

,

fo r a m a st er but w h en lib er a t ed ea c h b ec a m e eag er t o

, , ,

a c h i ev e succ ess fo r h ims elf

”
.

1 7 7 S u mm a ry
. Wit h t h e exc ep ti o n o f t h e Egy p ti a n
.

em p ir e a ll t h e em p ir es b ef o r e t h e P ersian w er e in w est ern

,

Asi a. In 550 B C t h er e w er e f o ur gr ea t kingd o ms M edi a

. .
, ,

Lydi a t h e new B a byl o ni a n kingd o m a nd Egy p t t h a t w er e

,

c o nqu er ed in turn by Cyrus o r by h i s s o n Cyrus was t h e .

first G r ea t king o f t h e P ersi a ns a h ardy h o n est and , ,

 G R EEC E

m o ral h ill p eo p l e Wh en Da rius b ec a m e king o f t h e

.

P ersi a n d o mini o n s h e o rganiz ed t h em int o a c o nsolidat ed

em p ir e w h ic h h e and h i s s ucc ess o rs rul ed fr o m h i s c a p i t a l ,

wit h s a tr a p s g en er a ls and s ecr et a ri es in t h e p ro vinc es

,
.

T h e P ersi a n em p ir e h a d c o v er ed a l l o f w est ern Asia

a nd d esir ed t o ann ex G r eec e In 4 9 0 an exp editi o n .

cr o s s ed t h e [ Egean S ea ag ainst At h ens T h i s fo rc e w a s .

b a dly b eat en by a muc h sm a ll er At h eni a n a rmy a t M a r a

t h o n but G r eec e w a s un a bl e t o u nit e o n a ny p o licy o f
,

d cfence At h ens h o w ev er f o ll o wing t h e a dvic e o f T h e

.
, ,

mi s t o cl es p r ep a r ed a fl eet In 4 8 0 X erx es g a t h er ed a gr ea t
,
.

h o st fr o m a ll o f h i s w es t ern p r o vinc es At T h ermo p y l ze .

h e w as c h eck ed by Leo nid as a nd h i s S p a rt a ns T h e fl eet .

no w wit h dr ew t o S a l a mi s w h er e a gr eat n a v a l vict o ry ,

w as g a in ed by t h e G r eeks in t h e n a rr o w c h a nn el X erxes .

imm edi at ely l eft G r eec e a nd t h e n ext y ea r h i s a rmy w a s ,

b eat en a t P l at aea and h is n avy a t M y cale Lat er t h e .

n e a n isl a nd s a nd t h e Asi a tic citi es w er e fr eed fr o m t h e

P ersians G r eec e w as no w abl e t o d ev el o p t h e fine civili

.

z a t i o n o f h er G o ld en Age .

G ener al R efer ences

n
F l i g , S o u r c e B o o k of Greek H i s tor y , 9 8 —1 4 3 .

D ia v s , R ea d i ng i n A nc i ent Hi s tor y , , 4 5 —6 1 , 1 30—1 98 I .

C o t t eril l , A nci ent Greec e 1 8 1 —2 8 2 , .

R ag o z i n T h e S to r y , o f M ed i a , B a by l o ni a a nd P ers i a .

Ho l m Hi , s to r y o f Greec e , II , 1 89-

To p i cs
T HE I ON IC R E V OLT : B o t s fo r d S o u r c e B oo k , o f A nci ent Hi s to ry ,

15 2 —161 ; B u ry , Hi s to r y o f Gr eec e, 2 4 1 24 7 ; -
Ho l m Hi s to r y of
,

G ree e,c II ,
1 —1 4 .

M A R AT H O N : D i
av s , Rea di ngs i n A nci ent Hi s to r y , I ,
1 3 7 —1 44 ;
Ho l m Hi s tor y
,
o f Gr eec e, II , 1 6—2 4 ; C rea s y , Dec i s i ve B a t tl es of
t he Wo rl d c h a p t er , I .

THE M I S T O CL E S AND A R I S T I DE s : a is
'

D v
R ea di ngs i n A nci ent ,

Hi s to r y , I , 1 44—150 ; t
Ab b o t P eri c l es , 22—3 0
, .
 G R EEC E

G ree c e i n t o c l o s er c o nt a c t w i t h t h e c i v il i z a t io n t h e t ra d e a nd
,

the w ea l t h o f t h e Ea s t ? W h y t h en w a s t h e d a ng er fro m P ers i a

, ,

so g rea t
6 Wh a t w a s t h e i m p o rt a nc e o f M a ra t h o n ? o f Th ermo p y l ae ?
.

7 Wh a t w a s t h e efi ect o f G reek v i c t o ry o v er t h e P ers i a ns o n

.

G ree k u ni t y ? o n t h e i nd e p end ent s p i ri t o f t h e G reek c i t i es ?

o n t h e l ea d ers h i p o f S p a r t a ? o n a r t a nd c u l t u re ?
 CH AP T ER VI
HEL LENI C G R EEC E

T HE G OL DE N AGE OF G R EE CE ( —
47 9 4 3 1 B C
. .
)
178 . r m ati o n o f t h e Co nf ed er a cy o f D el o s
Fo .

S al a mis a nd P lat aea h a d fr eed G r eec e but t h e c o nt est ,

wit h P ersi a was by no m ea n s end ed P ersi a n tyrants still

.

h eld m o st o f t h e isl a nds o f t h e n ea n a nd P ersi a n rul ers,

and tro o p s still h eld t h e G r eek citi es o f Asi a M ino r .

Ag a in At h ens c a m e t o t h e fr o nt as t h e r ea l l ea d er o f
G r eec e . T h er e w as o rg a niz ed a m aritim e c o nf ed er a cy
mad e u p o f At h en s and a few o t h er c o ast citi es o f Gr eec e ,

o f t h e G r eek isl a nds a nd s o m e G r eek citi es in As i a M in o r .

Territ o ri ally it c o rr es p o nd ed r at h er cl o s ely t o t h e r eligi o us

a m p h icty o ny o f ea rli er tim es It w a s c a ll ed t h e
Delian Lea gu e o r Co nfed er a cy o f Del o s a nd its h ea d
, ,

qu art ers w er e at t h e isl a nd o f Del o s wh er e w as l o cat ed

,

t h e s h rin e o f Ap o ll o t h a t h a d b een fo r c enturi es t h e c entr e

o f t h e D eli a n a m p h icty o ny .

1 7 9 O r ga niz a t i o n a nd W o r k o f t h e C o n f e d er a cy o f
.

D el o s .
—
T h e Co nfed er a cy h a d a congres s m a d e u p o f o ne
d el eg at e fr o m ea c h city in t h e Co nf ed er a cy T h e c o mm o n .

tr easury w as in Del o s Ea c h o f t h e l a rg e citi es c o ntribut ed

.

o ne o r m o r e s h i p s t h e sm a ll er citi es giving a sum o f m o n ey

,
.

It w as l eft t o Aristid es t h e J ust w h o h a d b een r ec a ll ed fr o m

, ,

exil e b efo r e t h e inv a si o n o f X erx es t o d ecid e h o w m a ny

,

S h i p s o r h o w muc h m o n ey ea c h m emb er o f t h e C o nf ed er a cy

s h o uld c o ntribut e fo r all kn ew t h at Aristid es wo uld giv e

,

t h em a squ a r e d ea l ”
.

Und er t h e l ea d ers h i p o f Ci mon so n o f M ilti a d es t h e

’
, ,

fl eet o f t h e Co nf ed er a cy gr a du a lly fr eed t h e ZEgean

L 145
 G R EEC E

islands fro m t h e P ersi a ns T h en t h e Co nf ed eracy

.

dr o v e t h e P ersians from t h e G r eek citi es o f Asia M ino r ,

Cim o n d estr o ying a new fl eet t h a t t h e P ersians h a d

gat h er ed Wit h in fift een y ears aft er S al a mis t h e G r eeks
.
,

und er At h eni an l ead ers h i p h a d fr eed t h ems elves entir ely

,

fr o m P ersian rul e .

1 8 0 F o r m ati o n o f th e At h e ni a n Em p ir e
. .
— As t h e
Co nf ed eracy o f Del o s h a d b een f o rm ed t o driv e o u t t h e
P ersians and t h e P ersi a ns h a d b een d efea t ed o ne o f t h e
, ,

island citi es wit h dr ew fr o m t h e Co nfed er a cy At h ens .

c o nqu er ed h er a nd br o ugh t h er b a ck as a s u bject s ta te ,

w h ic h was forc ed t o p ay tri bu te but h a d no s h a r e in t h e

,

aff airs o f t h e l eagu e In a few yea rs alm o st ev ery city

.

in t h e Co n fed er a cy h a ving r eb ell ed a g ainst t h e rul e

,

o f At h ens in t h e C o nf ed er a cy was mad e int o a subj ect

,

st a t e T h en t h e tr easury w as r em o ved t o At h ens a nd t h e

.

mon ey w a s us ed t o build u p t h e Ath enian n a vy o r t o build

d ef enc es o r p ublic buildings in At h ens T h e Confedera cy .

of Del os h a d beco me th e A th eni a n emp i re It was t h e ex

.

p eri e nce of G r eec e j ust as

,
it h a s b ee n t h e ex p eri enc e o f
Am erica t h at a l eagu e o r c o nfed er a ti o n eit h er f a ils t o a c
,

c o m p lis h v ery muc h o r is c h a nged int o a stro ng er uni o n .

1 8 1 At h en s b e co m e s a W a ll e d S ea p o rt
. S inc e T h e .

mi s t o cl es s h o w ed t h e At h eni a ns t h at t h eir h o p e o f gr ea tn ess

l ay i n t h e d ev el o p m ent o f t h eir nav a l str engt h At h ens ,

h a d b een ambiti o us fo r s ea p o wer S h e h a d a t first built

.

a gr ea t w a ll a r o und t h e city Wh en t h e S p art a ns t h r o ug h

.
,

j ea l o usy o bj ect ed T h emist o cl es went t o S p a rt a t o talk

, ,

t h e m a tt er o v er wit h t h e S p a rt a n l ea d ers B efo r e t h e .

S p artans r ealiz ed t h a t T h emist o cl es w as p l aying fo r

tim e t h e w a lls w er e S O h ig h t h a t At h ens was p r a ctically
”
,

a wall ed city .

T h e p o rt o f P i r reu s w a s a l s o d ef end ed by a strong wall

s ev er a l mil es in ext ent T h e n ext st ep w as tak en by
.

P er i cles ab o ut tw enty fiv e y ears l a t er w h en h e built

’
- -

,
 G R EEC E

zEgean
’
. At h ens
rul ed t h e em p ir e a b s o lut ely no city b eing ,

a ll o w ed t o d ecid e a ny im p eri a l p o licy T h e em p ir e .

,

h o w ev er did t h r ee t h ings : ( 1 ) I t u ni ted th e mari ti me

,

ci ti es o f t h e G r eeks p r o t ecting t h em fr o m t h e P ersi a ns

,

and o t h er en emi es and giving t h em p r o s p erity t h at t h ey

,

h a d n ev er h a d b efo r e At h ens tri ed a ls o t o b u i ld u p a

.

gr ea t l and em p ir e N aturally t h is was o p p o s ed by S p art a

.
,

t h e military l ea d er o f G r eec e At h ens att em p t t h er ef o r e ’

.

fail ed (2 ) I t u p h eld democr a cy in a ll o f t h e citi es o f t h e

.

l ea gu e If any city was s eiz ed by a tyr a nt o r by its aris

.

t o cra t s At h ens fo rc ed t h e citiz ens to rul e th ems elv es

,

ag ain t h ro ug h t h eir ass embly (3 ) Athens sent ou t colo

,
.

ni es w h ic h w er e unlik e t h e ea rli er G r eek c o l o ni es Ev ery .

c o l o nist still r et a in ed h i s At h eni a n citiz ens h i p and h el p ed

t o g o v ern t h e c o l o ny in w h ic h h e r es id ed .

1 83 T h e Ath e ni a n
. D e m o cr a cy T h e As s emb ly . .

Wh a t was t h e d em o cracy t h at rul ed At h ens and t h e

At h eni a n em p ir e ?
It w as m a d e u p
o f a ll mal e citi

z ens o f At h en s ,

t h a t is o f Attic a , ,

a b o v e t h e a ge o f

t h i r t y y ea r s .

T h es e c i t i z en s
gave alm o st t h eir
entir e att ention t o

p ublic a ff a irs fo r ,

S t i n t h Amp h i t h t
ea s e At h n ea
t
re ,
h er e w as n o t h ing
e s
t h e At h en i a n
.

l o v ed s o well as to m eet h is fell o w citiz ens and discuss -

p olitics o r war o r list en to s p eec h es o r d eb a t es

,
Ev en .

t h e p o o r est citiz en w as a bl e t o giv e c o nsid er a bl e tim e t o

t h e ass embly in w h ic h a ff a irs w er e discuss ed fo r t h e gr eat
, ,

P ericl es saw t h a t t h e stat e p aid for a tt endanc e at t h e as

 T HE G OL D EN A G E OF G R E EC E

se mb ly , pa id fo r j ury s ervic e a nd furnis h ed fr ee s eats at

the t h eatr e .

In t h is a ss embly business w a s c o nsid er ed aft er it h a d ,

b een p r o p o s ed by o r br o ug h t b ef o r e a cou nci l o f fifty o ffi

ci al s ,
t h e er ecti o n o f p ublic buildings w as d eb a t ed t h e
1
,

h o lding o f f estiv a ls o r qu esti o ns c o nn ect ed wit h t h e navy ,

t h e subj ect St a t es t h e alli es o r t h e c o l o ni es w er e discuss ed

, ,

and war o r p eac e was d ecid ed .

T h e B erna .

Und er t h e l ea d ers h i p o f men lik e T h emist o cl es o r ,

Aristid es o r C im o n o r P ericl es t h is a ss embly m a d e

, , ,

At h ens gr ea t but it w a s a n a s s embly rul ed by l ea d ers

,
.

As tim e w ent o n it b a ni s h ed a ll o f t h es e l ea d ers exc ep t

,
.

P eric les and m o st o f t h em di ed in exil e

,
Aft er t h e d ea t h .

o f P ericl es it was sw a y ed fr o m o ne extr em e t o a n o t h er

, .

At o ne tim e it d ecid ed t h at a ll o f t h e p eo p l e in a r ev o lting

subj ect st at e M ytil en e s h o uld b e p u t t o d eat h but t h e
, , ,

n ext day t h is h ars h d ecisi o n w as c h a ng ed T h e ass embly .

h a d no p o licy but t h at o f its l ead ers It w a s succ essful .

o nly s o l o ng a s it w a s w ell l ed .

1 8 4 P u b l i c P o s i t i o n s in t h e Ath e ni a n D em o cr a cy
. .

In At h ens t h er e w er e m a ny o ffic es and a v ast numb er

1 T h ere w ere t en c o u nc il s Of fi ft y m em b er s ea ch of wh i c h l o o k e d a f t er

a ff a i rs fo r t h i rt y -
si x d a y s i n t h e y ea r , fo r wh i c h t h ey w ere c h o s en .
 G R EEC E

of p ublic p ositi o ns S o m e o f. t h e o ffi c es s uch as t h os e ,

o f t h e g en er a l engin eers and fin a nci a l ex p ert s w er e fill ed

, ,

by p o p ular el ecti o n T h e o t h er o ffic es a nd p ublic p o si

.

ti o ns wer e fill ed by l o t a nd many o f t h e o ffic es c o uld b e

,

h eld only o nc e T h ey w er e t h er efo r e p ass ed a r o und ”

.
,

giving p ublic training t o a gr eat m any men .

Ev ery y ea r six t h o us a nd m en w er e drawn fo r j ury s er

vic e One t h o us a nd w er e h eld in r es erv e a nd t h e r est w ere
.

divid ed int o t en j uri es o f 5 00 ea c h Wh en a cas e was t o .

b e tri ed b efo r e o ne o f t h es e j uri es o f fr o m 2 00 t o m o r e

t h an a t h o us a nd At h enians t h e p arti es w er e o bliged t o ,

p l ead i n p e rs o n P r o f e ssion.a ls w r o t e many o f t h e argu

m ents but t h e d eliv ery if no t t h e writing o f t h e s p eec h es
, , ,

t end ed t o m a k e t h e At h eni a ns o r a tors and d eb at ers It .

ca n r ea dily b e s een t h a t t h is was a mor e p o p ul a r syst em

o f administ er i ng justic e t h an o u r o wn j ury syst em In .

additi o n m o r e citiz ens w er e bro ugh t actively int o p ublic

,

a ffa irs It w as a s ys t em h o w ever t h a t c o uld b e us ed o nly

.
, ,

by a p eo p l e w h o s e citiz ens h a d a gr ea t d eal o f l eisur e and -

int elligenc e .

T h is was t h e d emo cracy t h at

At h ens tri ed t o mak e h er alli es and
h er subj ect citi es c o p y T h is w as .

t h e d em o cracy t o w h ic h t h e m o d ern
o r ato r l oo ks b a ck as t h e h ig h es t
p o litic a l p r o duct o f t h e a nci ent w o rld .

1 85 T h e Age o f P eri cl es
. T he .

l ea d er o f t h e At h eni a n as s embly
during t h e gr eat er p a rt o f t h e
G o ld en Age o f G r eec e t h e first cit ,

i z en o f t h e firs t G r eek city t h e

P icl
,
er es
uncro wn ed king o f t h e At h eni a n
.

em p ir e w as P ericl es
,
P ericl es was a born l ea d er a man
.
,

o f c o nsid er a bl e ability and o f gr ea t m o d er a ti o n ; a st a t es

man an o rator and a p atron of all t h e a rts S o much

,
.
 G R EECE

an At h e Al exand er ,
nian was said t o b e
no t a man b o rn in
At h en s but o ne w h o ,

fitt ed into t h e int el

l ectu a l atm o s p h er e of
At h e n s I t i s no t .

str a ng e t h en t h at t h e
At h ens o f t h e Hel
l eni e p eri o d and ev en ,

H wl o f t h e H ell enistic p e
P h ot o by G eo F. . o el

P c h f t h M i d n (E
or o e a th em At h n )
s rec ri o d aft er Al exand er
eu e s ,
, .

was t h e m o st bri l
liant int ell ectu a l city o f a l l tim e fo r s h e h ad t h e b est o f ,

t h e G r eek writ ers a nd t h ink ers .

1 8 7 T h e B e a u ti fu l B u i l d ings o f
.

At h en s . It w as during t h e Age
of P ericl es w h il e At h ens h ad
,

p l enty o f m o n ey i n h er tr ea sury ,

t h a t At h ens c o nstruct ed t h e m o st
b ea uti ful p ublic buildings in t h e
world M a ny o f t h es e w er e o n
.

t h e h eig h ts o f t h e Acro p o lis in t h e

c entre o f t h e city T h e ap p r o ac h .

t o t h e Acro p o li s , t h e P ro p y l te a
’
- -

wit h its attr a ctiv e st ep s a nd co l

u mns w as
,
c o m p l et ed wi t h in fiv e
y ea rs Onc e a t t h e t o p o f t h e
.

Acr o p o lis o ne f a c ed t h e gi ga nti c

s ta tu e of A w h o s e s p ear
h ea d s erv ed a s a b ea c o n t o s h i p s
ap p ro a c h ing t h e P iraeus B ey o nd .
,

at t h e l eft was t h e Er—ech the u m

,
’

wit h its p o rc h o f maid ens a nd , , P a l l a s At h ena P a rt h eno n

, .

at t h e rig h t t h e P a rth eno n t h e

, ,
( B y P h i d i as )
.
 G R EEC E

t em p l e o f At h ena t h e fin est ex a m p l e o f G r eek

a rc h it ectur e a nd t h er efo r e t h e fin est building ev er co n
, ,

s truct ed On t h e s o ut h sl o p e o f t h e Acr o p o lis r o ws o f

.

circul a r s eats w er e p lac ed fo rming an a mp hi th ea tre in ,

w h ic h t h e r en o wn ed dr a m a s o f fEs ch y l u s S o p h o cl es , ,

Euri p id es a nd Arist o p h a n es 2 4 2 2 4 4 ) w er e giv en —

.

Ov er t o t h e west o f t h e Acr o p o lis is M ars Hill (t h e

'
A re o p a gus ) w h er e t h e o l d m en o f At h en s fo r c enturi es
- - -

h a d h eld a f a m o us c o urt H er e t h e ap o stl e P aul fiv e

.
,

c entur i es l at er p r ea c h ed t o t h e At h enians B ey o nd M a rs
, .

Hill w as t h e m eeting p lac e o f t h e At h eni a n ass embly

(t h e P y nx) wit h t h e B e ma o r p l a tf o rm o v er n ext t o t h e
’
,

city w a ll Ot h er p ublic buildings a nd s t atu es ad o rn ed

.

t h e city es p eci a lly a ft er Al exand er s tim e but t h e s tr eets

’
, ,

w er e as n a rr o w a nd as dirty a nd t h e h o us es a s u nat t ra c ,

t iv e as t h o s e o f m a ny o ri ent a l citi es T h i s w as a s p l endid .

At h ens but it w as n eit h er a cl ea n city no r a city o f co m

,

forts .

T HE P E L O P ON N ES I A N W
AR ( 3
4 1 —4 4
0 B C . .
)
188 . s u l t s o f Di s s e ns i o ns i n G r eece
C a u s es a nd Re .

T h e G o ld en Age o f G r eec e saw c o m p a r a tiv ely few w a rs

b et w een t h e di ff er ent G r eek s t a t es but it w as f o ll o w ed by
-

a gr ea t c o nflict l a sting n ea rly t h irty y ea rs w h ic h inv o lv ed

, ,

a l l G r eec e a nd t h e ZEgea n citi es T h is was c a ll ed t h e .

P el o p o nn esi a n w a r It w as t h e b eginning o f a p eri o d o f

.

stri fe a nd dis s ensi o n wh ic h l a s t ed p r a ctic a lly a c entury ,

and w a end ed by t h e b a ttl e o f Ch re ro ne a (338

s - -
’

in w h ic h t h e fa t h er o f Al ex a nd er t h e G r eat P h ili p o f ,

M ac ed o n unit ed G r eec e by making G r eec e subj ect t o

,

M a c ed o n .

T h e c a u s e o f t h es e diss ensi o ns is fo und in G r eek c h ar

a ct er fo r t h e G r eek was j eal o us
,
He was s o j ea l o us o f .

t h e succ ess o f h i s fell o ws t h a t h e s eem ed t o t a k e p l ea sur e

in s ending t h e gr eat est G r eeks int o exil e o r t o d ea t h Ea c h .
 G R EEC E

a c o l o n y of Co rint h h ad a larg e fl eet t o p rot ect h er ext en

,

siv e trad e F ea ring t h at t h is fl eet w o uld be us ed by t h eir

.

en emi es a nd willing t o g a in s o m e o f t h e tr a d e t h a t S yr a cus e

h ad t h e At h eni a ns d ecid ed (4 1 5 B C ) to s end an ex p edi

,
. .

ti o n against S yr a cus e T h ey w er e induc ed t o t a k e t h is .

st ep p a rtly by t h e el o qu enc e o f Al ci bi a des Alcibiad es - -

’
-
.

w as a tall h a nds o m e y o ung man o f gr ea t ability but h e

, ,

wa s elfis h a nd unscru p ul o us
s Alci bi a d es w as typ ic a lly .

G r eek fo r h e h a d t h o s e c h a rms t h a t t h e G r eeks es p eci a lly

,

d esired and t h o s e qu a liti es w h ic h m a ny G reeks p o ss ess ed .

1

B eing ask ed t o r eturn t o At h ens Alcibi a d es w ent o v er ,

t o S p arta and a dvis ed S p arta t o s end h er abl est g en eral ,

G y li p p us t o S yracus e a nd t o o ccup y a h ill fourt een

’
-

, ,

mi l es fr o m At h ens w h ic h c o ntr o ll ed all o f Attic a Af t er .

a s ev er e si eg e l a sting t w o y ea rs t h e At h eni an w er e
, ,
s

h emm ed in t h e h a rb o r a t S yracus e a nd t h eir fo rc es de

str o y ed Only s ev en t h o us a nd surr end er ed ; t h eir gen
2
.

era l s w er e ex ecut ed t h e r es t b eing s ent t o t h e dam p

,

un h ea lt h y quarri es ab o ut S y racus e T h e S icili a n exp edi .

ti o n was t h e gr eat est dis as t er in Gr eek h ist o ry .

1 92 R en ew al o f W ar b y At h en s
.
—
V h a t w as t h e
V
.

effect u p o n At h ens o f t h e d estructi o n o f h er fl eet and t h e

l o ss o f men including t h e fl o wer o f h er army ?

,

N ev er exc ep t in t h e d a rk d ay s b efo r e S a l a mis w h en

, ,

At h ens h a d b een a b a nd o n ed to t h e P ersi a ns did ,

1 Al c i b i a d es m i gh t h a v e b een a s ec o nd T h em i s t o c l e s He w a s . ap

p o i nt ed t o a c o m m a nd o f t h e exp ed i t i o n a g a i ns t S y r a c u s e b u t o n the
c i t y t h e s t a t u es o f H erm es w ere m u t il a t ed
,

ev e o f t h e d ep a rt u re fo r t h a t ,

i n A t h ens . A l c i b i a d es w a s a cc u sed o f c o nne c t i o n w i t h t h i s a ct o f i m

p i et y a nd was t old t o ret u r n t o A t h ens .

2
T h e A t h eni a ns se nt ree nfo r e m e nt s c t o S y ra cu se , bu t t h e wa ll s of th e
c i t y w er e s t re ng t h e ned , a nd the fl eet of t h ei r op p o nent s w a s g ro wi ng
s t ro ng er m o nt h b y m o nt h . A S t h e A t h eni a ns c o u l d no t b rea k t h ro u g h t h e
w a ll s of S y r a c u se t h ey w ere i n d a nger o f b ei ng h em m ed i nt o t h e h a rb o r
H
.
,

a v i ng d ec i d ed t o re t u rn t o A t h ens , t h e A t h e ni a ns t h e n t ri ed t o cu t t h ei r
w ay ou t of t he har bo r . W h en t h i s fa i l ed , t h ey atte m p t ed t o b u rn t h ei r
sh ip s a nd m a rc h o v erl a nd to a fri endl y city . T his a t t em p t fa il ed .
 T H E P EL OP O NN ES I AN WAR

t h e At h eni ans w t h ems elv es so gr eat Undaunt ed

Sho .

by t h is t erribl e disast er At h ens r ecruit ed a new army ,

and c o nstr u ct ed a new fl eet Cri p p l ed as s h e was s h e .

,

k ep t u p t h e fig h t fo r nin e y ears a g ainst S p a rta a nd h er

alli es and t h e P ersi a ns S h e r ec a ll ed Alcibiad es o nly t o
,
.
,

find t h at h e d es ert ed h er ag ain .

1 9 3 D o wn fa l l o f Ath en s
.
— T h e war against At h ens
was no w b eing carri ed o n c h i efly i n t h e n o rt h ZEgean .

Attic a c o uld no t sup p ly t h e city wit h f o o d es p eci a lly a s ,

t h e S p a rt a ns d estr o y ed cr o p a ft er cr o p M o s t of th e .

food su p p l y o f A th en s w a s b ro u gh t th er ef or e fr o m th e B l a ck
S ea . In 405 B C t h e At h eni an fl eet w as surp ris ed a nd
. .

c ap tur ed by t h e S p a rtans at zE gos p ot a —mi in t h e H ell es

’
- -

p o nt 1
.T h e S p a rt a ns sl ew all o f t h e A t h eni a n p ris o n ers .

T h ey no w contr o ll ed t h e fo o d su p p ly o f At h ens .

T h e c a p tur e o f At h ens f o ll o w ed quickly , o f c o urs e .

At h ens w a s o blig ed t o d estr o y h er l o ng w a lls and t h e fo r

t i fica t i o ns o f t h e P ir aeus S h e w as fo rc ed t o acc ep t t h e rul e
.

of t h irty tyr ants u p h eld by a S p artan g a rris o n T h is

,
” ‘

w as s o o n o v ert h r o wn but At h ens n ev er r eg a in ed h er p o lit

,

ical o r n a val su p r em a cy S h e still r em a in ed fo r s ev er a l

.
,

c enturi es t h e mo st distinctiv ely int ell ectual c entr e of

,

t h e anci ent w o rld .

IEG O S P OT AM I To CH JE R ON EA (4 04—
3 38 B C
. .
)
1 94 rt a n S u p r em a cy (404 3 7 1
. S pa — T h e G r eek -

citi es h a d o bj ect ed t o t h e rul e o f At h ens T h ey fo und .

S p a rt a muc h m o r e tyr a nnic a l S p a rta fo rc ed t h e citi es .

t h a t h ad h a d a ss embli es t o acc ep t t h e go v ernm ent o f .

1 T h e At h eni a n m b l y h el p ed h er enem i e s b y i t s u nfa i rne s s

a ss e Aft er .

a gr ea t na v a l v i c t o ry a s t o rm a r o s e
, T h e A t h eni a n g ener a l s w ere u na b l e
.

t o c o l l ec t t h e b o d i es o f m o s t o f t h e d ea d T h ey w ere t h erefo re co n .

d em ned t o d ea t h b y t h e a s s em b l y I f t h e b o d y o f a G r eek w a s no t
fi
.

bu ri ed i t s s o u l w a nd ered a b o u t fo rev er wi t h o u t a xed a b o de T h e

,
“ ”
.

G reek d rea d ed no t h i ng so m u ch as t o b e l o st a t s ea .
 G R EEC E

t h eir arist o cracy In s o m e citi es S h e st a ti o n ed garris o ns

.

t o s ee t h at S p artan o rd ers w er e o b ey ed S h e mad e w ar .

o n P ersi a but a t t h e cl o s e o f t h e w a r s h e a ll o w ed P ersi a

, ,

t o k eep t h e Asi a tic G r eek citi es and t o c o ntr o l o t h ers .

S p art a diss o lv ed t h e l ea gu es o f G r eek citi es t h a t h a d b een

fo rm ed fo r d ef enc e T h er e w as in t h is w ay l es s o p p o siti o n
.

t o S p a rt a and a ls o t o P er s i a T h u s S p a rt a w as no t o nly
.

h a rs h but s h e s o ld o u t to t h e P er s i a n s t h e int er es ts o f h er
,

n eig h b o rs and fri ends .

1 9 5 T h e M a r ch o f t h e
. T e n Th o u s a n d T he war .

wit h P ersia gr ew o u t o f a r ev o lt in t h e P ersi a n em p ir e .

A P ersi a n king di ed a b o ut t h e tim e t h a t t h e P el o p o nn esian

Wa r end ed He w as succ eed ed by a n eld er s o n but a
.
,

yo ung er s o n Cyrus a s atr ap o f Asi a M in o r g at h ered a

, , ,
”
fo rc e o f As iatic s a nd G re ek s o ldi ers o f f o rtun e a nd “

marc h ed ag ainst h i s br o t h er T h is fo rc e p en etr a t ed al .

m o st t o B a byl o n T h er e a b attl e w as fo ug h t in w h ic h
.

Cyrus was kill ed T h e t en t h o u s a nd G r eeks t h en f o ug h t

.

t h eir way b a ck t h r o ug h Assyri a a nd Ar me ni a t o t h e v

’
-

B l a ck S ea T h is w as t h e fa m o us M a rc h o f t h e t en
.

t h o us a nd.
”
It s h o w ed t h at t h e P ers i a n em p ire was a
m er e s h ell w h ic h c o uld b e d estr o y ed by a goo d a rmy und er
a n abl e l ea d er .

1 9 6 S p a r t a yi el d s t o T h eb e s
.
— Aft er t h e p eac e wit h .

P ersi a S p a rt a fo und t h a t h er rul e w as no t acc ep t ed qui etly

by h er subj ect citi es in G r eec e AS s he es p eci a lly f ea r ed .

t h e T h eb a n s s h e s eiz ed t h e cit a d el
,
at T h eb es B u t .

T h eb es w as r ev eng ed S h e fo rm ed an o rg a niz a ti o n o f
.

h er y o ung men c a ll ed t h e S a cr ed B a nd Und er t h e l ead .

o f P e l o p i da s t h is b a nd r eg a in ed t h e city a nd fr eed
’
- -

T h eb es fr o m t h e S p a rt a n g a rris o n S p a rt a s ent an a rmy .

ag a inst T h eb es but t h e T h eb ans h ad disc o ver ed a new

,

w a y o f fig h ting by m a ssing t h eir m en s ev er a l lin es d eep .

Und er E p a m i no n da s t h e T h eb an s g a in ed a c o m p l et e
- - -
’

vi ct o ry o ver a l a rg er S p a rt a n a rmy a t Leuctr a (3 7 1

 G R EEC E

At t h is tim e t h e l ea d er o f At h ens was t h e f a mous orator

De m os t h e nes
-
’
-
Demos th enes t h und er ed ag a inst P h ili p ,
.

in o rations known as P hi li p p i es , but h e w as no t abl e

-
’
to
unit e G r eec e against P h ili p . In 338 B C P h ilip w o n . at .

C h aer o ne a a gr ea t victory
’
- -
.

P h ili p p unis h ed s ev er ely sev

eral o f t h e G r eek citi es t h at

h ad b een fri endly t o h i m and ,

h a d t h en turn ed ag a inst h i m ,

but h e tr eat ed At h ens wit h

r es p ect fo r At h ens h ad fo ug h t
,

h i m brav ely and o p enly .

Alt h o ug h h e h a d c o nqu er ed
G r eec e h e l o o k ed u p to h er
, ,

a nd P hi li p u ni ted Greece, u nder

M acedon n ev er be
. G r eec e
fo r e h ad b een unit ed fo r eac h ,

stat e want ed t o do as it
p l eas ed a nd t h e o nly way
,

t h at it c o uld b e unit ed was by

an outsid er and by fo rc e By .

s o m e p eo p l e t h e vict o ry o f
P h ili p was c o nsid er ed t h e end
o f G r eek h istory fo r it m a rk ed ,

t h e end o f t h e ind ep end enc e o f

t h e littl e city stat es -
.

D m th n
e os e es .
2 0 0 S u m m .a r y T h e .

fo urt h and fift h c enturi es b e

for e Ch rist w er e t h e gl o ri o us classical o r H ell enic p eri o d
o f G r eek h ist o ry S o m e p eo p l e c o nsid er t h is a ge t h e
.

g r eat est in t h e h ist o ry o f t h e w o rld .

At h ens mad e h ers elf a wall ed s eap o rt organiz ed t h e Co n ,

f ed eracy o f Del o s against P ersi a and l a t er c h a ng ed t h e

,

Co nf ed er a ti o n int o t h e At h eni an em p ir e S h e tri ed to .

cr eat e a land em p ir e als o but fail ed At h ens was t h e most

,
.
 JEG OS P OT AM I T O C HZER ON EA

b eautiful and t h e m o st distinguis h ed city o f t h e wo rld at

t h is tim e S h e was g o v ern ed by a p o p ular ass embly und er
.

l ead ers aid ed by a p o p ularly el ect ed c o u ncil w h ic h

, ,

was c h a nged ev ery t h irty six days T h e imp o rtant -

.

Offic es w er e fill ed by el ecti o n t h e o t h ers a nd t h e j uri es by,

lo t
. At h ens insist ed t h at h er d ep end enci es and a lli es
h av e simil a r d em o cratic g o v ernm ents T h e last p art o f .

t h e G o ld en Age was a p eri o d o f p eac e and p r o s p erity c a ll ed

t h e Age o f P ericl es a ft er t h e gr eat At h eni a n stat esm a n
,
.

In 4 3 1 b egan t h at gr eat int er n al war call ed t h e P el o ,

P el o p o n
nes i a n w a r
p o n n es i a n war caus ed by t h,e arr o ganc e o f At h ens and t h e
.

j ea l o usy o f t h e o t h er Gr eek st at es N o t h ing im p o rtant .

h ap p en ed b efo r e t h e ill fat ed S icilian exp editi o n urg ed by

-

t h e traitor Alcibiad es w h ic h end ed in t h e c o mp l et e loss

,

o f t h e At h eni a n army a nd navy T h e war w as br o ug h t .

t o a cl o s e by t h e d estructi o n o f At h ens fo o d su p p ly
’
.

At h ens t h en submitt ed (304 B C ) a nd S p arta rul ed . . [ Eg o s p o t

a m i a nd
G r eec e fo r t h irty y ears s elling o u t t o P ersia ,S p a rta was .

C h mr o nea .

succ eed ed by Th eb es und er P elo pi d as and Ep amin o nd a s ,

and T h eb es g av e way t o P h ili p o f M a c ed o n P h ili p h ad .

a fine a rmy and h a d g a in ed a l a r g e kingd o m Af t er t h e .

S a cr ed war a nd P h ili p s vict o ry at C h aaro nea G r eek

’

ind ep end enc e cam e t o an end ‘

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
Web s t er Anc i ent Hi s to ry 2 1 1 — 2 5 8
, , .

B o t s fo r d A H i s to ry of t h e A nc i ent Wo rl d 1 8 2 2 7 8
, ,
-

D va i s R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s tor y

, 1 9 9— 2 9 7 , I , .

F li ng S o u r c e B o o k of Gr eek Hi s to r y 1 4 4— 2 9 5
, , .

T u c k er L if e i n A nc i ent At h ens
, .

W el l er Ath ens a nd i ts M o nu ments

, .

F ergu s o n Gr eek I mp eri a l i s m 3 8 — 1 1 5

, , .

G ra nt Greec e i n t h e Age of P eri c l es

, .

Ab b o tt P eri c l es
, .

Wh eel er Al exa nder th e Grea t 8 1 — 2 07

, , .

S t o b a rt , T h e Gl o ry th a t wa s Greec e, 13 2 — 2 3 6 .

M
1 62 G R EEC E

Top i cs
T AT H E N I A N E M P I R E :
HE F ergu s o n Greek I mp eri a l i s m, ,

6 5 —7 8 ; C o t t erill A nc i ent Gr eec e 2 8 3 — 2 9 6 ; i mm er , T h e Greek

, , Z n
Co m mo nwea l th , 1 7 5—1 9 2 .

T H E S I C I L I A N EX P E DI T I O N : a is R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s D v ,

to r i , 22 6 232 ;I -

n
F l i g S o u r c e B o o k of Greek Hi s to r y 2 1 1 — 2 3 0 ;
, ,

P l u t a r c h , L i ves ,
“
Al c i b i a d es ; Ho l m , Hi s to r y of Greece,
”
, II
4 6 6—4 8 0 .

P HI LI P OF M A C E DO N : B o t s fo rd , S o u r c e B o o k of A nc i ent Hi s
to r y ,2 66 —2 7 5 ; W h eel er , A l exa nder th e Grea t , 1 —8 ; P l u t ar c h ,
Li ves , “P hi li p .

S tu d i es
1 . Ari s t i des a nd t h e C o e era t i o n o f D el o s P l u t a rc h , nf d .

L i ves “Ari s t i d es ” l a s t
, p a rt , .

2 . T h e p o r t o f At h ens Well er Ath ens a nd i ts M o nu ments , , ,

2 8 3—29 5 .

3 . T h e At h e i a n n a sse m b ly . F ergu s o n, Greek I mp eri a l i s m,

49 , 5 7 — 6 1 .

4 . I mp o r t a n e o f s ea c p o w er t o At h ens . Zimm ern, T h e Greek

Co m mo nwea l th 3 4 8 3 5 9 ,
-
.

5 . At h ens i n t h e Ag e of P eri c l es . T u c k er ,
L ife i n A nci ent
At h ens , 2 9 —5
3 .

T h e A t h e i a n v i c t ory
6 . n at P y lo s . D vi a s, R ea di ngs i n A m
ci ent H i s t or y 2 2 1 — 226 , I , .

7 . T h e t ragi c d efea t at ZEg o s p o t a mi . D vi a s, R ea di ngs i n

A nc i ent Hi s to r y , I 23 2 2
—
34 .

8 . R et rea t of t h e t en t h o u s a nd t h rou gh the s no ws Of Ar

m eni a . B o t s fo rd , S o u r c e B o o k f A nc i e n
o t H i s t o r y 2 5 1 —2
55 , .

La s t d a y s o f t h e
9 . o l d G reek p o l i t i ca l s y s t em W h eel er , .

Al exa nd er th e Gr ea t 1 3 8 — 1 4 8 , .

10 . Ep a mi no nd a s . D avi s , R ea di ngs , I ,
2 7 6—2 7 9 .

11 . Ho w D e mo s t h e n es b ec a m e a n o ra t o r . D vi
a s, R ea di ngs ,
I , 2 8 6—2 9 2 .

Q u es ti o ns
C o m p are t h e m a r t i m e l eagu e o f A t h e s ( t h e
1 . el a Co n i n D i n
fed era t i o n) w i t h t h e l a nd l ea g u e o f S p a rt a (t h e P el o p o nnes i a n
Lea gu e ) W hi c h l a s t ed l o nger ? W h i h nc l u d ed m o re c i t es ?
. c i i
Wh i c h w a s mo re u i t ed ? I n w hi c h w ere t h e ci t y s t a es mo re n -
t
n ea rl y e qu al ?
 C H AP T ER V I I

AL EX AND E R : T HE H ELL E NI S TI C AG E

T HE EM P I R E OF AL EX A N DE R

2 01 . t o f Al ex a n d er
T h e Yo u h P h ili p of M ac ed o n
.
—

h a d no t o nly m a d e h i s littl e p rinci p ality int o a gr eat

kingdom and unit ed G r eec e und er M a c ed o n but h e
, ,

h a d st a rt ed t o driv e P ersia
o u t of Asi a M in o r At h i s .

d eat h h e w as succ eed ed by

h i s so n Al exand er w h o was ,

o nly twenty y ears o f age .

Al exand er w a s an imp etu o us

yo ut h of magnific ent p h y
siqu e His mind was quick .

and c ap abl e and h e h ad b een

train ed by abl e t eac h ers by ,

far t h e great est of w h o m was

t h e p h il o s o p h er Ar is t o t l e
’
- -
.

He exc ell ed in at h l etic s p o rts

a nd was willing t o eat p lain

fo o d and und erg o t h e h ard

s h i p s o i a s o ldi er s lif e ’
.

As a b o y Al exand er h a d
Al nd exa er
w o n t h e a dmir a ti o n o f P ers i a n
.

ambassad o rs by h i s brilliant c o nv ers ati o n and h is k een

qu esti o ns One d ay a m agnific ent h o rs e u cep
.
B h a —lus,
-
’
,

was br o ugh t t o P h ili p s c o urt N o n e o f t h e c o urti ers w as

’
.

abl e t o m an ag e h i m Wh en Al ex a nd er criti ciz ed t h em h e

. ,

was t o ld t o s ee w h at h e c o uld do He imm ediat ely turned

.

1 64
 T HE EM P R E OF I AL EX A ND ER

th e h ors e t o ward t h e sun h aving n o tic ed t h at h e was afraid ,

o f h i s Sh ad o w and s p rang o n h i s back

,
He t h en gav e t h e .

h ig h S p irit ed st eed a c h a nc e t o run

-
On h i s r eturn h i s .

fa t h er embrac ed t h e lad s a ying O my so n ! l o o k t h ee , , ,

o u t a kingdom equ a l t o and w o rt h y o f t h ys el f for M ac e ,

”
d o ni a is t o o littl e fo r t h ee .

2 02 Al exa n d er M a k e s h i m s el f M a s t er o f G r e e ce
. .

G r eec e h a d yi eld ed t o P h ili p t h e cr a fty di p l o mat a nd abl e ,

gen er a l It h a d no int enti o n o f submitting t o a b o y

.
,

es p eci a lly a b o y w h o m h i s en emi es in M ac ed o n did no t

r ec o gniz e as king Al ex a nd er s eem ed t o enj o y t h e tro ubl es

.

o n ev ery h and Wit h amazing a ctivity h e subdu ed t h e

.

r eb elli o us M a c ed o ni a n n o bl es and marc h ed int o G r eec e ,

w h ic h h e p acifi ed wit h in a few w eeks As s o o n as h e w ent .

n o rt h G r eec e r ev o lt ed ag a in a nd Al exand er su p p r ess ed

, ,

t h e r ev o lts wit h vi o l enc e d estr o ying T h eb es T h en ,

.
1

Al ex a nd er b ecam e dissatisfi ed wit h h i s f a t h er s p lan o f

’

simp ly inv a ding Asia M in o r He m a d e p r ep a rati o ns t o .

c o nqu er t h e w h o l e P ersian em p ir e .

2 03 Al exa n d er s Co n q u e st o f As i a M in o r I n 33 4 B C
’ -

. . . .

Al ex a nd er cr o ss ed int o Asia T h e P ersi a n satrap s o f Asia .

M in o r tri ed t o st o p h i m at t h e riv er Gra ni cu s n ear t h e S it e -

’

o f Tr o y Al ex a nd er d ep end ed s o m ew h at o n h i s M ac e
.

d o ni a n p h a lanx but c h i efly o n h i s cavalry w h ic h h e

, ,

r eally l ed in p ers o n S ev eral tim es h i s life w as in gr ea t

.

1
Al exa nd er wa s c a ll ed no rt h b y re b ell i o ns on t h e fr o nt i er a l o ng the
D a nu b e . H e m a r c h ed ra p i dl y no r t h w a rd
wo rd w a s h ea rd o f h i m , a nd no
i n G reec e I m m edi a t el y h a l f o f G ree c e t o o k a d v a n
fo r m a ny m o nt h s .

t a g e o f h i s a b s enc e a nd c i t y a ft er c i t y p ro c l a i m ed i t s i nd ep end enc e

, .

AS t h e t ri b es a l o ng t h e D a nu b e h a d b een s u b d u ed ea s il y Al exa nd er ,

a s t o u nd ed t h e G reek s b y h i s s u d d en a p p ea ra nc e A few s wi ft m a r c h e s .
,

a few s h o rt S i eg es a nd G r ee c e no rt h o f t h e P el o p o nnesu s w a s o nc e m o re
,

a t h i s feet T o p u ni s h T h e b es t h e t r ea c h ero u s t h e c i t y wh ere h i s fa t h er

.
, ,

h a d s p ent h i s b o y h o o d h e d es t ro y ed t h e c i t y a nd s o l d t h e p eo p l e i nt o
,

S l a v ery T h u s w a s T h eb es t rea t ed a s S h e h a d t rea t ed h er o w n t ra i t o ro u s

.

a ll i es .W i t h t h i s t erri bl e wa r ni ng o f t h e t rea t m ent t h a t reb el s m i gh t

exp e c t Al exa nd er s t a rt ed o n h i s c a m p a i n a g a i ns t P er si a
g .
 G R EEC E

danger and t h e battl e was n ea rly l o st but in t h e end as , , ,

w as a lw a ys t h e c as e Al ex a nd er w o n a c o m p l et e vict o ry
, .

He cr o ss ed Asia M in o r sl o wly k eep ing in t o uc h wit h,

G r eec e fo r f ea r t h a t G r eec e mig h t r ev o lt again

,
At .

G o rdi u m h e w as ask ed t o u nti e t h e fa m o us G o rdi a n kn o t ,

but wit h c h a r a ct eristic dir ectn ess cut it wi t h h i s swo rd -

.

AS h e a p p r o a c h ed S yri a h e w as m et by t h e P ersian king

,

a nd a gr ea t a rmy a t I s su s w h er e t h e m o unt a ins c a m e

’
,

d o w n cl o s e t o t h e s ea In t h is n a rr o w p ass Al ex a nd er w o n
.

a s ec o nd vict o ry by c h a rging wit h h i s c a v a lry int o t h e

cam p o f t h e G r ea t King T h e w a y w as no w o p en d o wn
.

t h e Eu p h r a t es o r a l o ng t h e M edit err a n ea n c o as t He .

c h o s e t h e l a tt er .

2 04 Al ex a n d er D e s tr o y s T y r e a nd F o u n d s Al ex a n d ri a
. .

F o r t w o c enturi es t h e isl a nd o f Tyr e h a d b een und er

P ersi a n rul e In r eturn fo r v ess els in tim e o f w ar P er s i a
.

h a d r est o r ed Tyr e t o t h e p o siti o n s h e h a d h eld fo r s ev er a l

c enturi es b efo r e Cyrus t h e Co nqu er o r t h e gr ea t est
,

c o mm ercial city o f t h e ea s t ern M edit erran ean T h is city .

w h ic h N ebuc h a dn ezzar h ad b es i eg ed uns ucc essfully fo r

t h irt een y ea rs Al ex a nd er wi t h h i s new si eg e m a c h in es
, ,
.

c ap tur ed in s ev en m o nt h s He d estro y ed t h e city utt erly

.
,

no t S im p ly t o p r ev ent Tyr e fr o m furni s h ing a fl eet t o t h e

P er s i a ns fo r Al ex a nd er did no t exp ect t o l ea v e a P ersi a n
,

em p ir e but fo r t h e r eas o n t h a t A l exa nder wa nted to co n

,

tr o l th e tr a de between th e Ea s t a nd th e Wes t .

Wh en Eg y p t w elc o m ed h i m a s h er d eliv er er fro m t h e

P ersi a ns Al ex a nd er f o u nd ed a t t h e m o ut h o f t h e N il e
, , ,

a city w h ic h h e c a ll ed Al ex a ndri a T h i s c i ty g a in ed m o s t
.

o f t h e tr a d e t h a t h a d f o rm erly b el o ng ed t o Tyr e In .

Egy p t Al ex a nd er c o nsult ed t h e t em p l e o f Am o n He ’
.

w a s t o ld t h a t h e w as a go d a nd t h a t h e w o uld c o nqu er t h e
wo rld B efo r e t h i s Al ex a nd er h ad b eli ev ed t h a t h e w o uld
.

d o t h e l a tt er ; no w h e s o m etim es a ct ed as i f h e mig h t b e
t h e f o rm er . He l o s t muc h o f t h e p ers o nal c h arm t h a t h e
 T H E EM P R E OF AL EXA I ND ER

h ad h a d , alt h oug h he r etain ed all of h is form er arr o

ganc e .

Al ex a n d ern s P er s i a Al ex a nd er
’
205 .
of s Co qu e t s .

now turn ed h i s a tt enti n rsia He was met again o to P e .

by t h e P ersian king Darius wit h a muc h larg er army at , ,

Ar be l a n ear N in ev eh
-
’
Wh en D arius fl ed t o esc ap e t h e
.

im p etu o us attack o f Al ex a nd er s c a v a lry t h e r etr eat b e ’

,

c a m e a r o ut and t h e w h o l e Tigris Eu p h r a t es v a ll ey l ay
,
-

o p en b efo r e t h e c o nqu er o r Wit h o ut furt h er di fficulty .

h e o ccu p i ed B a byl o n S u sa and P er s ep o lis citi es o f v ery

’ ’
- -

, ,

gr eat w ea lt h Al ex and er went ea st as far as t h e Indus

.
1

R iv er but h i s tr o o p s w o uld go no fa rt h er
,
.

In 3 2 3 h e di ed aft er a r ev el He w a s o nly t h irty t h r ee .

-

y ea rs o f age at t h e tim e but h e h a d liv ed a v ery full and ,

a v ery h a rd li fe Tr a diti o n r el at es t h a t h e di ed sigh ing

.

fo r mor e w o rlds t o c o nqu er At first t h o ug h t it mig h t s eem .

as t h o ug h Al ex a nd er w a s o nly a c o nqu er o r a nd a c o nqu er o r ,

w h o s e w o rk did no t l ast He w as muc h m o r e t h a n t h at .

2 06 Al ex a n d er s W o r k in U ni ti n g W e st a nd Ea s t
’
. .

Al ex a nd er m a rri ed t h e d a ugh t er of Darius I I I as w ell

as d a ug h t er s o f s ev er a l o t h er o ri ental p rinc es He p er .

s u a d ed o r fo rc ed m o st o f h i s g en er a ls t o tak e o ri ent a l wiv es

a nd h e induc ed many o f h i s s o ldi ers t o m a rry a nd s ettl e

d o wn in t h e East His id ea was o f c o urs e t o br ea k d o wn

.

c o m p l et ely t h e b arri ers b etw een t h e East a nd t h e West ,

1 Al exa nd er p u r su ed D a ri u s a c ro s s t h e p l a t ea u of I ra n a nd t h e d eser t
wa s t es fa rt h er ea s t u nt il o ne o f D a ri u s
’
sa t r a p s a s s a s s i na t ed the u nh a p p y
fu gi t i v e . Al exa nd er wo u l d gl a d l y h a v e fo rgi v en h i s ene my . He so o n

a ft er m a rri ed t h e d a u gh t er o f D a ri u s s o t h a t h e m i g h t b e c o ns i d ered t h e
regu l a r su cc es s o r o f t h e l a s t P er s i a n k i ng Al ex a nd er s p ent s ev era l .

y ea r s i n m i l i t a ry a nd exp l o ri ng exp ed i t i o ns i n t h e no r t h ea s t ern p ro v i nc es

of t h e P er s i a n em p i re . H e w i sh ed t oI ndi a a l a nd o f g rea t
p u sh on i nt o ,

wea l t h a nd o f a n a nc i ent c i vi l i z a t i o n ; b u t h i s t ro o p s reb ell ed a nd refu s ed

t o go b ey o nd t h e I n d u s R i v er I n fa c t Al ex a nd er a l m o s t end ed h i s c a reer
’
.
,

a t t h i s t i m e fo r h e w a s s ev erel y w o u nd ed w hi l e s t o rm i ng a t o w n h a vi ng
, ,

e xp o sed h i m s el f i n t h e s a m e r ec kl es s fa s hi o n a s h e h a d o n t h e G ra ni c u s

a nd a s c o re o f o t h r t i m es S i nc e
e .
 G R EEC E

fo r , if t h e social barri er wer e br o k en d o wn no ne o f t h e ,

o t h ers c o uld b e k ep t u p .

Al exand er found ed no t o nly Al exandria i n Egyp t at ,

t h e m o ut h o f t h e N il e but h e fo und ed s ev er a l o t h er
,

Gr eek citi es usually call ed Al ex a ndri a s i n Asia M in o r

, , ,

in S yria i n B a byl o nia in P ersi a and in t h e d es ert s o r

, ,

p lat e a us still fart h er E a st T o eac h o f t h es e citi es h e

.

bro ug h t a c o l o ny o f G r eeks w h o sp o k e t h e G r eek l a n ,

gu ag e w o rs h i p p ed G r eek g o ds r ea d G r eek lit er a t u r e and

, ,

k ep t G r eek id eals in a rt T h es e citi es and t h e G r eek .

quart ers i n t h e o ri ental citi es w er e c entr es of G r eek civil

i z at i o n fr o m whic h G r eek cultur e a nd l earning s pr ead t o
o t h er citi es so t h at t h e Ea s t beca me p a r tl y Hel len i zed
’
-

, .

T O b e sur e t h is Hel l en i z a t i o n was v ery inc o m p l et e

’
- - -

i n t h e r eal Eas t but a l o ng th e border of th e M edi terra nea n

,

th ere wa s a co mp lete blendi ng of th e ci vili za ti o ns of th e

Ori ent a nd o f Greece . T he w ealth a nd luxury of t he
Ori ent als o inv a d ed Gr eec e .

2 07 Co mm er ci al Im p o r t a n ce o f Al exa nd er s Co n qu es t s
’
. .

Al ex a nd er o p en ed u p new m a rk ets fo r G r eec e G r eec e .

was p o o r Her vall eys w er e small and h er agricultur a l

.

p r o ducts w er e limit ed M o st o f h er w ealt h h a d alw a ys

.

c o m e fro m tr a d e Aft er t h e d o w nfall o f At h ens

. 1 93 )
t h is trad e was muc h m o re limit ed T h e go ods manu .

fa ct u red by G r eek s lav es w er e s o ld in a v ery muc h re

s t ri ct ed m a rk et fo r t h r ee quart ers o f a c entury a ft er -

l Ego s p o t a mi .

Al ex a nd er o p en ed all o f t h e mark ets o f t h e East t o G r eek

p roducts a nd t o G r eek trad ers B y t h e d estructi o n o f .

Tyr e o p en ed t h e way fo r a gr eat c o mm erc e no t o nly

he ,

t o Al exandria i n Egyp t but t o At h ens t o Co rint h t o , , ,

Rh o d es a nd aft erw a rd t o Anti o c h G r eeks c o ntr o ll ed t h e .

tr a d e o f a l l o f t h es e great citi es a nd t h e G reek s b ec a m e

ric h a nd p owerful through imp rov ed busin es s o p p o rt uni
t i es .
 G R EEC E

210 Divi s i o n o f Al ex a n d er s Em p ir e
. The Wh en ’
.

Al ex a nd er di ed s o untim ely a d eat h a t t h e early a ge o f

t h irty t h r ee it w as s aid t h a t h e l eft h i s em p ir e t o t h e
-

stro ngest ”
He l eft no h eir a nd n o n e o f h i s g en erals w as
.
,

s tr o ng en o ug h by g a ining t h e a ll egi a nc e o f t h e o t h ers t o

, ,

k eep t h e emp ir e t o g et h er Aft er a numb er o f y ea rs s p ent

.

in qu a rr elling o v er t h e divisi o n o f h i s em p ire a gr eat battl e ,

w as f o ug h t at I p s u s (3 01 B C ) b etw een h i s g en erals

’
. . .

As a r esult o f t h is battl e Al ex a nd er s emp ir e was divid ed

’

int o t h r ee kingd o ms wh ic h survi v ed fo r m o r e t h an a cen

tury until R o m e c o nqu er ed ea c h in turn d u r ing t h e s econd
,

and first c enturi es b efo r e Ch ri s t .

2 1 1 T h e Th r e e K ing d o m s o f Al exa n d er s S u cces s o r s

’ 1
. .

T h e fir s t kingd o m was t h at o f M a cedo ni a w h ic h ,

includ ed M ac ed o n and Gr eec e T h e s ec o nd was t h at o f .

t h e S e l eu ci ds w h ic h t em p o rarily str etc h ed fro m t h e

-
’
,

M edit erran ea n S ea int o t h e r em o t e Ea st but r eally i n ,

clud ed o nly S yri a a nd B a byl o ni a T h e t h ird was t h at .

o f t h e P to l emy s (T o l my s ) w h o h eld Egyp t a nd qu a rr ell ed

’

wit h t h e S el eucids fo r t h e p o ss essi o n o f P a l estin e a nd t h e

P h oenici a n citi es .

It is unn ec ess a ry fo r us t o f o ll o w t h e fo rtun es o f t h es e

Al exandrian kingd o ms but w e s h o uld n o tic e t h is ,

fact It was t h ro ug h t h em t h at G r eek l ea rning a nd cul

.

tur e w er e k ep t a liv e in t h e East T h e S el eucids ind eed .

fo ll o wed Al exand er s custom o f p lanting G r eek citi es in

’

differ ent p lac es T h e P t o l emys o n t h e c o ntrary w er e

.

cont ent t o c o nc entra t e in Al ex a ndri a t h e c u ltur e of

Egyp t F o r t h i s r ea s o n t h ey did no t H ell eniz e Egy p t as
.

S yria and ev en P al estin e was H ell eni z ed but t h ey mad e

, , ,

Al exandria t h e m o st l earn ed and most f a mous city o f t h e

H ell enistic Age .

1
Ori gi na l l y t h ere w ere fo u r k i ngd o m s t h a t o f As i a M i no r ,
an d T hra c e
s o o n b ei ng d es t ro y e d b y i nv a s i o ns o f C el t s fro m t h e no rt h .
 CE NT R ES OF H EL L ENI S TI C C U LT U R E 17 1

CE N T R E S OF H EL L E N I S T I C CU LT U R E

212 . l eni s ti c Citi e s o f t h e E gea n Ath en s

T h e H el . .

If w e gl a nc e fo r a m o m ent a t t h e citi es o f t h is H ell enistic

p eri o d w e,
s h a ll s ee t h a t t h ey a re no t t o b e d es p is ed .

F irst t h er e is At h ens l a rg er a nd fa r m o r e a ttractiv e t h a n

, ,

in t h e tim e o f P ericl es T o t h e p ublic buildings o f t h e

.

G o ld en Age h a v e b een a dd ed t h ea tr es p o rtic o s a nd i n ,

num er a bl e statu es T h e str eets are cl ean er and t h e h o us es

.

a re m o r e bea uti ful fo r w ea lt h h a s p o ur ed in fr o m t h e East

, ,

a nd t h e citiz ens no l o ng er s p end t h eir entir e tim e discuss

ing p ublic a ffa irs T h e P ir aeus is full o f s h i p s fr o m every

.

quart er o f t h e M edit err a n ea n t h e s h o p s o f t h is s ea p o rt

,

b eing scarc ely l ess busy t h an in t h e p almy days o f t h e

Al t a r of Z eu s ,
P erg a m u m .

At h enian mp ir e AS t h e At h enian sc h o o ls are t h e most

e .

famous in t h e world no m an c o nsid ers h i s educ ati o n

,

c o m p l et e u ntil h e h as visit ed At h ens and if p o ssibl e , , ,

studi ed und er h er t ea c h ers .

2 1 3 P er ga m u m
.
—
Acr o ss t h e Egea n a nd s o ut h o f
. z

t h e sit e o f a nci ent Tro y t h er e h as a ris en a littl e kingd o m

c a ll ed P er ga mum In t h e city o f t h e s a m e n am e t h er e
’
-
.

was consid erabl e int er est in art and in lit eratur e T h e p eo .

 G R EEC E

p l e w er e famous for t h e p r ep a r a tion o f skins to b e us ed in ,

writing We u s e suc h skins no w c h i efly fo r graduati o n

.

di p l o mas but w e still call t h e s h eets o f skin p arc h m ent af

, ,

t er P ergamum At P erg a mum t h er e w a s a f a mous art

.

sc h o o l and t h e city was distinguis h ed fo r its rat h er o rn a t e

art On t h e h eig h t a b o v e t h e m ark et p l a c e was a h ug e
.

altar of Z eus surro und ed by a c o l o nnad e o f giants nin e

feet h ig h .

2 1 4 R h o d es
. T h e t h ird [ Egean c entr e of cultur e and
.

art was R h o d es wh ic h was situat ed o n an isl a nd b etween

,

C r et e a n d As i a
M in o r T h e Rh o .

di a ns wer e v ery suc

ces s fu l trad ers and ,

t h ey mad e l a ws fo r
int ernati o nal co m
m erc e w h ic h w er e
fo llow ed by all o f
t h e civiliz ed p eo p l e
'

Of t h e east ern M edi

t erran ean At t h e .
1

entranc e t o t h e h a r

b o r o f R h od es was a
h ug e bronz e st a tu e ,

t h e Co l o s s u s o f
Rh od es und er w h ic h ,

t h e S h i p s s a i l ed
c n
.

L ao oo
T h e p eo p l e o f
.

R h od es w er e mor e fo nd o f c o l o ss a l art t h an o f
t h e simp l er statuary of P er i cl e an At h ens T h e statu e
’
- -
.

1
SO j u st a nd so fa i r w ere t h e R h o d i a ns i n c a rry i ng on t ra d e , t h a t ,
wh en a n ea r t h q u a k e d es t ro y ed p a rt o f t h eci t y ( 2 2 7 the m erc h a nt s
fro m a ll p a rt s o f th e ea s t er n M ed i t erra nea n c o nt ri b u t ed fo r t h e re b ui l d
i ng of the c i t y fo r t h e p ro s p eri t y
,
of R h o d es m ea nt t h e su cc ess Of t h o se

c i t i es wi t h wh i c h s h e t ra d ed .
 G R EEC E

Al exandria h ad m o r e c o mm erc e and gr eat er w ealt h than

any o t h er H ell enistic city .

2 1 7 Al ex a n d ri a a s a n Int ell e ctu al C entr e

. Al exandria .

us ed h er w ea lt h as At h ens did in t h e fift h c entury b efo r e

,

C h rist t o attr a ct sc h o lars in o rd er t h a t t h e city mig h t

,

be a s ea t o f l ea rning and a c entr e o f cultur e T h e P t o l emys .

gat h er ed t h e gr eat est library o f t h e anci ent wo rld num ,

b ering m o r e t h a n a h a lf milli o n m anuscri p ts A v a st .

army o f c o p yi sts w a s k ep t busy c o p ying o l d manuscri p ts .

G r eat sums w er e p aid fo r o l d and v a lu a bl e d o cum ents .

It is s a id t h a t s o m e o f t h e manuscri p ts o f t h e fam o us G r eek

dramatists w er e b o rr o wed fr o m At h ens t h e sum o f 1 00 ,

tal ents o f S ilver b eing d ep o s it ed as sur ety fo r t h e r eturn

o f t h e p a p ers .T h at sum w as fo rfeit ed and t h e m a nu
scri p ts w er e kep t i n Al exandri a T h e o ld est manuscri p t
.

t h at w e h av e o f t h e Old T estam ent is in Gr eek and w as

mad e by t h e Al ex andri a n c o p yist s .

At Al ex a ndri a w a s t h e M u s e um p r a ctic a lly a uni

’
-

v ersity at w h ic h g a t h er ed s o m e o f t h e gr eat est sc h o l a rs

and t ea c h er s fro m t h e w h o l e G r eek wo rld wi t h t ens o f ,

t h o usands o f p u p ils In sci enc e Al ex a ndri a was p re

.

em in ent T h e b est kn o wn n a m es in anci ent tim es am o ng

.
-

m a t h em a tici ans geo gr ap h ers a nd o t h er sci entists wer e

,

t h o s e o f Al ex a ndri a n s c h o l a rs 2 65 Alt h o ug h h er
lit er a tur e w as t h e lit er atur e o f imitat o rs and c o p yists ,

it h a d m o r e influ enc e o n t h e lit eratur e o f R om e t h an h ad

t h e lit er a tur e o f cl a ssical G r eec e .

G R EE CE A FT E R AL EXA N DER

G reec e w a s 2 18 . The i
n o f G r e ece aft er Al exa nd er
Co nd t i o .

d ra i ned o f
h er a bl est Aft er t h e tim e o f Al ex a nd er t h e h ist o ry o f G r eec e p r o p er
,

men b u t, c o nt a ins littl e o f v a lu e fo r us S o m a ny o f h er f a m o us

.

no t of h er
t ro u b l es .
men w er e drawn away as g en er a ls o r st a t esm en o r sc h o lars ,

and s o m a ny o f h er h umbl er citiz ens w ent fo rt h t o fo und

 G R EEC E AF T ER A LEX A ND ER

Gr eek citi es in t h e East t h a t G r eec e h ad l ess m at eri a l

,

wit h wh ic h t o establis h a r ep utati o n fo r h ers elf in t h e

H ell enistic p eri o d t h an in t h e H ell enic p eri o d w h ic h p re
c ed ed i t T h er e was h o w ev er t h e sam e p etty j eal o usy
.
, ,

b etween t h e st a t es and in sp it e o f t h e att em p t ed rul e o f

, ,

M ac ed o n t h er e was mu ch warfar e am o ng t h e G r eek citi es

,
.

T h er e was muc h m o r e wea lt h a nd luxury am o ng t h e ric h

t h an t h er e h a d b een b efo r e Al exand er but p ov erty was ,

als o m o r e p r o min ent T h er e w a s m o r e strif e b etw een

.

ric h and p o o r sinc e warfa r e b etw een t h e citi es was limit ed

, ,

and t h e cru elty t h at h a d b een s h o wn t o en emi es o utsid e

Of t h e city was no w visit ed m o r e o ft en o n d o m estic en emi es .

21 9 T h e E to li a n L ea gu e — T wo l ea gu es w er e o rgan
.

i z ed by t h e citi es in t h is p eri o d T h es e wer e t h e A ch rz a n ’

-
.

t h e E to li T h e zEto li a n L ea gu e
’
L ea gu e a nd - -
an L ea gu e .

w as a uni o n o f trib es no t citi es o f west ern G r eec e Th ey

, ,
.

band ed t o get h er t o k eep o u t t h e Ga u ls w h o o v erran Asi a ,

M in o r ab o ut t h is tim e and tri ed t o o ccu p y G r eec e T h ey

,
.

w er e littl e m o r e t h an bands o f p irat es and b a nd i ts dur i ng

t h e last c entury o f G r eek h ist o ry .

2 2 0 T h e Ach aea n L e a gu e
. Lik e t h e Conf ed eracy Of
.

Del o s t h e Ach aea n L ea gu e gr ew o u t o f a n o l d r eligi o us

,

ass o ciati o n It w as m a d e u p o f a numb er o f citi es in

.

s o ut h ern and c entral G r eec e ea c h o f wh ic h h ad a vot e ,

in t h e fed er a l council o f t h e Lea gu e F o r n ea rly a h al f .

c entury t h e Lea gu e m aint a in ed t h e fr eed o m o f its citi es

fr o m M a c ed o ni a n rul e T h en t h ey a tt em p t ed to fo rc e
.

S p a rt a int o t h e Lea gu e Wh en it s eem ed p o ssibl e t h a t

.

S p a rt a migh t d efeat t h em A ra tus t h eir a bl e but u n

,
-
’
,

scru p ul o us l ead er c a ll ed u p o n M a c ed o n T h at was t h e

, .

end o f r ea l ind ep end enc e fo r t h e citi es o f t h e Lea gu e but ,

t h ey h eld t h e Leagu e t o g et h er fo r n ea rly a c entury l o ng er .

T h e Ac h aean Leagu e was t h e b est t h a t G r eec e p r o duc ed .

In many ways t h e uni o n was no t unlik e t h e Co nf ed erati o n

in t h e Uni t ed S t at es at t h e cl o s e o f t h e R ev o luti o n a ry
 G R E EC E

War . T h e id ea l eagu e lik e t h at o f d em o cracy is o ne

of the , ,

of t h e p o litical id eas t h a t w e o we t o Gr eec e .

2 2 1 G r e e ce B e co m e s a D ep en d en cy o f R o m e
. .

In its w a rs ag a inst M ac ed o n t h e I Et o li an Leagu e ask ed

,

aid o f a gr eat but new p o wer t h a t h ad g a in ed It a ly a nd

all o f t h e sur r o unding t errit o ry T h is new p o wer w as .

Ro me .R o m e was gl a d t o t a k e p a rt in G r eek a ff a irs She .

firs t d efea t ed M ac ed o n and t h en br o ke u p b o t h t h e fEt o

li a n a nd t h e Ac h aean Lea gu es w h en S h e fo und t h at ,

t h ey c o uld net o r w o uld no t k eep o rd er in G r eec e T h e .

c o nqu est o f Gr eec e by Ro m e a nd t h e d estructi o n o f t h e

,

gr eat c o mm ercial city o f Co rint h in 146 B C m a d e G r eec e . .

a d ep end ency o f t h e gr eat R o m a n rep ublic T h enc e .

fort h G r eek h istory w as m erged in R o m a n h ist o ry .

2 2 2 S u m m a ry
. Wh en P h ili p o f M a c ed o n was ass as
.

s i na t ed h e was succ eed ed by h i s s o n Al ex a nd er

,
.
M a ce .

d o n G r eec e and t h e D anubian p ro vinc es a t o nc e r ev o lt ed

,
.

Al ex a nd er quickly su p p r ess ed eac h in turn d estr o ying ,

T h eb es He t h en g at h er ed an army t o c o nqu er t h e
.

P ersi a n em p ir e T h e b a ttl e o f G r a nicus g a v e h i m w est ern

.

Asia M in o r l s sus g a v e h i m S yri a

. T h e s i eg e a nd de.

structi o n o f Tyr e l eft t h e w ay o p en t o Egyp t w h er e h e ,

found ed Al ex a ndri a He t h en p r o c eed ed t o w a rd P ersi a

. .

At Arb el a h e o v ert h r ew Darius I II His l a t er cam p aigns

.

bro ug h t h i m t o t h e Indu s R iv er Al ex a nd er tri ed t o unit e

.

t h e East and t h e West s o ci a lly by int erm a rri a g es eco

, ,

no mi ca l l y t h r o ug h giving Al ex a ndri a R h o d es At h ens and , ,

Co rint h m o r e ea st ern tr a d e a nd in g en er a l by t h e fo unding

,

o f citi es a nd t h e s p r ea d o f G r eek cultur e t h r o ug h o ut t h e

East .

T h e H ell eni s tic p eri o d fr o m t h e d ea t h o f Al exand er

(3 2 3 B C ) t o t h e fa ll o f Co rint h ( 1 4 6 ) is a p eri o d o f di ff u
. .

si o n o f t h e o l d H ell enic civiliz a ti o n rat h er t h an t h e d evel

o p ment o f a new cultur e G r eek cult u r e in t h e East w a s
.

k ep t alive by t h e kingd o m o f t h e P t o l emys (Egyp t et c ) ,

.
 G R EEC E

Stu d i es
1 T h e y o u t h o f Al exa
. nd er D . avis , R ea di ngs i n A nci ent
Hi s to ry , 2 9 8 — 3 04, I .

2 . T h e S i ege of Ty re . F l i ng S o u rc e B oo k 3 00—3 08
, , .

3 . T h e sa c k of P ers ep o li s . B o t s fo r d , S o u rc e B o o k , 2 7 7 — 2 80 .

4 Al exa nd er s t ri p t o t h e t em p l e
.
’
of Am o n . W h eel er , A l ex
a nd er th e Grea t 3 4 4 3 5 5 -

.
,

5 . Z
eno a nd Ep i c u ru s M a h a ffy .
, S u rvey o f Gr eek Ci vi li z a
ti o n, 2 5 6 — 2 64 .

6 T he
. G reek fed era t i o ns . F ergu s o n , Greek I mp eri a l i s m ,

2 3 5—240 .

7 . Ara t u s a nd S p a rt a . P l u t a r c h L i ves , , Ar a t u s (l a s t t h i rd ) .

Q u esti o n s
1 . W h a t w ere t h e p ro b l e m s t h a t c o nf ro nt ed Al exa nd er at hi s
fa t h er
’
s d ea t h ? Ho w di d h e s o l v e ea ch o f t h em ?
2 . Tce on ra t h e m a p t h e ro u t e o f Al exa nd er l o c a t i ng i n , t u rn
th e G ra ni c u s , I ssu s , Ty r e, Al exa dri a n , Ar b el a , P ers ep o l i s a nd

the I nd us .

3 . W h a t w ere so me of th e so ci al , c o mmerci al a nd i nt ell ec t u a l

ch a ng es d u e t o Al exa nd er
4 . Wh a t was t h e Hell eni c p eri o d ? T he Hell eni s t i c p eri o d ?
Wh at w as t h e i m p o rt a nc e of th e Hel l eni c p eri o d ? Of t h e
Hell eni s t i c p eri o d
5 . m a p p o i nt o u t t h e fo u r t em p o ra ry a nd t h ree p erma
On a

nent ki ngd o m s a f t er Al exa nd er Gi ve t h e na m es o f t h e ru li ng .

h o u s e i n t w o o f t h e ki ng d o m s N a me t h e mo s t i mp o rt a nt c i t y .

o f ea c h ki ng d o m .

6 W h y w ere Al exa ndri a a nd At h ens t h e m o s t i mp o rta nt cen

.

t res o tf h e H ell e ni s t i c p e ri o d ?

7 F o r w h a t w a s P erg a mu m di s t i ngu i s h ed ? fo r w h a t R h o d es ?
.

What w a s t h e M u s e u m ?

8 N a m e t h e s e v e n w o nd ers o f t h e a nc i ent w o rl d
. D es c ri b e .

t h em N a me s ev en w o nd ers o f t h e mo dern w o rl d
. .

9 . T ell a bou t th e o rg a ni z a t i o n o f t h e A c h aea n l ea g u e . Was

i t li k e ou r C o nfed era t i o n fro m 1 7 8 1 t o 1 7 8 9 ? In wh at res p ec t

w as i t l i ke U n i o n ?
our p resent
1 0 G i v e d a t es o f t h e fo l l o wi ng i m p o r t a n t
. e v ent s i n G reece
h i s t o ry exp l a i ni ng w h y ea c h i s i m p o rt a nt :
, t h e fir s t Ol y m p i c
co nt es t , M a ra t h o n P h i l i p ,
’
s vi c t o ry o ver G reec e, t h e d es t ru c t i o n
of C o r nt h i .
 CH AP T ER V II I
T HE P LAC E OF G R EEC E IN HI S T OR Y

2 23 . I mp o r t a n ce o f G r e ek Civi l iz ati o n West ern civil —

i z a t i o n o f t h e p r es ent tim e is l a rg ely an o utgr o wt h o f

G r eek civilizati o n As t h e G r eek l a ngu a g e is r el a t ed t o
.

t h e l a ngu a g es o f w est ern Eur o p e s o t h e ci ilizati o n o f

,
v

west ern Euro p e is cl o s ely c o nn ect ed wit h t h at o f a nci ent

G r eec e T h e a nci ent Ori ent s eems v ery r em o t e t o us
.
,

b ecaus e t h e p eo p l e o f B a byl o ni a a nd anci ent Egyp t a re

no t kinsm en o f o urs a nd t h eir civiliz a ti o n s eems a lm o st
,

t o b el o ng t o a di ffer ent wo rld fr o m o u r o w n G r eec e .

,

h o wev er s eems m o r e a p art o f o urs elv es

, T h e P h ar ao h s .

a re o ri ent a l m o n a rc h s but T h emist o cl es a nd D em o st h en es

,

a re m o d ern p o litici a ns Egyp ti a n and B a byl o ni a n a rc h i

.

t ectur e s eems t o us fantastic a nd o ri ental T h at o f .

G r eec e furnis h es m o d els t h at w e l o v e t o c o p y T h e p ro c .

l am at i o ns o f t h e Assyri a n kings a re crud e a nd sti ff but

t h e writings o f t h e G r eeks r emind us o f t h e b est o f o u r o wn ,

in t h eir gr a c e t h eir S im p licity and t h eir b ea uty o f fo rm

,
.

T h e G r eek y o ut h s m eeting in a t h l etic c o nt ests are cer

, ,

t ai nl y no t far r em o v ed fr o m t h e h ig h sc h o o l b o ys o r c o ll eg e
men o f t o da y T h e a ss embli es o f At h ens a nd o t h er I o ni a n
-
.

citi es h av e a c ert ain kins h i p t o o u r New England t o wn

m eetings Greece then i s th e mos t modern of th e a nci ent
.

na ti o ns .

224 r eece w a s t h e M el t in g P o t o f An ci ent Civiliz a

. G
ti o n s
.
— A mix ed p eo p l e lik e o urs elv es t h e G r eeks w er e ,

t h e h eirs of a l l t h e a g es b efo r e t h em as w e are T h ey ,

.

t o o k t h e a rc h it ectur e and sci enc e o f t h e Egy p ti ans t h e ,

busin ess c o d es m et h o ds and standards of t h e B a by lo

,

17 9
 G R EEC E

ni ans , t h e alp h ab et o f t h e P hoenici a ns and t h e art of t h e

Cr eta ns and o u t o f t h es e el em ents w h ic h t h ey b o rr o wed
, ,

fro m t h eir p r ed ec essors t h ey cr eat ed a new a nd distinct

,

civiliz a ti o n wh ic h t h ey p ass ed o n t o all M edit erranean

,

p p
eo l es first ,
in t h e Eas t and lat er as w ,e s h all s ee 2 68 ,

2 7 3 ) to t h o s e o f t h e West B ec a us e o u r r eligi o n a nd m a ny
.

of our id eas differ fro m t h o s e o f t h e G r eeks w e do no t ,

look up o n t h em a s o u r o ld er bro t h ers ; but b ecaus e ,

w e h av e l ea rn ed s o muc h fro m t h em we do l o o k u p to ,

t h em as our gr ea t t eac h ers .

S O CI AL L I F E

225 . Cl a s s es r eek s Citiz en s

of th e G Gr eek s o ci ety ,
.

was divid ed int o t h r ee class es t h e ci ti zens t h e fo r eigners , , ,

or met i cs a nd t h e s la ves T h e citiz ens wer e b o rn in

’
,
.

G r eec e o f G r eek p a r ents T h ey w er e s ep a r a t e fr o m all

.

ot h ers T h ey a l o n e h a d t h e rig h t t o t a k e p a rt in r eli

.

gi o u s f estiv a ls a nd rit es fo r r eligi o n w as a n a ff a ir o f t h e

,

f a mily and o f t h e st a t e T h o s e w h o did no t bel o ng t o a

.

G r eek f a mily n ec ess a rily c o uld no t s h a r e in t h e family s

’

r eligi o n If t h ey w er e no t m emb ers o f a G r eek f a mily

.
,

t h ey c o uld no t b e m emb ers o r citiz ens o f a G r eek city stat e -

eit h e r S O fa mi l y reli gi o n a nd ci ti zens hi p wer e

,

bou nd u p togeth er N o n e but a n a dult m a l e citiz en mig h t

.

h o ld o ffic e o r a tt end t h e a ss embly o r o wn l a nd o r p r o t ect

h ims elf in t h e c o urts S o it w as v ery im p o rt a nt t h a t a
.

p erson s h ould b e a citiz en .

2 2 6 F o r ei gn er s
. T h e m etics w er e no t v ery num er o us
.

in Gr eec e fo r t h e p eo p l e did no t w elc o m e t h em unl es s

,

th er e was tr a d e t o b e c a rri ed o n o r m a nuf a cturing w h ic h ,

t h e citiz en did no t c o n s id er suit a bl e fo r h ims el f T he .

m etic w as treat ed lik e t h e J ew t o d ay in R u s s i a o r as t h e -

J ew w as tr ea t ed t h r o ug h o ut Euro p e during t h e M iddl e

Ag es . T h e m etic w as t o l erat ed b ecaus e h e w as n eeded
 G R EEC E

In m o s t o f t h e G r eek st a t es wo m en liv ed s eclud ed lives .

T h ey t o o k no p a rt in p ublic a ffairs o f a ny kind T h ey .

m a n ag ed t h eir o w n h o us eh o lds but ,

t h ey n ev er w ent in p ublic exc ep t

wit h att end a nts Wh en a girl was .

m a rri ed a d o wry w as giv en wit h

,

h er a nd t h e a rr a ng em ents fo r t h e
w edding w ere m a d e by t h e gr o o m s ’

f at h er If h er h usband bro ug h t
.

gu ests t o t h e h o us e S h e i mmed i ,

at ely r etir ed fo r s h e w as no t s u p
,

p o s ed t o h a v e t h e c a p acity or t h e ,

training t o und erst a nd m en s ai

,
’

fa irs P r a ctically s h e w as a m etic

.

rat h er t h a n a citiz en fo r s h e did ,

no t h av e a ny o f t h e p ri vi leges o f
citiz ens h i p .

2 2 9 T h e Ed u ca t i o n o f t h e G r eek
W m n D
.

( Ei n )
’
o a s re s s re e

Y o u th G r eek girl s w er e no t
.

— .

bro ug h t u p in utt er ig no r a nc e o f c o urs e for t h ey h a d

, ,

p r a ctic a l tr a ining in t h e duti e s o f l o o king aft er a h o m e .

G reek C h a i rs .

S o m etim es t h ey w er e educ a t ed by slaves so t h at t h ey ,

c o uld r ea d writ e a nd sing as w ell

,
.

P rinci p a lly h o w ev er educ a ti o n in G r eec e as ev ery

, , ,

w h er e i n t h e w o rld until r ec ent yea rs w as fo r t h e b o ys ,

.
1

1
I n G ree c e t h e y o u ng b o y s w e re t a u g h t c h i efl y b y sl a v es p ed a go gu es ,

( b o y l ea d ers ) , b u t t h e y o u t h s were o rd i na ril y sent t o regu l a r s c h o o l s .

 I
S OC AL L F E I

F o ur di ffer ent subj ects w er e studi ed t h e p urp o s e o f edu ,

c a ti o n b eing no t t o im p a rt in fo rm ati o n but to mak e

, ,

t h e y o ut h a w ell
ro und ed man p h ys ,

i ca ll y and m o r a lly
s o und T h e f o ur
.

di ffer ent kinds o f

instructi o n w er e
W i t i ng M t i l
gymn as tics music , ,
1 r a er a .

r ea ding a nd writing a nd sci enc e ,

.
2

2 3 0 W o r s h i p o f t h e G r eek G o d s P r ay er
. T h e wor ,
.

s h i p o f t h e Greek g o ds w as a n imp o rt a nt m att er t o ev ery

.

G r eek esp ecially t o t h e G r eeks o f t h e early a nd H ell enic

,

p e ri o ds R eligi
. o n was a n a ffa ir o f t h e fa mily a n d o f t h e

stat e rat h er t h an o f t h e i ndividu a l In all t o wns t emp l es

,
.

w er e er ect ed a nd o n ev ery h igh w ay t h er e w er e a lt a rs

,
.

T h e t em p l es w er e sim p l e structur es sm a ll a nd b ea utiful , ,

b eing h o m es fo r t h e St a tu es o f t h e go ds r a t h er t h an
p l a c es o f w o rs h i p fo r t h e multitud e T h e r eligi o us e xe r .

cis es o f t h e G r eeks t o o k p l a c e wit h in t h e h o m e o r a t p ublic

g at h erings r at h er t h an wit h in t h e t em p l es At t h e b egin .

ning o f a m eal t h e p r es enc e o f t h e go d w as invo k ed and a

lib ati o n o f win e was p o ur ed o u t fo r t h e go d P r a yers .
3

wer e usu ally o ffer ed s t a nding t h e sup p lic a nt str etc h ing ,

fo rt h h i s h ands t o t h e h ea v ens exc ep t w h en a ddr essing t h e ,

g o ds o f t h e l o w er wo rld .

2 3 1 S a crifi ce s t o t h e G o d s
. Off erings w er e m a d e to .

T h o se w h o were es p ec i a ll y i nt eres t ed at t a c h ed t h em s el v es t o s o m e grea t

c
t ea h er w h o m et hi s p u p il s ev ery day i n t h e a c a d em y o r t h e L y c eu m o r
,

so me p or h c of the ci t y .

1
R el i gi o u s s erv i c es , fet e s a nd fe s t i v a l s , a t hl et i c c o nt es t s , b l i c m eet
pu
i ng s a nd h o m e g a t h eri ng s were o ft en o p ened or c l o sed wi t h m u si c m u s i c
,

b ei ng o ft en the m o st es s ent i a l fea t u re of t h e g a t h eri ng .

2 Aft er Ari s t o t l e
’
s t ime th e boy s u su a ll y s t u d i ed , in a d di t i o n , m at h e
ma t i es , na t u ra l s c i enc e a nd p erh a p s m e p h il o s o p h y
so .

3
T h e wi ne w a s u su a l l y p o u r ed fro m a S h a ll o w d i s h t o t h e g ro u nd .
 G R EEC E

the go ds as t o k ens o f t h anksgiving o r t o s ecur e t h e favor ,

of t h e d eity o r t o ap p eas e hi s a ng er B efor e o ff ering

, .

p r a y er o r s a crific e a w o rs h i p p er must be p urifi ed usually

, ,

by s p rinkling wit h s a cr ed w a t er T h e o ff ering mig h t b e .

a s p ray o f fl o w ers fir s t fruits o f t h e fi elds o r a n a nim a l

, , .

T h e s a crific es o f burnt o ffering s w er e o f d o v es g o a ts o r ,

o x en o r o f y o ung p igs
,
if a crim e h a d b een c o mmitt ed
, .

Wh il e a nim a ls wit h o ut bl emis h w er e s o ug h t fo r t h e

Olymp ic d eiti es bl a ck a nim a ls w er e o ffer ed t o t h o s e o f
,

t h e l o w er r egi o ns Usu a lly o nly a p a rt o f t h e victim w as

.

burnt fo r t h e go d ; t h e r est o f t h e fl es h ro a st ed w a s , ,

eat en by t h e w o rs h i p p er a nd h i s fri ends T h e entr a ils o f .

t h e victims w er e c o n s ult ed t o l ea rn t h e wis h es o f t h e

go ds T h is bri ef a c co unt will giv e us j u st a littl e id ea
.

o f t h e p a rt p l a y ed by r eligion in t h e family a nd s o ci a l

lif e o f t h e G r eeks .

2 3 2 G r eek Ch a r a ct er
. T h e m o r a l instructi o n o f t h e
.

G r eek y o ut h f a il ed t o t ea c h h i m s o m e o f t h o s e virtu es
w h ic h m o d ern men c o nsid er m o s t imp o rt a nt T h e Gr eek .

h a d a di ff er ent m o r a l st a nd a rd fro m o urs Alcibiad es .

h as b een call ed t h e typ ic a l G r eek fo r h e w a s h ands o m e , ,

w as p h ysic a lly w ell d ev el o p ed ; h e h a d a k een mind and ,

was wit h o ut m o r a l scrup l e T h e P ersi a ns d esp i s ed t h e .

G r eeks b ec a us e a G r eek c o uld a lw a ys b e b o ug h t

,
1
M il e .

tus fo r ex a mp l e d es ert ed h er n eigh b o rs in o rd er t h at h er

, ,

trad e mig h t no t su ff er w h en Cyrus m a rc h ed a gainst h er .

No S p a rt a n w a s a c o w a rd but ev ery S p a rt a n w as t a ug h t ,

to st ea l t h e imm o r a lity o f t h e a ct c o nsisting sol ely in b eing

,

c a ug h t as wit h s o m e mo d ern p eo p l e in h ig h fin a nc e o r l o w
, ,
.

In c o mp a ring t h e m o d ern G r eek wit h t h e a nci ent Gr eek ,

o ne v ery h ig h aut h o rity s ays t h er e is littl e di ff er enc e

2
.

1
T h e G reeks t al k ed sm o o th l y , a nd a p p e a red h o nes t , y et all t h e t i me
t h ey c ou ld be b ri b ed a t S l i g h t exp ens e . Ev e n t h e o ra cle at D el p h i ga v e
a ns wers t h at were m o re fa v o ra b l e , i f t h e sup p l i a nt c a m e wi t h g i ft s .

2
M a h a ff y , Wh a t ha ve th e Greeks d o ne fo r M o d ern Ci vi l i za ti o n ?
 G R E EC E

G OV E R N M E N T

2 34 . i y S t at e
The C t -
T h e G r eek s n ev er h a d a nati o n a l
.

go v ernm ent ev en fo r all o f G r eec e p r o p er As w e h av e

, .

a lr ea dy n o tic ed 1 2 0) t h er e w er e m a ny a r ea s in G r eec e ,

ea c h o f w h ic h w as o rg a niz ed as a singl e city st a t e T h es e -

.

ci ty s ta tes were th e i mp o r ta nt p o li ti ca l u ni ts i n Greece fo r

-

all c o mm uniti es wit h in t h e b o undari es o f t h e city st at e -

w er e sub o rdin a t e t o t h e city st a t e Ev ery p ers o n li v ing

-
.

wit h in t h es e b o undari es w a s eit h er a citiz en o f t h e city

stat e or a subj ect In an ea rly p eri o d t h e citiz ens w er e
.

t h o s e w h o w er e b o und cl o s ely t o g et h er by ti es o f r eligi o n

and bl o o d T h ey a l o ne h a d a ny p o ssibl e s h ar e in t h e
.

g o v er nm ent ev en in t h e d em o cr a ci es
, .

In G r eek h i s t o ry t h e n eed o f uni o n w as met by t h e for

m ati o n a t first o f a mp hi cty o ni es a nd l a t er o f p o li ti ca l
l ea gu es suc h as t h e P el o p o nn esi a n Lea gu e t h e Deli a n ,

Lea gu e t h e l ea gu es br o k en u p by S p a rta
,
a nd t h e

Ac h aean a nd fEt o li a n l ea gu es T h e city st a t es m a in

.
-

t ai ned t h eir ind ep end enc e a nd equ a lity in t h es e l ea gu es .

2 3 5 I m p o r t a n ce o f Citi z en s h i p
.
— I t d o es no t m ea n
v ery muc h t o us p er h a p s t o s ay t h at w e are citiz ens o f t h e
, ,

Uni t ed S t a t es b ec a us e w e w er e b o rn h er e o r b ec a us e o u r
p a r ents h a v e b ee n n a turaliz e d in t h e Unit ed S t a t es Y et .

it is j ust a s im p o rt a nt fo r a m an t o b e a m emb er o r a citi

z en o f a nati o n as it is fo r a c h ild t o b e a m emb er o f a h o m e .

T h e m a n w h o i s a citiz en is l o o k ed a ft er a nd c a r ed fo r by
t h e g o v er nm ent (t h e st a t e) His life a nd p r o p erty a re
.

p rot e ct ed His
. rig h t t o buy r
p p o e rty t o d o busin e s
,
s ,

t o c a r e fo r h i s fa mily is u p h eld by t h e g o v er nm ent

,
.

S uc h ri g h ts are c a ll ed ci vi l r i gh ts I f h e trav els a br o a d

.
,

t h e g o v ernm ent s ees t h at h e is no t m o l est ed If h e d e .

cid es t o live a br o a d h e ca n a p p ea l t o h i s o ld go v ernm ent

,

for p r o t ecti o n a t any tim e until h e b ec o m es a citiz en o f

som e o t h er country .
 G OV ER N M EN T

If h e h as t h e rig h t t o t a k e p a rt in t h e wo rk o f go v ern
ing h is city h i s c o unty h i s stat e and h i s nati o n h e h as in
, , , ,

additi o n t o t h e o rdin a ry rig h ts o f citiz ens h i p wh ic h a ll o f

us h a v e t h e p rivil eg es o f vo ting and o f h o lding o ffic e
,
.

S o m etim es w e t h ink t h at t h es e p o li ti ca l p ri vi l eges a re

t h e c h i ef rig h ts o f citiz ens h i p but t h ey a re no t fo r living , ,

a nd g etting a living a re m o r e im p o rt a nt t h a n v o ting .

2 3 6 D ev el o p m ent o f t h e G r eek I d ea o f Citi z en s h i p

. .

S o l o ng a s a ny p eo p l e a re rul ed a rbitr a rily by kings t h ey ,

a re su bjects not ci ti zens B u t as s o o n as c ert a in rig h ts

,
.
,

a nd p rivil eg es a re r ec o gniz ed a s b el o nging t o t h em t h ey ,

r ea lly are m emb ers o f t h e n a ti o n t o w h ic h t h ey b el o ng ,

w h et h er t h ey are rul ed by a king o r a gr o up o f men .

T h ey d es erv e t h en t o b e call ed citiz ens .

In m o s t o f t h e G r eek city st a t es a m an w as a citiz en -

o f h i s city but o f n o t h ing els e In At h ens h o wev er 1

, ,
.
,

At h eni an citiz en s h i p w a s ext end ed fir s t t o a l l t h e p eo p l e

o f Attic a t h en t o At h eni a n c o l o n
,
i sts a nd fin a lly t o a l l
a dult fr ee mal e r esid ents o f Attica In t h e Ac h aean .

l eagu e a citiz en o f a ny city in t h e l eagu e was all o wed all

o f t h e rig h ts a nd p rivil eg es o f citiz ens in a ny o t h er city .

A citiz en o f o ne city mig h t m o v e t o a no t h er and b ec o m e a

1
H o wev er , i n A th ens th ere w er e th r ee i mp or ta nt ch a nges .
(1) In a v ery

ea rl y d ay , wh i c h w a s t h e l a rg es t c i t y o f t h e p eni ns u l a o f At t i c a
A t h ens , ,

a l l o w ed a ll o f t h e i nh a b i t a nt s o f A tti ca w h o w ere no t fo r ei g ners o r s l a v es

t o b e c o m e A th eni a n c i t i ens T h i s w a s a v ery i m p o r t a nt c h a ng e fo r i t

z .
,

c a rri ed t h e i d ea t h a t c i t i z ens need no t l i v e i n t h e c i t y ( 2 ) D u ri ng t h e .

At h eni a n em p i re At h ens fo u nd ed c o l o ni e s es p ec i a ll y o n t h e s h o res o f

, ,

t h e no rt h n ea n a nd t h e B l a c k S ea s T h e i nh a bi ta nts of th es e co l o ni es
.

r eta i ned th ei r A th eni a n ci ti z ens h i p , so t h a t t h ey m i gh t r et u r n a t a ny t ime

t o A t h ens . c o l o ni s t s 1 4 1 ) c o u l d d o t h i s fo r t h ey h a d l o s t
N O o t h er G reek ,

t h ei r c i t i z ens h i p i n t h ei r na t i v e c i t y w h en t h ey set o u t a s c o l o ni s t s

( 3 ) Du ri ng t h e H el l eni s t i c p eri o d w h en M a c ed o ni a n a g ent s r ea ll y ru l ed

.
,

At h ens a nd c i t i z ens h i p d i d no t m ea n s o m u c h A th ens ga ve ci ti zens hi p to a l l

q
,

wh o ca me to A tti ca , excep t s l a ves . T his is u i t e li k e ou r m o d er n i d ea of

ci t i z ensh i p t h a t i s t h a t c i t i z ens h i p b el o ng s p ri m a ril y t o t h o s e b o rn i n

, ,

t h e c o u nt ry b u t t h a t i t S h a ll b e gi v e n a l s o t o t h o se t h a t m a k e t h a t
,

c o u nt ry t h ei r h o m e .
 G R EEC E

citiz en of the s ec o nd city . T h is

i nter ci ty ci ti zen
w as an -

s hi p , wh i ch s h owed th a t na ti o na l ci ti zens h i p cou l d be de

velo p ed a s it was d ev el o p ed a ft erward by t h e R o m ans All .

civi l iz ed c o untri es o f t h e p r es ent tim e h av e nati o nal citiz en

s h i p wh ic h t h ey o w e in gr ea t p a rt t o t h e Gr eeks
, .

237 .T h e D v l p
e e o m ent o f G e
re k G o v e rn m en t — As
w e n o tic ed at t h e b eginning of t h e study o f G r eec e t h e ,

G r eek citi es w h ic h d ev el o p ed m o st p ass ed t h ro ugh f o ur

succ essiv e stag es o f go v ernm ent mona r chy a ri s tocra cy , , ,

ty r a nny a nd demo cr a cy S o m e o f t h em r em a i n ed arist o

.

cratic a lm o st t o t h e end ; o t h ers es p ecially t h o s e o f cen

,

tral G r eec e a nd t h e isl a nds o f t h e i Egean w er e d em o ,

cratic .

2 38 Ar i s t o cr a cy a nd D em o cr a cy — Arist o cracy may

. .

s eem v ery muc h b ett er t h an m o narchy b ecaus e it sub ,

stitut ed t h e rul e o f s ev er a l fo r t h e ru l e o f o ne B u t .

aristocracy is no t a st ep u p w a rd if t h e a ri s t o cracy rul es

s elfis h ly a nd unj ustly T h e p eo p l e in G r eek and R o m a n
.

arist o craci es w er e u s u a lly o blig ed t o d em a nd t h a t t h e l a ws

b e writt en s o t h at t h e l ead ers c o uld no t mak e suc h laws
,

as t h ey p l ea s ed at any tim e a nd a p p ly t h em o r no t as ,

t h ey wis h ed .

N early o ne h a lf o f t h e Gr eek citi es w er e d em o craci es

-
.

In s o m e o f t h e d ep end enci es o f At h ens o f c o urs e a d em o , ,

cr a tic fo rm o f g o vernm ent was ad o p t ed b ecaus e At h ens

w is h ed it a nd it was t h e p o p ul a r t h ing t o c o p y At h en s
,
.

We h av e a lr ea dy n o tic ed t h e c h a ract er o f t h is d em o cracy

18 3 ,
S inc e t h eas s embli es p r o v ed t h a t l o c a liti es c o uld go v ern
t h ems elves t h ro ugh t h eir o wn ass embli es c o uncils and ,

magistr at es w e o w e a gr eat d ebt es p ecially t o At h ens

, , ,

fo r t h e d em o c ra tic g o v ernm ent o f G r eek citi es We o w e .

t o t h e G reeks als o t h e d ev el o p m ent o f t h e id ea o f t h e

l eagu e a uni o n o f s elf go v erning st at es
,
-
.
 G R EEC E

c o nt ests at t h e Olym p ic g a m es and o th er festivals in t h e

p eri o d o f t h e P ersi a n Wa rs .

242 At h eni a n Tr a g e d y
.
— T h e dr a m a w as ess entially
.

a n At h eni a n p r o duct F r o m an ea rly d a y c h o ru s es h a d

.

sung a t t h e f estiv a ls At t h e f estival o f Di o ny s i u s at

.
- -
’
-

At h ens o ne o f t h e c h i ef ev ent s o f t h e y ea r T h es p i s add ed

’
, ,

t o t h e c h o ru s a S ingl e a ct o r w h o ap p ea r ed in s ev eral p art s .

M o r e c h a r a ct ers w er e intr o duc ed by t h e l a t er dr a mati s ts

and t h e dr a m a b ecam e a fine a rt but tr ag edi a ns are still ,

M a s k s fo r T ra g ed y .

call ed T h esp ians aft er t h e Gr eek p o et w h o w as t h e fa t h er

o f tr a g edy .

T h e ea rli est o f t h e gr ea t tri o o f At h eni a n writ ers o f

tra gedy zEs ch y lu s fir s t wo n distincti o n at t h e tim e o f t h e
,
’
-

P ersi a n Wa rs His first gr eat tr a g edy w a s c all ed t h e P e

. r

si a ns fo r h e h a d fo ug h t at S a l a mis a nd h i s dr a m a giv es us
,

a stirring p ictur e o f t h at n a v a l struggl e His P ro me th eu s .

-
’

B o u nd brings o u t m o r e cl ea rly t h e styl e in w h ic h h e wr o t e ,

fo r h e w as v ery muc h in ea rn es t .

24 3 La t e r At h eni a n W rit er s o f Tr a g ed y
.
— S op h o cles .

d efeat ed [ Es ch y l u s in t h e Di o ny s i a (t h e festiv a l o f - -
’
-

Di o ny s i irs ) (4 68 a nd t h e yo ung er man b ec a m e

r ap idly t h e m o s t p r o minent o f t h e At h eni a n dr a m a ti s t s .

His styl e is lig h t er a nd h i s p l a ys a re m o r e a rtistic t h an

t h o s e o f jEs ch y l u s He m a k es m o r e o f t h e m o r a l int er
.

es t i n t h e d ev el o p m ent o f h i s t h em es His An ti g o ne ’
- -

and h i s Gi d i p us T y ra n nus m a y b e giv en as ex a m p l es

' ’
- -
’

Of h i s tr a g edi es .
 L IT ER ATU R E

La t er t h an S o p h o cl es w a s Eu ri p i des w h o wr o t e
’
- -

,
Eu ri p i d es
.

during t h e l as t yea rs o f t h e Go ld en Age o f P ericl es and

t h e P el o p o nn esi a n Wa r
. Euri p id es was m o r e h uman t h a n
eit h er of h i s p r ed ec ess o rs .His p lays w er e writt en with

G reek T h ea t re .

R o ma n T h ea t re .

the id ea ofmaking a stro ng ap p ea l t o t h e audi enc e and

w er e o n t h is a cc o unt extr em ely p o p ul a r P erh ap s h i s .

'
M e de a and his t wo I p h i ge ni a p l a ys m ay s erv e as
-
- - -
’

ex a m p l es o f h i s trag edi es
.

2 44 Early Co m e dy in At h en s
.
At h ens was no t o nly
.

t h e h o m e o f t h e gr ea t trag edi a ns It w as t h e h o m e Of
.
 G R EEC E

c o m edy as w ell . Soon

t r t h e p almy d a ys o f Euri p id es
af e ,

Ar i s top h a nes b eg a n t o writ e fo r t h e At h eni a n p ublic

’
- - -

F o r a l o ng tim e tr a g edy h a d b een gr a du a lly gr o wing m o r e

p o p ular t h a t is lig h t er a nd wi t h a str o ng er p o p ular
, ,

ap p ea l but at t h e sam e tim e At h eni a ns h a d b een b eco m

,

ing int er est ed in s o m et h ing still lig h t er c o medy Aris ,

.

t o p h a nes was t h e gr eat est writ er o f c o m edy i n a nci ent

tim es He caricatur ed t h e p eo p l e a nd a ffairs o f At h ens
.
,

making s p o rt o f p o m p o us st a t esm en and p h il o s o p h ers

o f h is o wn d ay In h i s Clou ds h e m a k es fun o f t h e
.

S o p h ists In h i s Wa sp s h e s a tiriz es t h e j urym en His

. .

B i rds a nd h i s F r ogs c a ricat ur e o t h er p h as es o f At h eni a n

li fe .

245 T h e . N e w C o m e dy o f H ell eni sti c Ath en s .

Af t er t h e tim e o f Al ex a nd er t h er e a ros e i n At h ens w h at

w as c a ll ed t h e New Co m edy w h ic h was m o r e lik e a mod ern ,

p l a y wi t h a p l o t M e na n der w as t h e c h i ef o f t h e dr a m a
’
-
.

t i s t s o f t h e new c o m edy His p l a ys are c o a rs e and h is

.

p lots h a v e littl e vari ety but h i s p l a ys w er e a liv

, e
”
T h e .

new c o m edy w as c o p i ed in Al ex a ndri a and i n R o m e a nd

h a s h a d a gr ea t er dir ect influ enc e o n lat er dr a m a t h a n t h e
dr a mas o f M ena nder s p r ed ec ess o rs wh o s e p lays w er e ’
,

muc h fin er lit er a tur e t h a n w er e h i s .

2 4 6 F i fth
. C en t u ry H i s t o ri a n s T h e G r eeks h av e .

l eft us s o m e o f t h e fin est a nd s o m e o f t h e most int er esting

exam p l es o f h ist o ric a l lit er a tur e All o f us h a v e r ea d .

wit h int er est t h o s e cl a ssics o f Herodotu s d escribing t h e

f a m o us st a nd a t T h ermo p y l as a nd t h e G r eek vict o ry a t
S a l a mis H er o d o tus j ustly d es erves t o b e c a ll ed t h e
.

fat h er o f h ist o ry AS a st o ry t ell er h e is wit h o ut a

” -
.

p ee r a nd h e m a k es h i s sc en es liv e b ef o r e us H er o d o t u s .

tr a v ell ed wid ely and h e d escrib es a ccurat ely wh a t h e s a w .

He a cc ep ts t o o cr edul o usly w h a t h e h ea rd but if w e , ,

disc o unt h is p ro n en ess t o ex agg er ati o n w e find h i m a ,

go od gui d e t o t h e Gr eec e o f t h e P ersi an Wa rs and an in

 G R EEC E

p erson .In Ath ens t h er efo r e w e find as might

, be ex

p ect ed , t h e b est o f t h e o r a t o r s .

249 . D em o s t h en e s nam e must suffic e fo r o u r

.
— One
study T h at o f c o urs e is t h e At h eni a n stat esm a n Demos
.

th enes w h o st o o d u p fo r stat e s rig h ts against t h e s emi ’

,

fo r ei gn but n a ti o n a l l ea d er P h ili p o f M a c edon T h es e

, .

o rati o ns as w e kn o w w er e call ed P hi li p p i cs Wh et h er
, , .

h e was rig h t or wro ng in h is p o litics Dem o st h en es w as ,

undoubt edly t h e gr eat est o rat o r o f t h e G r eeks He .

p r o v ed t h at in t h e way h e h eld A t h ens firm in h er o pp o si

t i o n t o t h e succ ess es o f P h ili p Wh en h i s fri end s sug .

g est ed t h at h e b e o ff er ed a cr o wn o f g o ld h e mad e h i s ,

last a nd p er h a p s h i s gr eat est s p eec h On the Crown in , ,

h i s a rgum ent a gainst fEs ch i nes Lik e s o many o f t h e

’
-
.

great men of Ath ens h e di ed a fugitiv e and an exi l e

, .

G R EE K AR T

2 50 . r eek Ar ch i t e ctu r e
G P r eemin ent as t h e G r eeks
.

w er e in lit eratur e t h ey wer e even m o re distinguis h ed in

,

c ertain fo rms o f a rt p a rticul a rly sculp tur e T h e P ar

,
.

t h en o n is still t h e m o d el o f t h e wo rld s b est arc h it ectur e ’

.

No scul p t o r h as exc ell ed P h i d i as t h e fri end o f P ericl es

’
-
.
,

G r eek arc h it ectur e w a s und o ubt edly influ enc ed by t h e

Egyp ti a ns Lik e t h e Egy p ti a ns t h e G r eeks m a d e a
.

s p eci a lty o f t em p l es and t h ey surro und ed t h eir t em p l es

wit h c o lu mns H er e t h e r es emblanc e st o p s T h e Egy p
. .

tian c o lumns a re h ea vy and unsigh tly c o m p a red wit h G r eek

c o lumns and t h e m assiv e Egyp ti a n buildings h av e n o n e
,

of t h e grac e symm etry and b eauty o f t h e G r eek t emp l es

,
.

2 5 1 T h e T h r ee O r d er s o f G r eek Ar ch it e ct u r e
. T h er e .

a re t h r ee ord ers o f G r eek arc h it ectur e distinguis h ed by ,

t h e c ap itals a t t h e t o p o f t h e c o lumns T h e ea rli est and .

sim p l est o f t h e o rd ers is c all ed Dor i c T h e cap is p lai n ’

.

and usually square T h e n ext c ap ital d evel o p ed by t h e

.
 G R EEK AR T

'
G r eeks i s
in t h e fo rm
a d o ubl e scro ll and is
of on i c call ed I -
.

T h e last w h ic h w a s us ed in t h e H ell enistic p eri o d is muc h

, ,

mo r e elab o rat e and o rnat e t h en t h e earli er and t h e c ap ital ,

is mad e u p of acant h us l ea v es It is c a ll ed Cc ri n thi a n

.
-
’
-
.

T he o r d ers of G reek Arc h i t ec t u re .

252 . The rth en o n

P a T h e P a r t h e no n w a s built
.
— ’
-

during t h e Go ld en Age o f At h ens n ea r t h e c entr e o f t h e

,

Acro p o lis T h is m a rbl e t emp l e o f t h e p a tr o n go dd ess o f

.

t h e city At h en a is littl e m o r e t h an o ne h undr ed feet l o ng

, , .

A ro w o f b ea uti ful c o lumns wit h Do ric c a p itals surr o unds

t h e building wi t h d o ubl e c o lumns a t t h e ends
, T h e lin es .

o f t h e building a re sim licity its elf a nd t h e strang e t h ing

p ,

is t h at t h er e is sc arc ely a s traig h t lin e in it In o rd er .

t o h a v e t h e c o l u mn s l o o k str a ig h t t h ey are S lig h tl y

curv ed T h e fl o o rs and t h e lin es o f t h e c eiling are s ligh tly
.

curved so t h at t h ey may no t ap p ea r t o s ag Ar o und t h e .

 G R EEC E

building b el o w t h e c o rnic e th ere was a fri ez e s ev er a l feet

h ig h w h ic h b o r e in r eli ef exquisit e scul p tur es illustrating
, ,

ev ents in At h enian h ist o ry myt h ical o r actual

,
S om e of .

t h es e wer e t h e work of t h e gr eat P h idias and a re am o ng t h e

m o st sp irit ed of h i s carvings A littl e m o r e t h an o ne
.

h undr ed y ears ago s o m e o f t h es e w er e tak en to t h e B ritish

M us eum by Lo rd El gin t h e B ritis h M inist er t o G r eec e
’
, ,

T h e P a r t h eno n P res ent C o nd i t i o n

, .

who fea red t h at t h ey mig h t b e d estr o yed T h ey are .

t h er efo r e call ed t h e Elgin marbl es Ot h er fine carvings .

ad o rned t h e p edim ents at t h e ends o f t h e building In t h e .

int eri o r was t h e fam o us c o l o ssal ivo ry and go ld statu e

o f At h ena by P h idi a s w h ic h r a nked wit h his still larger
,

Olym p i a n Z eus in p o p ular r en o wn .

2 5 3 O th er G r e ek B u i l ding s
. Cl o s e by t h e P a rt h en o n
.

is ano t h er t em p l e call ed t h e Er ech th e u m It is a build

- -
’
.

ing o f irr egular s h ap e wit h a very f a m o us p orc h c a ll ed t h e

p orc h o f t h e maid ens (C ar y T h e r o o f of thi s
-
 G R EEC E

T h ree F a t e s .

w e h av e n o t h i ng but co p i es of most of the famous G r eek

statu es .

255 . The T wo G r eat e st S cu l p to rs T h e Oly mp i a n

.
—

Z eu s of P hi di a s , sixty f eet h ig h a nd h i s c o loss a l Ath ena

,

H er mes b y P ra xi t el es
, .

are among t h e l o st tr easur es o f G r eek art We h av e c o p i es .

of t h e At h ena but w e h av e n o n e o f t h e Z eus w h ic h t h e ,

 G R EEK AR T

G r eeks c o nsid er ed o ne o f t h e wo nd ers o f t h e world P h i d .

ias figur es o n t h e P a rt h en o n fri ez e are a b o ut t h e only

’

s p ecimens o f h i s w o rk t h a t h a v e c o m e d o wn t o us but h i s ,

skill can b e j udg ed by h i s gr ea t f a m e a m o ng a p eo p l e

w h ic h p r o duc ed m a ny fa m o us scul p t o rs .

A c entury a ft er P h idi a s cam e P ra x i t e les w h o s e f a m e

’
- -

, P ra xi t el es .

i s littl e l ess t h a n t h a t o f P h idias One o f t h e b est of h i s

.

statu es t h at we h av e is h i s H er m es ’
.

S a r c o p h a gu s of the Ki ng of S idon .

256 . Ge n er a l Ch a r a ct er of H el l eni s t i c Art . In genera l

Hel leni c art is si mp l e a nd di gnifi ed, wh i l e H elleni s ti c a rt

is o rna te a nd el a bora te . B ec a us e
b ea uty unad o rn ed is
a d o rn ed t h e m o st , t h e art o f t h e G o ld en A e is c o nsid er ed
g
sup eri o r t o t h e l at er art Y et t h e fame o f t h e statu es o f
.

t h e ea rli er p eri o d is p artly d u e t o t h e fa ct t h a t t h ey w er e

b ett er adv ertis ed fo r t h e H ell enistic Age h as l eft us t h e
,

fin est ex a mp l es o f G r eek art t h at w e h av e asid e from a few ,

s p ecim ens fro m At h ens We do no t know t h e n a m es o f

.

any o f t h e scul p tors o f t h es e mast erp i ec es of t h e lat er

a ge .
 G R EEC E

257 . Exa m p l es t er G r e ek Art

of La T h e S a r cop h w
.
-
’

gu s of th e ki ng of S i do n is c o v er ed wit h r eli efs t h at are

a lm o st w o rt h y o f a p lac e b esid e t h o s e of t h e P a rt h en o n

fri ez e B el o nging t o t h e sam e p eri o d is t h e statu e o f t h e

.

Wi nged V i ctory o f
’
wh o se
S a mo th ra ce,-

grac e acti o n and ,

c h arm make it p er
h ap s t h e m o st i a
m o us statu e in t h e
w o r l d S o m ewh at .

l a t er is t h e A p ol lo -
’

B el vi dere and still

- -

l a t er t h e f a m o u s
V enu s de M i l o w h ic h
’
,

mak es a p o p ular a p
p ea l o nly a littl e l ess
stro ng t h an t h a t o f
t h e Wing ed V ict o ry .

2 5 8 G r eek P ai nt.

i ng We must no t
.

t h ink o f t h e marbl e
st a tu es a nd b u i ldi ngs .

o f t h e G r eeks as b e
Ap l l B l i d
o o e v ere

ing p ur e w h it e T h e
.

G r eeks p a int ed a ll o f t h eir marbl es no t in o ne c o l o r but

,

in ma ny In d o ing t h i s t h ey fo ll o w ed t h e cust o m o f t h e
.

Egy p ti a ns a nd o t h er o ri ent a l p eo p l e t h e Egyp ti a ns u s ing

,

y ell o w t o d esignat e a wo man and red a statu e o r r eli ef

of a ma n .

G r eek p a inting und o ubt edly S h o w ed t h e sam e active

gr a c eful figur es t h at t h e r eli efs h av e p r es erved t o us but ,
.

o f c o u rs e m o st o f t h e p aintings h a v e p eris h ed T h e natu .

ra l nes s o f G r eek p a inting is illustr a t ed by t h e w ell kn o wn -

st o ry o f t h e c o nt est b etween Z eux is and P ar rh a s i u s

’
-
’
-
.
 G R EEC E

T he first p ro min ent sc h o o l o f p h il o so p h ers h o wev er , ,

was t h at o f t h e S op h i s ts T h e S o p h ists wer e no t int el

’
.

l ectual giants but w er e k een s tud ents o f li fe and t eac h ers

,

o f t h e b est w a y s t o ex p r ess o n e s t h o ug h ts T h ey wer e so

’
.

int ent o n est a blis h ing t h eir a rgum ents t h at t h ey d eg en

crat ed int o m er e argu ers s o t h a t t h e n a m e s o p h istry i s
,

ap p li ed t o a rgum ent t h at s o unds w ell but is no t v a lid , .

2 6 0 S o cr a t e s A stud ent o f t h e S o p h ists was S o c ra ’

. .

t es a y o ung er c o nt em p orary o f P ericl es

, S o cr a t es w as an
.

exc eedingly h o m ely

m a n rat h er untidy ,

in dr ess w h o s p ent ,

m o st o f h is tim e in
t h e s t r eet s He .

h a d a p a ssi o n fo r
t h e trut h a nd h e ,

s o ug h t t o l ea rn t h e
trut h by qu esti o n
ing h i s h ear ers and
h i s o p p o n en t s .

T h is p ro c ess o f o b
t a ining a kno wl
edg e o f trut h by
S c t o ra es .

q u es t i o n i n g i s
call ed th e S o cra t i c meth od S o cr a t es w as a man o f u n
-
’
.

usu a l m o d er a ti o n and wisd o m w h o fo und t h e end o f exist

enc e t o b e VI R T U E ; p i ety ju s ti ce co u r a ge a nd temp er a nce
, ,

bei ng fou r i mp o r ta nt forms of vi r tu e In o t h er wo rds h is

.
,

was a p r a ctic a l p h il o so p h y .

His o wn virt u e and t h e h ig h st a nd a rd o f li fe t h a t h e s et

fo rt h did no t s a v e h i m fro m t h e enmity and j ea l o usy o f
t h o s e in p o wer in At h ens aft er t h e cl o s e o f t h e P elo p o n
nes i an War . His rut h l ess qu esti o ning h a d exp o s ed t h e
igno ranc e t h e s elfis h ness and t h e dis h o n es ty o f t o o many
,

p p
eo l e. H e was t h er efo r e a d a ng er o us m a n H e w as .
 INTELL ECT UAL SC E I N CE

ccus ed o f crim e b ecaus e h e did no t wo rs h ip t h e G r eek

'

g o ds h i s en emi es c h arging h i m wit h corrup ting yout h

,
.

He w as tri ed b efo r e a p o p ul a r c o urt and as h e h a d ridi , ,

cu l ed p o p ular g o v ernm ent h e was c o nd emn ed to d eat h , .

He h a d r efus ed to t a k e h i s trial s eri o usly sugg esting t h at ,

t h e stat e p unis h h i m by sup p o rting h i m fo r li fe Wh en .

t h e d a y arriv ed w h ic h h a d b een s et fo r h i s d eat h h e calmly ,

drank t h e cu p o f h eml o ck p o is o n a ft er bidding f a r ewell ,

t o t h e fri ends wit h w h o m h e h a d b een discus s ing qu esti o ns

o f p h il o s o p h y .

2 6 1 P 1a t o
.
—
S o crat es did no t writ e no r did h e de
.

v elo p a sy s t em o f p h il o s o p h y His abl est p up il P l a t o .

,
’
,

did b o t h P l at o s p h il o s o p h y is a p h il o s o p h y o f i dea s
.
’
.

He t h o ug h t t h a t id ea s no t m a t eri a l o bj ects are t h e t h ings

, ,

t h at actually exist A man t h a t s ees o nly t h e o bj ects o f

.

t h e mat eri a l w o rld h e lik en ed t o a m a n w h o gro p es blindly

,

in a cave Wh en h e s ees t h at id ea s are r ea l and t h at

.
,

mat eri a l t h ings are but s h ad o ws o f id eas h e c o m es o u t ,

int o t h e cl ea r sunlig h t P lat o s id ea o f t h e st a t e a s s h o wn

.
’
,

in t h e most fam o us of h i s Di a logu es t h e Rep u bli c w as , ,

t h is : t h e st at e is t h e id ea o f Justic e wri t l a rg e ”
His .

id ea was t h at t h e g o v er nm ent s h ould rul e j ustly a nd

'

s h o uld try t o s ecur e j ustic e b efo r e all els e P lat o did .

m o st o f h i s t ea c h ing in a building c a ll ed t h e Ac a d emy .

2 6 2 Ari s t o tl e — Ar is t o t l e w a s muc h y o ung er t h a n

’
- -
. .

P l ato . He did no t writ e in t h e fini s h ed styl e t h at P l a t o

us ed a nd h e did no t f a vo r P l a t o s p h il o s o p h y o f id eas ’
.

Arist o tl e was an exc eedingly p r a ct i c a l man wit h an a l ,

mo st limitl ess am o unt o i kn o wl edge w h ic h h e o rg a niz ed in

syst ems Wit h t h e h el p o f h i s assistants h e wr o t e tr eatis es
.

o n a lm o st ev ery subj ect g a t h ering t o g et h er and o rgani z

,

ing int o syst ems o r sci enc es all o f h i s v a st a m o unt o f

kno wl edge He w a s equally at h o m e in a n a bstrus e sub
.

ject lik e p h il o s o p h y o r in a m ental sci enc e lik e l o gic o r

, ,

in p r a ctical subj ects suc h as p o litics et h ics and n atural ,

 G R EEC E

h ist o ry . S om e
b est wo rk in n atural h ist o ry grew
of h is
o u t o f t h e mat eri a l w h ic h h i s f o rm er p u p il Al ex a nd er s ent

him fro m t h e Ea st B ec a u s e Arist o tl e g a t h er ed a nd o r

.

ga ni z ed so muc h o f t h e kn o wl edg e and m et h o ds o f h i s age ,

w h ic h w a s o ne o f t h e m o st int ell ectu a l in a ll h ist o ry h e ,

was wi d ely studi ed by t h e p eo p l e o f w est ern Euro p e in

t h e M iddl e Ag es .

2 63 La t er P h il o s o p h ers
. P h il o s o p h ers aft er Arist o tl e
.

w er e l ess distinguis h ed t h a n t h e t h r ee gr eat men o f t h e

H ell enic p eri o d T wo of t h es e H ell enistic p h il o s o p h ers
.

d es erv e m ention b ecaus e t h ey fo und ed sc h o o ls t h a t w er e

o f gr eat im p o rtanc e in lat er h ist o ry One o f t h es e w as .

’
Z e no th e S toi c Z en o was a p u p il o f Di o g en es t h e Cynic
.
, .

Di og e nes is f a m o us as t h e man w h o liv ed in a barr el

- -

wh o t o ld Al ex a nd er t o st a nd o u t o f h i s suns h in e and w h o
w ent a b o ut in t h e dayt im e wit h a lant ern h unting fo r an ,

h on est m a n T h e S t o ics b eli ev ed t h a t t h e w o rld w as

‘

rul ed by a S up r em e B eing w h o m men s h o uld wo rs h i p by

t h e cultivati o n o f virtu e T h ey b eli ev ed in s elf d enial
.
-

in m o r a l gr o wt h and in indi ffer enc e t o su ffering t o luxury

, ,

and t o t h e wo rld ab o ut t h em T h e S t o ics w er e no t tru e .

G r eeks and S t o icism n ev er g a in ed a r eal fo o t h o l d in

G r eec e but it mad e a v ery str o ng a p p eal t o G r eek s i n
,

Asia M in o r and t o t h e R o mans a s we s h a ll s ee , .

T h e o t h er H ell enistic p h il o s o p h y was t h at o f Ep i cu ru s .

'
Ep i eu rus t a ug h t t h at men s h o uld b e g o o d if t h ey w er e
- -

t o b e h ap p y H ap p in ess was t h er efo r e t h e c h i ef end o f

.

exist enc e T o m a ny o f h i s fo ll o wers h a p p in ess m ea nt

. .

sim p ly p l easur e and t h ey broug h t Ep icurus int o disr ep ut e

,

b ecaus e t h ey p r a ctis ed t h e m o tt o Ea t drink a nd b e ,

“
,

m erry fo r t o m o rro w w e di e
,
-
”
.

2 6 4 S ci e n ce i n Egyp t B a yl o ni a a nd G r eece
. b ,
— Be .

fo r e t h e tim e o f t h e G r eeks t h er e h a d b een s o m e sci enc e .

T h e sci enc e o f t h e Egyp ti a ns and t h e B abyl o nians w as a

qu eer mixtur e o f t h eo ry fact a nd su p erstiti o n T h eir ,
.
 G R EEC E

P yt h ag o ras and h i s f o ll o wers maint a in ed that t h e ea r th

was a s p h er e and h a d m o ti o n
, One l a t er p h il o s o p h er .

s h o wed t h a t it revo lved a ro und t h e sun U nf o rtun a t ely .

Arist o tl e r ej ect ed t h e id ea t h a t t h e ea rt h h as m o ti o n ,

and sc h olars fo r t wo t h o usand yea rs a cc ep t ed h i s erro r .

Unf o rtunat ely als o a g eo gr ap h er P t o l e my w h o liv ed ,

’
-

in t h e s ec o nd c entury a ft er C h rist t a ug h t t h at t h e s u n ,

r evo lves a r o und t h e eart h and t h is err o r call ed t h e , ,

P tol—e—ma i c s y s tem w a s b eli ev ed g en erally until t h e tim e

’
,

of Ch rist o p h er Co lumbu s .

No t o nly did t h e G r eeks p r o v e t h a t t h e ea rt h is r o und ,

'
but o ne o f t h e grea t Al ex andri a n sc h o l a rs Er a to s th e nes ,
- - -

m easur ed t h e siz e o f t h e ea rt h He estim a t ed t h e cir .

1

cu mference o f t h e ea rt h as mil es a r emark a bly ,

accurat e es tim a t e und er t h e circumst a nc es A l at er .

sc h o l a r d et ermin ed t h e S iz e o f t h e sun c o m p a r ed wit h t h a t

Of t h e eart h .

2 6 7 O t h er S ci en ces a m o n g t h e G r eek s
. If Arist o tl e .

was wr o ng a b o ut t h e m o ti o n o f t h e ea rt h h e did a gr ea t ,

d ea l fo r many sci enc es His classificati o n o f anim a ls .

h as c o m e d o wn a lm o s t t o o u r o wn tim e as t h e b a sis Of
'
t h e sci enc e o f z o o l o gy One o f h i s p u p ils m a d e gr eat
- -
.

p r o gr es s in t h e study o f bo t a ny
’
-
.

T h e G r eeks w er e int en s ely int er est ed in t h e h um a n b o dy .

T h ey t h o ug h t t o o muc h o f it t o diss ect it but t h ey w er e ,

quit e w ell a cqu a int ed wi t h its a n at o my One G r eek .

,

Hi p p oe r a tes th e fa th er of medi ci ne s tudi ed t h e l a ws o f

’
- -

, ,

h ealt h a nd t h e l a ws o f dis ea s e He a b a nd o n ed su p er .

s t i t i o n a bs o lut ely in h i s study o f m edicin e fo r h e b e

, ,

li ev ed t h at di s ea s es fo ll o wed n a tur a l l a ws and w ere no t

d u e t o evil s p irit s .

We ca n s ee fr o m t h i s bri ef S urvey o f G reek sci enc e h o w

1
Era t os t h enes
’
m e t h o d w as a c o m b i na t i o n of two p ro c es s es . He
e xa m i ne d t h e l eng t h o f s h ad o ws at th e t wo s olst i c es a nd h e m eas u re d
a ngl e s a t t w o p o i nt s i n Eg yp t 5 000 s ta dia a p a rt .
 S P R EA D OF HEL L ENI S M

muc h we o w e t o t h e G r eeks F o r t en c enturi es a ft er t h eir

. Ou r d e b t
to th e
tim e t h e w est ern wo rld add ed p r a ctic a lly n o t h ing t o t h e G reek s fo r
sci entific a ttainm ents o f t h e G r eeks . s c i enc e i s
v ery grea t .

S P R EA D OF H EL L E N I S M
2 68 Ea s t w a r d S p r e a d o f H ell eni s m
. .t h is a ttra e
— If
tiv e cultur e and fine civilizati o n h a d b egun and end ed
wit h t h e Gr eeks w e ,
s h o uld find it int er esting but no t
imp o rtant N 0 oth er ci vi li za ti on h as been sp rea d more
.

wi del y Wit h t h e c o nqu ests o f Al ex a nd er G r eek cultur e

.

and l earning w er e carri ed by h i m and h i s succ essors

2 06 209 ) t o a ll p a rts o f t h e ea st ern M edit erran ea n
,

basi n and t o s o m e ext ent int o Asi a W h en w e c o nsid er

.

t h e c h a r a ct er o f t h e civiliz a ti o n o f P erg a mum o f R h o d es , ,

Of Anti o c h a nd o f Al ex a ndri a in t h e H ell enistic Age w e ,

must r ealiz e t h a t at l east t h e citi es o f t h e ea st ern M edi t er

ranea n c o a st w er e G r eek rat h er t h an o ri ent a l Wh en w e .

o bs erv e t h a t G r eek w as t h e l a ngu a g e o f t h e ea st ern M edi

'
t err an ean b a si n t h a t a Gr eek p h il o s o p h y S t o i ci s m was
, ,
-

t h e r eligi o n Of s o ut h ern Asi a M in o r and t h a t it p r ep a r ed

t h e w ay fo r Ch risti a nity a m o ng t h e g entil es w e can ,

und erst and p er h ap s h o w imp o rt ant t o t h e wo rld was t h e

sp r ead o f H ell eni s m o v er t h e east ern M edit erran ea n
basin .

2 69 W es t ern G r eek Civi l iz a ti o n b efo r e t h e

. F al l of

G r ee ce — .I t is v ery ea sy t o fo rg et t h a t t h e p eninsul a
o f G r eec e w a s o nly o ne o f t h e h o m es o f t h e G r eek s T he .

G r eeks h av e b een id entifi ed s o l o ng sim p ly wit h t h e p e

ni nsu l a o f G r eec e and t h e G r eeks p r o p er h a v e b een studi ed
s o muc h fr o m t h e stand p o int o f At h ens t h a t t h e G r eeks
,

o f t h e West h av e b een o v erl o o k ed Wh at h as b een said

.

in t h is c h ap t er o f t h e G r eeks ap p li es no t o nly t o t h e At h e
ni ans but t o t h e w est ern as w ell as t h e Asiatic and t h e p enin
sular Gr eeks As we n o tic ed t h es e w est ern citi es w er e
.
,
 G R EEC E

famous fo r th eir l a ws t h eir g o v ernm ents and th eir mat erial

,

d ev el o p m ent .

T h es e w est ern G r eek citi es w er e no t o nly c entr es o f

G r eek cultur e and l earni ng in t h e West T h ey c a rri ed .

G r eek civilizati o n t o th eir n eig h b o rs T h e E t ru s cans

.
-
’

2 8 3 ) b o rr o w ed t h e G r eek al p h a b et a nd many o t h er
G r eek id eas p r o b a bly g etting m o st o f t h em fr o m C um ae
, .

T h e R o m a ns l earn ed fr o m t h e Etrusc a ns a nd a ls o fr o m
t h e w est ern G r eek citi es w h ic h t h ey c o nqu er ed o r wit h ,

whic h t h ey w er e alli ed .

2 7 0 I n fl u en ce o f R o m e s Co n q u e s t s o f G r ee ce u p o n
’
.

R o ma —
M ost o f t h e G r eek cultur e o f R o m e and t h e
w est ern R o m a n wo rld c a m e aft er t h e c o nqu est of G r eec e
in 1 4 6 B C It cam e fr o m t wo sourc es G r eec e its elf and
. .
,

Al exandri a Ev en b efo r e t h e fin a l c o nqu est o f Gr eec e an

.

imm ens e a m o unt o f G r eek tr ea s u r e w a s c a rri ed t o R o m e as

b o o ty by s o ldi ers and comm a nd ers Even t h e u p rig h t .

JE—mil i u s P aul us carri ed a way 2 50 wago ns o f p aintings

’ ’
-

and st a tu es Wh en Co rint h was d estr o y ed in 14 6 B C

. . .
,

G r eec e w a s mad e int o a R o man d ep end ency a

muc h gr eat er a m o unt o f b o o ty w a s tak en t o t h e w est ern

cap ital and t ens o f t h o us a nds o f educat ed G r eeks w er e
tak en to R om e as cap tiv es As M o r ey w ell s ays Greek .
,

cu l tu r e was bo r ne i nto As i a on th e ch a ri o t of a co nqu ero r

“
,
”
whi l e i t was brou gh t i nto I ta l y i n th e ch a i ns o f a ca p ti ve .

T h es e educat ed G r eek sl a v es and t h o us a nds o f fr ee G r eeks

w h o v o luntarily emigrat ed t o R o m e taug h t t h e R omans
G r eek w a ys s o t h a t it b ec a m e t h e fas h i o n t o do ev ery
,

t h ing as t h e G r eeks did th em fr o m t h e f a st ening o f a cl o a k

,

t o t h e writing o f a p o em o r t h e building o f a t emp l e .

2 7 1 G r e ek Cu l t u r e i n t h e R o m a n Emp ir e
. Ev en .

m o re Gr eek influ enc e was ex ert ed u p o n R o m e by Al ex

a ndri a fo r Al ex a ndri a was t h e gr ea t est c entr e o f Gr eek
,

l ea rning a t t h is tim e R o m a n w rit ers imitat ed t h e s ec o nd

.

r at e Al ex a ndrian lit er a tur e R o m e b o rr o wed fro m Al ex

.
 G R EEC E

G r ea t numb ers o f sch o lars c a rrying manuscri p ts went to , ,

w est ern Eur o p e es p eci a lly It a ly w h er e t h ey taugh t in

, ,

t h e u niv ersiti es T h ey int er est ed p eo p l e i n t h e G r eek

.

manuscri p ts and in G r eek sci enc e T h e id ea t h at t h e .

eart h was r o und was r eviv ed so t h at Ch rist o p h er Co ,

lumbus dar ed t o mak e a vo yag e into t h e west ern s eas in

s earc h o f t h e Indi es A p assion fo r t h e study o f G r eek
.

r eviv ed i n this p eriod kn o wn a s t h e R enaiss a nc e , .

T h e study o f G r eek lit eratur e and p h iloso p h y will b e

p ursu ed as l o ng as t h er e is h ig h er educati o n T h e study o f .

th es e subj ects in t h e o rigin a l G r eek may no t b e p ursu ed

so fait h fully fo r t h e Gr eek languag e d o es not h av e t h e
,

p l a c e i n o u r high sc h ool cur ricula that it had two g en era

tions ago or ev en o ne g en eration ago We do not n eed a
,
.

knowl edge o f t h e G r eek languag e h o wev er to S h ow us , ,

h o w much w e o w e t o t h e G r eeks fo r it must b e cl ear t o ,

ev ery o ne w h o h a s r ead t h is c h a p t er t h at th e Greeks wer e

th e gr ea t tea ch ers to th e wor ld of a rt a nd th e i ntel lectu al

s ci ences .

G ene r al R eferences
D u ru y , Hi s tory of Greec e , IV .

M y ers , Anc i ent Hi s to ry 2 9 4 —3 4 8 , .

M o rey , Ou tl i nes of Greek Hi s to ry 1 4 9 — 1 64 1 9 3 26 2 2 8 7 2 9 8 , ,

-

,
-

3 2 0 33 3 , 3 46 —3 54
-
.

Tu ck L if i n Anc i nt Ath n
er , e e e s .

G li c k T h L if
u ,f th Anci nt G ke e o e e r ee s .

Z i mme n T h G k C mm nw l th
r , e ree o o ea .

M a h aff y , Wh a t h a ve th e Greeks do ne fo r M o dern Ci vi l i za ti o n?

Wh i b l ey A Co mp a ni o n to Greek S t u di es .

Top i cs
T HE G O V E R N M E N T A nci ent Wo rld rev i s ed ,
OF AT H E N s : Wes t , .

2 01 —2 07 ; W h ib l ey Co mp a ni o n to Greek S t u di es 3 60 3 6 8 ,
-

i
W l s o n, T e S t te, 6 8 9 ; F ergu so
h a 4— G re ek I m p er i a l i s m 4 9 — 65 n , , .

T H E S C U L P T U R E S O F T H E P AR T H E N O N : a r b ell , H i s to r y of T
Greek Art, 1 9 0—1 9 9 ; F o w l er a nd Wh eel er Greek Arch eo l o gy , ,

2 3 7 2 4 5 ; Well er , Ath ens a nd I ts M o nu ments 2 8 3 3 02

—
,
-
.
 S P R EA D o r H EL L E NIS M 2 11

S O CR AT E s : F li ng , S o u rc e B o o k f Greek Hi s to ry o , 2 40—2 50 ;
C o t t eri l l , A nc i ent Greec e, 37 1 8 ; M u rra y
—3 2 Anc i ent Greek ,

L i tera tu re, 1 7 0—1 7 7 .

S tu d i es
1 S l a v ery i n G reece
. . W h i b l ey Co mp a ni o n to Greek
S tu di es , 4 1 6 4 2 2 -
.

2 . G reek c l o t hi ng . G u li ck Life of th e A nc i ent Greeks 1 5 3

, ,

1 62 .

3 . P i ct u res of G reek s ch o o l life . D av i s , R ea di ngs i n Anc i ent

Hi s to ry , I , 25 1 2
—
57 .

4 . M arri age a nd t h e h o me a mo ng t h e G reek s . c

G u l i k L if e ,

of th e Anc i ent Greeks ,

1 1 9 — 12 6 .

5 . R eli g i p ro p h e y a nd m y s
o ns , c t i er es . W hi b l ey Co m
p a ni o n o f Greek S t u di es , 339 3 4 5 -

A m eet i ng
6 . of th e A h e i an t n a s se mbly . D i av s , R ea di ngs i n
Anc i ent Hi s to ry , I 2 3 4—2 3 7 .

7 fEs ch y l u s
.
, T h e P ersi a ns . F l i ng S o u r c e B o o k
,
o f Greek
Hi s to r y 1 2 2 1 2 6 ,
-

8 . t
S el ec i o ns fro m Ari s t o p h a n es . B o t s fo r d , S o u rce B oo k o f
Anc i ent Hi s to r y 1 9 6—2 02 , .

9 . P oly biu s on th e end o f G reek freed o m . B o t sford , S o u rc e

B oo k of A n c i ent H i s t o r y 3 8 9 —3 9 4
, .

10 . D em o s h enes
“
t
On t h e Cro w n . .

11 . T h e G reek th ea t r e . W h ib l ey Co mp a ni o n o f Greek
S tu di es 33 2 — 3 39 , .

1 2 S t o ri es o f S o cra es
. a is, R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s t . D v
I
t or y , , 2 40—2 4 5 .

1 3 Ari s t o t l e
.
Wi lli a m s , Every Da y S c i enc e,
. 1 8 2 1 88 I ,
-

1 4 Al exa ndr a n s ci ence

. i
Wi ll i a m s , Every Da y S c i ence, , . I
1 8 9 — 1 9 4 , 2 2 5—2 3 3 .

15 . P h i di a s a nd t he P ar t h eno n . R ei na ch , A p o l l o 4 7 —5 5 , .

16 . T he t
P a r h eno n . Well er , Ath ens a nd I ts M o nu ments ,
2 7 0—2 8 3 .

17 Hell eni s t i c a nd R o ma n a go ra o f At h ens

.
Well er Ath ens .
,

a nd I ts M o nu ments 1 30—1 4 9 , .

1 8 H ell eni s ti c s cu l p t u re
.
F o w l er a nd Wh eel er Ha ndbo o k of .
,

Greek Arc h eo l o gy , 2 7 4 —2 9 2 .

1 9 S p rea d o f G reek u l t u re
. c . M o rey , Ou tl i nes f Greek Hi s
o

t ory , 3 2 0—3 2 3 3 4 6—3 53 , .

20 . C o mm er c e a nd i nd u s t ry a mo ng t h e G reek s . Whi b l ey
Co mp a ni o n to Greek S tu di es , 4 2 8 4 3 3 -
.
212 G R EEC E

Q u es ti o n s
1 . N a me t h e t h ree c l a s s es o f p eo p l e l i vi ng i n G reece , a nd S h o w

wh a t v
p ri i l eges or d i s a b i li t i es ea ch h ad .

2 . Were w o men freer i n ea rl y p ri mi t i v e c o mmu ni t i es t h a n t h ey

w ere i n h i g h l y d ev el o p ed s o c i et i es li k e t h o s e o f B a b y l o ni a a nd
G ree e ? c If so , c
h o w d o y o u a co u nt fo r t h a t fa t c
3 . Wh at is j
t h e o b e c t o f ed u c a t i o n ? Di d t h e G reek ed u ca
tio n s erv e t o p re p a re t h e c hi l d ren fo r l i fe ? Wa s it o ne S i d ed ?
-

Wa s t
i t i n eres t i ng ? W a s i t p ra c t i c a l ?
4 T
. ell a c ri fic es a mo ng t h e G reek s Were t h e G reek s
bou t sa .

a re li gi
o u s p eo p l e ? Ho w w ere t h ei r m o ra l s t a nd a rd s di fferent
fro m o u r o w n ? W ere t h ey m o re o r l es s c i vi li z ed t h a n w e a re ?
5 W h a t i s a s t a t e ? a go v er nm ent ? a n a ri s t o c ra c y a d em o c
.

ra c y ? a c i t i z en ? a s u bj c
e t ? W h a t a re c i v i l ri g h t s ? p o li t i c a l
p riv i l eg es ? c o d es o f l a w s ?

6 Di d s ma ll c i t y s t a t es fa v o r d em o c ra c y o r m o na rc h y ?
.
-

Were t h e G reek s mo re o r l es s s el f go v erni ng t h a n t h e Ameri c a n -

p eo p l e ?
7 . N am e t h e fo u r s u c c es s i v e fo rm s o f G ree k c i t y s t a t e go v ern -

ment . N a me t h e fo u r s u c c es s i v e s t ep s i n t h e dev el o p ment o f

t h e G reek i d ea of c i t i z ens h i p .

8 . In wh a t di d t h e exc ell enc e of G reek l i t era t u re c o ns i s t ?

N m e t w o ea rl y p o e t s t w o d ra ma t i s t s a nd t w o h i s t o ri a ns g i v
a , ,

i ng t h e na m e o f a n i m p o r t a nt w o r k o f ea c h .

9 . Wh atp h i l o s o h
p e r d i s c o v ere d t r u t h b y q u e s t i o ni ng
? Wh at
two p hi l o s o p h er s f o u nd ed i m p o r t a n t r e l i g i o n s ? Wh o w a s t h e
grea t p h il o s o p h er W h o w a s t h e m o s t l ea rned p h i
of i d ea s ?

l o s o p h er a d s c i ent i s t o f t e a n c i e t w
n h n o rl d ? Wh a t ci ty wa s
m o s t fa m o u s fo r i t s s c i enc e i n t h e Hell eni s t i c p eri o d
1 0 W h a t d eb t d o w e o w e t o t h e G reek s i n g o v ernm ent ? i n
.

s c i enc e ? i n a r t ?

1 1 W h a t i s t h e P a rth eno n ?
. N a me t w o G reek s c u l p t o rs o f
t h e Hell eni c p eri o d ; t h ree fa m o u s s t a t u es o f t h e H ell eni s t i c
p eri o d ; t h ree fa m o u s G reek b u il d i ng s o u t s i d e o f At h ens .

1 2 W h en a nd h o w w a s G reek c u l t u re ext end ed t o t h e ea s t ern

.

M edi t erra nea n c o a s t s ? t o S i c i l y a nd s o u t h ern I t a l y ? t o

R o m e ? t o w es t ern Eu ro p e ?
1 3 P o i nt o u t a t l ea s t t w o ra d i c a l d i ff erenc es b et w een t h e S O
.

ci a l c l a s s es o f G reece a nd t h o s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t es .

1 4 Wh a t p ri v i l eg es a nd r es p o ns i b i l i t i es h a v e Am eric a n w omen
.

th a t w ere no t p o s s es s ed b y t h e w o men o f G reec e ?

 G R EEC E

C HR O NO LO IC AL G TA B LE

T HE NE AR EA S T T HE W ES T EV E N T S I N G R E E K Hxs r o a r

7 53 2 8 2 ) F o u nd i ng 7 7 6 Fi rs t Oly m p i c
A s s y ri a n Emp i re of R ome C o nt e s t

6 06 F a ll of N i nev eh
6 04 N e b u c h a d nez z a r
5 5 0 C y ru s , K i ng of

M ed i a
b
5 38 C y ru s i n B a y l o n
q
5 2 5 P ersi a n C o n u e s t
o f Egy p t 5 08 F o rm a t i o n of
5 00 I o ni c R ev o l t R ep u b l i c
a g a i ns t D a ri u s I 4 9 4 S ec es si o n t o
S a c red M o u nt 49 0 M a ra t h o n
( 52 8 6 )
480 H i m era ( b a t t l e)
P ER S I AN W A R S 3 05 )
47 9 M y cal e ( B a t t l e)
452 D ec em v i ri 288)
44 5 R ev o l u t i o ns i n 44 5 T h i r t y Y ea r P ea e c
fa v o r o f p l e b s . 4 3 1 —4 04 P el o p o nne
( 5 289) si a n W a r

4 1 5 —3 S i c il i a n c
4 1 5 S y ra u sa n exp edi
exp ed i t i o n tio n
4 05 E m p i re o f Di o ny 4 05 E g o s p o t o m i
si ns I o f S y ra c u s e 4 04 —3 7 1 S p a rt a n su

c
4 01 M a r h o f t h e T en p rem a cy
T h o u sa nd 39 6 Co n q u es t of V eu
c
3 8 7 P ea e o f 29 3)
A nt a l ci d a s
c
3 6 7 L i i ni a n l a ws
( 5 28 9)
34 0 T i m o l eo n t h e
b
li era t o r 3 05 )

3 3 8 C h aero nea ( a t t l e)b

3 3 6 3 2 3 Al exa nd er t h e
-

33 3 I s s u e ( b a t t l e)
G rea t
’
s c o nq u es t s
3 3 2 T y re ( c a p t u re o f)
3 32 F o u nd i ng o f Ag a t h o c l es i n A fri c a
Al exa nd ri a —
34 3 2 7 2 C o n u es t o fq
3 3 1 Ar b el a ( b a t t l e) I t aly ( 5 297 ) 1

3 2 3 D ea t h o f Al ex
a nd er

3 01 D i v i si o n o f A s
’

Emp i re
 S P R EA D OF H EL L ENI S M 2 15

G
C H R O N O L O I C AL TA BLE

P HI L O S O P H Y , S CI E N C E
G R E EK G O V E R N M E N T G R E E K LI T E R A T U RE
A ND AR T

L y c u rg us

6 2 1 D ra c o c o de —
’
s 6 24 5 4 6 T h a l es
6 1 0—5 6 5 S a p p h o

5 9 4 R efo rm s o f S o l o n M y ro n
P el o p o nnesi a n L ea gu e
Ea rl y t y ra nt s

5 09 R efo rm s o f
C l ei s t h enes

4 7 7 C o nfed era y c of

D el o s T h e S o p h i st s
4 54 At h eni a n Em p i re P h i di a s
T h e P a r t h eno n
Eu ri p i d es

Ari s t o p h a nes S o c ra t e s

P lat o

P r a xi t el es

Ari s t o t l e

3 38 M a c ed o ni a n D em o s t h enes
su p erv i si o n
 G R EEC E

G
C H R O N O L O I C AL TA B LE ( Co nt i nu ed)

T HE NE A R EA S T T HE W ES T EV E NT S IN G R E E K HI S T ORY

Al exa nd ri a n K i ngd o m s
287 H o rt e ns i a n
la w
q
( e u a li z a t i o n o f
t h e o rd er s ) 2 9 0)

2 6 5 —2 4 1Fi rs t P u ni c
W ar .S i ci l y fi rs t
,

R o m a n P ro v i nc e
3 1 1)
— 02
2 17 2 H a nni b al
S ec o nd P u ni c W a r
2 1 6 C a nnaa ( b a t t l e) G a u l s i nv a d e G reec e
3 15 ) 2 1 1 —2 05 F i rs t M a c e
2 07 M et a u ru s ( b a t t l e) d o ni a n W a r
( 5 347 )
C o nq u es t Of Ant i o c h u s , 2 02 Z a m a 3 18)
t h e G rea t ( 5 3 2 0) I nc rea s e O f wea l t h 2 00 1 9 7 S e
-

c o nd
a nd c o rru p t i o n i n M a c e d o ni a n W a r
H u m il i a t i o n of R h o d es Ro me 323 1 6 8 P y d na ( 5 3 1 9 )
32 1) 33 1)
c
1 4 6 D e s t ru t i o n of c
1 4 6 D es t ru t i o n o f
C a rt h a g e 3 22) C o ri nt h ( e nd o f
1 4 6 Es t a b l i s h m e nt O f
“
G reek i nd e
R o m a n s u p rem a c y
"

p e nd e nce )
i n t h e M e d i t er
ra nea n 32 3)
 B . R OM E

CH AP T ER IX
EAR L Y R OM E (T O 2 64 B C ) . .

274 . The W o rl d M o v em ent s Ti m es Be of An ci ent .

for e 5 00 B C t h e Tigris Eup h r a t es b asin a nd Egyp t w er e

. .
-

t h e c entr es o f t h e gr eat est mov em ents in w o rld h ist o ry .

F o r t h r ee c entur i es aft er 500 B C G r eec e h eld t h e c entr e . .

o f t h e st a g e T h en R o m e cam e t o t h e fr o nt and fo r
.
, ,

six c enturi es t h er e w as v ery littl e h ist o ry unc o nn ect ed

,

with R o m e B efo r e c o nsid ering t h e p art p l a yed by R o m e

.

as a wo rld stat e (P a rt I I I ) w e must study t h e g eo gr ap h y o f

R o m e and It a ly t h e R o m a n p eo p l e a nd t h eir ris e t o t h e p o
‘

sitio u o f t h e first p o wer in t h e w est ern M edit erranean .

G E OG R A P H Y

27 5 . raph y
G eo g It a ly is a l o ng n a rr o w p eni nsula
.

ext ending s o ut h fr o m Eur o p e almost acr o ss t h e c entr e of

t h e M edit err a n ean S ea It is p ro t ect ed from invad ers on

.

t h e n o rt h by t h e h ig h Al p s m o unt a ins T h e nort h ern .

end of t h e p eninsula is a wid e fertil e v a ll ey t h a t Of t h e

, ,

P 0 riv er w h ic h p l a y ed a sur p risingly small p a rt i n t h e

,

h ist o ry of t h e a nci ent wo rld .

Italy p ro p er is divid ed by t h e Ap en m ncs mou ntai ns ’ ’

into a w est ern slo p e w h ic h i s l o ng and narrow and a

, ,

s o ut h ern sl o p e f a cing t h e gulf o f T a rcn t u m B ec a us e

,
-
’
.

”
o f o u r p r evi o us study o f G r ea t G r eec e o u r int er est
“

no w c entr es in t h e w es t ern s l o p e o f t h e Ap ennin es .

2 7 6 P o li ti ca l Divi s i o n s o f I t al y T h e vall ey o f t h e -

.
.

P 0 was call ed Ci s a l p i ne G a ul T h e r es t o f t h e p eni nsul a

’ ’ f
.

2 18
 R OM E

n in es cov ering m o st o f t h e p eninsula mad e nati o n al

, ,

u ni o n easy Gr eece fa c ed t h e Ea s t a nd w as fo rc ed t o keep

.

out east ern inv a d ers I ta ly fa c ed t h e n ew er a nd l ess

.

d evel o p ed Wes t S h e w a s l eft fr ee t o b ec o m e unit ed

.

b efo r e for eign fo es p r ess ed u p o n h er fo r s h e was p ro ,

t ect ed by t h e Ap ennin es o n t h e eas t a nd by t h e Alp s o n

t h e n o rt h It w as n atur a l m o r eo v er t h a t Italy s h o uld
.

b e u ni t ed by t h e city t h a t c o ntr o ll ed t h e c entral v a ll ey

o f t h e w es t ern sl o p e and a s w e h a v e s een t h a t city w as
, , ,

Ro me .

2 7 9 S t ep s i n t h e Ex p a n s i o n o f R o m e
. Onc e in co n .

tro l o f t h e w est ern sl o p e o f t h e Ap ennines a nd o f It a ly ,

R o m e n a turally r eac h ed o u t t o S icily H o lding Italy .

a nd S icily h er c o mm a nding p o siti o n at t h e c entr e o f t h e

,

M edit err a n ea n g a v e h er a cc ess t o n o rt h ern Africa t o ,

G r eec e t o Egyp t t o Asia a nd t o w es t ern Eur op e

, , T he
,
.

c h ar a ct er o f t h e M edit err a n ean b a s in 1 5 8 ) mad e p o s

sibl e a singl e M edit err a n ean st a t e c o v ering t h e w h o l e
b as in T h e g eo gr ap h y o f It a ly a nd R o m e g a v e R o m e a n
.

exc ell ent c h a nc e t o fo rm as s h e did t h a t p o w erful w o rld

, ,

stat e.

T HE R o M AN s B EF O R E 5 10 B C . .

28 0 . An O l d R o m a n . T h e R o m a ns h a d no
v ery gr eat
g eo grap h ic a l a dv a nt a g es h o wever o v er t h e p eo p l e o f
, ,

S yr a cus e o r o f C a rt h a g e T h eir r ea l a dv a nt a ge was o ne '

o f c h ar a ct er We s o m etim es h ea r a p ers o n c a ll ed a n Ol d
.

R o m an W a t d o es t e t erm m ean
h . h ? If t h e man is
r ea lly like t h e o ld R o m a n s it m eans t h a t h e is p l ain a nd ,

crud e living a li fe o f S p a rt a n sim p licity ; t h a t h e wo rks

,

h a rd o n h i s littl e f a rm t h a t h e rul es h i s h o us eh o ld st ernly

and wit h a k een s ens e o f j u s tic e ; t h at h e l o ves fig h ting
and d o es no t mind l o ng marc h es In s h o rt it m eans t h at .
,

h e is a p l a in p r a ctic a l a u s t er e s o n o f t h e p eo p l e h o n est
, , ,

a nd m o r a l w h o d es p is es luxury w h o h a t es effemin a cy
, ,
 T H E R OM A NS B EF OR E 5 1 0 B C . .

a nd wh o n ever kno ws wh en h e is b eat en It m eans t h at '

.
1

h e is st o lid sturdy and d et ermin ed

,
.

2 8 1 T h e R o m a n F a mily
.
— I n R o m e t h e f am
. ily w a s Ab s o l u t e
l eg a l a u
imp o rt a nt as in G r eec e ,
In b o t h it w as t h e t h o ri t y o f
b a sis o f r eligi o n and o f t h e st a t e In ea rly R o m e h owev er . t h e fa t h er

t h e fa mily w as im p o rt a nt in its el f T h e fat h er (p a ter wi th rea l

freed o m
.

fa m i l i a s ) h a d a lm o st a bs o lut e a ut h o rity H e w as h ea d . fo r t h e
m o t h er
o f t h e f a mily h igh p ri est a nd j udg e If h i s wi fe c o mmitt ed .

.
,

a crim e h e w o uld d ecid e t h e p unis h m ent and t h e c o urts

,

wo uld a cc ep t h i s d eci s i o n T h e o l d R o m a n f at h er wo uld

.

p unis h h i s wi fe o r h i s s o n a s di s p a s si o n a t ely a s a ny o u t

s id er c o uld h a v e d o n e T h a t w as b ec a us e h e w as an o l d
.

R o m an T h e R o m a n f a mily w
. as v ery di ffer ent fr o m t h e

G r eek in m a ny w a ys h o wev er ,
T h e w o m en mig h t b e.

a bs o lut ely und er t h e c o ntr o l o f t h e f a t h er but t h e m o t h er ,

h a d a p o siti o n o f dignity a nd o f c o mp a r a tiv e fr eed o m ,

wh ic h t h e G r eek wi fe did no t h av e R o m a n fa mily ti es .

wer e v ery str o ng Divo rc e w as unkn o wn b efo r e t h e cl o s e

.

o f t h e first P unic W a r and imm o rality w as u n

c o mm o n .

2 8 2 R o m a n R el i gi o n
. T h e h ig h m o r a l st a nd a rd o f
. C r ud e
b eli efs of
t h e ea rly R o m a ns w as a r esult o f c h a r a ct er a nd o f cust o m ,
the ea rl y

no t o f r eligi o n T h e first R o mans h a d a n exc eedingly

. R o m a ns .

p rimitiv e n a tur e r eligi o n in w h ic h t h e g o ds w er e p o w ers

,

o f n a tur e t h a t r esid ed in st o n es o r tr ees o r w a t er f a lls .

T h es e g o ds must b e ap p ea s ed T h er efo r e t h e R o man .

,

m a d e h i s s a crific es s o t h a t t h e wr a t h o f t h e g o ds s h o uld b e
a v ert ed and t h e fa v o r o f t h e g o ds b e g a in ed Wh en h e .

did t h is h e w as c ar eful t o go t h r o ugh t h e c o rr ect forms

, .

T h e ea r l y R o m a n mig h t b e s a id t o h a v e w o rs h i p p ed
fo rm . Wh en h e m a d e a c o ntr a ct o r bro ug h t a s uit a t ,

1
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e R o m a n w as p l a i n a nd p r a c t i c al i s i l l u s t r a t ed b y
t h i s t ext t h e l et t ers o f wh i c h a re c al l ed R o m a n I f w e c o m p are t h i s
q
, .

p l a i n, s u ar e R o m a n t y p e w i t h t h e o r na t e G r eek , G erma n o r ol d Engl i sh

l et t ers w e
, ca n s ee h o w p r a ct i c al t h e R o m a n w as .
 R OM E

law or o ff ered a sacrific e t h e im p o rtant t h ing w as t h e

, ,

fo rm ; t h at is t h e way i n wh ic h it was d o n e T h e act

,
.

its elf was incid ental If a R o man h ad finis h ed h alf o f a

.

r eligi o us c er emony and l eft o u t a w o rd h e wo uld b egin ,

ag a in fo r t h e first c erem o ny w a
,
s

o f no v a lu e T h e early R o man .

was exc eedingly s u p erstiti o us .

He b eli ev ed in o m ens a nd h e
gl a dly l ea rn ed fro m h i s Etruscan
n eig h bo rs o n t h e n o rt h t o study , ,

t h e flig h t of birds or t h e en
trails o f victims s a crific ed on t h e
altars .

In lat er tim es w h en t h e R om a n ,

m o v ed t o a new h o us e h e t o o k ,

wit h h i m h i s h o us eh o ld g o ds h is ,

go dd ess of t h e h eart h and h is

ot h er h o us eh o ld d eiti es s o m e o f ,

w h ic h l a t er w ere call ed t h e La r es ’

a nd P e na t es Wh en w e s o m e
-
’
.

tim es sp eak figur a tiv ely o f o u r

La r es and P en a t es w e r ef er t o ,

t h e emb o dim ent o f t h e s p irit Of

V t l V i gi n es a r

o u r h o me
.

2 8 3 T h e Etr u s ca ns
.
— Am o ng t h e p eo p l es of Italy
n o rt h o f t h e Gr eek citi es b efo r e 5 10 B C o nly o ne t h e . .
,
'
E tru s c a ns h a d a well d ev el o p ed civiliz a ti o n
-

,
-
T h ey u n .

d ers t o o d t h e u s e o f t h e a rc h a nd o f dr a in a g e t h ey p a v ed ,

ro ads a nd it w as fro m t h em t h at R oman religi o n a cquir ed

,

t h e m et h o d o f divin a ti o n t h ro ug h an ins p ecti o n o f t h e

liv er T h ey k ep t u p t h eir int erest in G r eek t h ings by
.
1

trading w it h t h e G r eek citi es o f s o ut h It a ly F o r s ev eral .

1 T his B a b y l o ni a n c i v ili z a t i o n w a s p ro b a bl y b ro u gh t t o Et ru ri a b y
t h o se E t ru s c a ns w h o c a m e fro m Asi a M i no r T h ey exh i b i t ed a s i m i l a r
a c q u a i nt a nc e wi t h Greek
.

my th o l ogy a nd ea rl y Greek l ea r ni ng .
 R OM E

im p o rtant h i lls intr o duc ed Etruscan cust o ms and Gr eek ,

a nd Etruscan civiliz a ti o n T h es e kings rul ed no t o nly .

t h e city o f R om e but muc h o f t h e surr o unding c o untry .

2 8 5 Co mi ti a C en t u ri a t a T h e R o m a ns w er e
’ ’
.
- — - - - -
.

o rig i n a lly o rg a niz ed in trib es o n a r eligi o us basis like , ,

t h a t o f t h e G r eeks T h e Etrusc a n s intr o duc ed a

new syst em b a s ed o n w ea lt h T h e a rmy was mad e u p
, .

o f centu ri es o r h undr eds a nd a p o p ul a r a ss embl y ( call ed

, ,

co mi ti a ) w as h eld in w h ic h t h e p eo p l e v o t ed by
-
” ’
-

centuri es T h e w ealt h y men o f t h e inf a ntry and t h e

.

c a valry equit es h ad m o r e t h a n h a lf o f t h e v o t es a l ,

t h o ug h t h e p o o r er s o ldi ers o utnum b er ed t h em many

tim es T h is ass embly o f t h e c ent u ri es w h ic h met o ut s id e
.
,

t h e city in a milit a ry fi eld call ed t h e Cam p us M a rtius ,

last ed fo r s ev eral h undred y ea rs .

T HE ST R UG GLE OF T HE C LA S S ES (5 1 0 —2
87 D C . .
)
286 .t a b l i s h m ent o f t h e R ep u b l i c
T h e Es In 5 1 0 B C . . .

t h e R o m a n arist o crats call ed t h e p a tri ci a ns dr o v e o u t

’
-

, ,

t h e Et ru s ca n p rinc es and est a bli s h ed a r ep ublic T h is

'

r ep ublic was o f c o urs e rul ed by t h e p a trici a ns fo r t h eir

, ,

o w n b en efit T h ey did no t tr ea t t h e c o mm o n p eop l e t h e

.
,

p l e be i a ns as w ell a s t h e kings h a d d o ne fo r t h e ki ngs

’
-

, ,

n eed ed t h e su p p o rt o f t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e a g ainst t h e
arist o cr a cy In a dditi o n R o m e l o st h er influ enc e o ver
.
,

h er imm ediat e neigh b o rs w h o h ad su p p o rt ed t h e Et ru s ,

.

c a ns but r efus ed t o sup p o rt t h e p atrici ans .

2 8 7 T h e G o v ern m ent o f t h e Ea l y R ep u b li c
.
— T he r .

r ep ublic wa s g o v ern ed by t h e p atricians t h ro ug h t h e a s

s embl y o f t h e c enturi es and t h ro ugh a s en at e and t h ro ug h
.
, ,

m a gi s tr a t es As w e h ave s een v o ting in t h e a ss embly of

.
,

th e centu ri es was c o ntr o ll ed by t h e w ealt h y citiz ens ; T he

a ss embly h a d c o ns id er abl e p o wer It ma de t h e laws
'

a n d d ecid ed w h e t h e r t h er e S h o uld b e war o r p ea ce s J

 T HE S T R U G G LE OF T HE C LAS S ES

T he was m a d e u p o f t h e m o st influ ential p a

sen a te
’

t ri ci a ns It met m o r e fr equ ently t h an t h e ass embly

.
,

and it r eally discuss ed p ublic aff a irs Wh en t h e ass embly .

m a d e laws o r d ecid ed matt ers it p r o bably o n ly ratifi ed

t h e d ecisi o n o f t h e s enat e .

Ev ery y ea r t h e a ss embly el ect ed two c h i ef magistrat es

call ed con s u ls T h es e men enforc ed t h e laws and co m
’
.
1

mand ed t h e a rmy o n a lt ernat e d ays In tim e o f gr eat .

danger a di c ta tor w as el ect ed milit a ry c o mmand er wit h

-
’
,

abs o lut e p o wer fo r a p eri o d o f no t m o r e t h a n six mont h s .

2

2 8 8 Tr o u b l e s o f t h e P l eb s
.
— Wit h t h e p a tricians in .

abs o lut e c o ntro l o f t h e go v ernm ent t h e p l ebs (t h e nam e ,

us ed fo r t h e p l eb eians as a c lass ) w er e wo rs e o ff t h an b e
fo re Aft er t h e exp ulsi o n o f t h e kings R o m e f o ugh t
.
,

alm o st c o ntinu o usly wit h h er n eigh b o rs w h o sym p at h iz ed

wit h t h e Etrusc a n p rinc es T h e R o man army was in t h e .

fi eld m o st o f ev ery summ er T h is m ea nt t h at t h e p l eb eian .

f a rm ers l eft t h eir cro p s w h ic h suff er ed fro m lack of car e

,

and fro m t h e d ep r ed ati o ns o f t h e en emy T h e m o r e t h e .

p l ebs fo ug h t t h e d eep er t h ey cam e int o t h e d ebt o f t h e

,

ric h p atrici ans w h o w er e gl a d t o l end t h em m o n ey Ao

, .

c o rding t o t h e law o f t h at tim e a s b efo r e t h e tim e o f S ol o n ,

in At h ens d ebt ors w h o c o uld no t p ay t h eir d ebts

b ecam e S l a v es .

2 8 9 T h e P l eb s g ai n Tri b u n e s a nd a n As s emb ly
. In .

4 9 4 t h e p l ebs s ec ed ed t o t h e S acr ed M o unt j ust o utsid e

o f t h e city Th ey r efus ed t o r eturn t o R o m e until t h e p a
.

t ri ci ans gav e t h em r eli ef An agr eem ent w a s drawn u p p ro

.

v i di ng t h at t h er eaft er no d ebt o r was t o b e s o ld a s a S lav e .

T h e p l ebs w er e t o el ect y ea rly t w o o fficials call ed tri b u nes ’

wh o c o uld say v et o (I fo rbid ) if a magistrat e tri ed t o ,

1 T he c o nsul s were p rec ed ed b y li c t o rs wi t h a xes a s w a s a v i c t o ri o u s

c o nqu ero r S ee e g t h e l i c t o r s p reced i ng C aesa r i n t h e il l u s t ra t i o n p 2 3 3
,

. . . . .
, ,

2
T h ere w ere o t h er o ffic i a l s i nc l u d i ng a r ex ( k i ng) w h o h a d reli gi o u s
, ,

d u t i es a s t h e A t h eni a n k i ng a r c h o n h a d
,
-

!
 R OM E

e n fo rc e any h ars h l a w a g a in s t a p l eb ei a n T h e p ers o ns .

1

of t h e tribun es w er e sacr ed ; t h at is t h ey c o uld no t b e ,

a rr est ed o r int erf er ed wit h in a ny w ay S o m e yea rs .

l a t er (4 7 1 B C ) t h e p l ebs w er e a ll o w ed t o h o ld a p lebei a n
. .

a s s embly o f t h eir own t o el ect t h e tribun es and t o mak e

laws for t h ems elves .

29 0 T h e L a w s o f t h e Tw el v e T a b l e s — T h e p l ebs
. .

fo und t h a t t h eir a ss embly and t h eir tribu nes did no t p ro

t eet t h em S O l o ng as t h e p atrici a ns mad e t h e l a ws and
el ect ed t h e offici a ls w h o enf o rc ed t h em We h a v e a lr eady .

no tic ed t h e im p o rt a nc e o f a n unwritt en law t o t h e g o v ern

ing cl a ss es and o f a writt en law t o t h e p eo p l e w h o wer e
go v ern ed T h e p l ebs t h er efo r e d emand ed a writt en law
. .

Aft er t en y ears o f a gitati o n d e cem v i rs (t en m en) w er e

’
-

ap p o int ed t o draw u p a c o d e o f l a ws T h es e l a ws w er e .

in t h e f o rm o f twelve t a bl es a nd are call ed t h e la ws of th e ,

twel ve ta bl es t h e
“
M agn a c h a rt a of R o man lib erty
,
”
.
2

S o im p o rtant w er e t h ey c o nsid er ed t h a t t h e s c h o o l b o ys
fo ur c enturi es lat er w er e o blig ed t o l ea rn t h em .

2 9 1 P r o gr es s o f t h e P l eb s
.
— Wit h in a few y ea rs .

aft er t h e gr a nting o f t h e twelv e t a bl es a v eritabl e r ev o ,

l u t i o n t o o k p lac e by w h ic h t h e p l eb ei a ns g a in ed a gr ea t
,
3

1 T ra d i t i o n re c o rd s t h at p u bli c
w ere gi v en t o t h e p l eb ei a ns so o n
l a nd s
a ft er t h e fi rs t s e c es si o n b u t a l t h o u g h t h i s s h o w s t h a t o t h er rel i ef m ea s u re s
,

w ere t a k en i t i s p ro b a b l e t h a t t h ere w ere no p u b l i c l a nd s fo r d i s t ri b u t i o n

,

u nt i l m a ny y ea rs a ft er .

2
S o m e o f t h e se l a w s w ere a s fo ll o w s
L et t h e fa t h er h a v e p o w er o v er t h e li fe a nd d ea t h of h is so n . L et i t
b e l a w fu l t o s ell t he so n a s a sla v e t h ree t i m es . I f t h e fa t h e r s h a ll se l l

the so n t h ree t i m es , l et t h e son b e free fr o m hi s fa t h e r .

L et no m a n t a k e m o re i nt e re s t fo r m o ney t h a n o ne p er c ent a m o nt h .

If h e S h a ll do o t h er wi s e , l et h i m b e fi ned fo u r t i m e s t h a t su m .

If a ny b re a k s
o ne t h e l im b o f a no t h e r a nd m a k es no rep a ra t i o n, l et
ret a l i a t i o n t a k e p l a c e .

3
T h e tri bu nes a nd the a s se m bl y
b s b ec a m e a l m o s t a s p o w er
of t h e p le
fu l a s t h e r egu l a r m a gi s t ra t e s a nd a s se m b l y T h e p l eb s g a i ned t h e ri g h t
.

t o i nterma rry wi t h t h e p a t ri c i a ns a nd ev e n t o el ec t s o m e o f t h e s i x mi li ta ry
tri bu nes w i th co ns u l a r p o w er T h e se na t e d e c i d ed ea c h y ea r w h et h er
.
 R OM E

c enturi es b etw een t h e p l eb ei a ns a nd t h e p a tricians R o m e , ,

during t h e first c entury w as s p ending h er tim e in k eep ing

,

o ff h er en emi es and d u ring t h e s econd in m a king h ers elf

, , ,

mistr ess o f Italy T w o o f t h e st o ri es o f t h e first struggl es

.

of t h e R o m a n r ep ublic fo r exi st enc e a re wo rt h o u r co n

sid erati o n b ecaus e o f t h eir p lac e in t h e world s bo o k o f
,
’

lo re .

T h e kings w h o m t h e R o m a ns h a d exp ell ed fr o m R o m e

( 5 1 0) ppa ea l ed fo r h el p t o a n Etrusc a n k i ng no t fa r fr o m
R o me .T h is king a dvanc ed wit h his a rmy a nd s eiz ed
t h e h ill acr o ss t h e Tib er fr o m R om e A bridg e c o nn ect ed
.

t h e f o o t o f t h is h ill wit h t h e city o f R o m e T o p r ev ent .

t h e Etruscans from cr o ssing a br a v e y o ung m a n Ho , ,

ra ti u s w it h t w o c o m p a ni o ns h eld t h e Etruscan a rmy a t

’
,

bay w h il e t h e R o m a ns d em o lis h ed t h e bridg e In a l o ud

,
.

v o ic e h e c o mmitt ed h ims el f t o t h e Tib er a nd a mid a , ,

s h o w er of d a rts sw a m acr o ss t o h i s c o mrad es T h e Et ru s

,
.

cans w er e fin a lly induc ed t o wi t h dr a w .

An o t h er l eg end t ells o f a R o man army surr o und ed a m o ng

t h e h ills wit h escap e cut Off
,
T h e s en a t e met t o c o nsid er
.

t h e crisis Ci n ci n na tu s was ap p o int ed dict a t o r b e

’
- -
.

caus e o f t h e gr ea t d a ng er T h e m es s eng ers t o Cincinn a tus

.

fo und t h e o ld man p l o wing in h i s fi eld Lea ving h i s p l o w .

w h ere it was h e h ast en ed t o t h e city g at h er ed a n a rmy

, , ,

marc h ed a g a inst t h e en emy d efeat ed t h em and fr eed t h e

, ,

I m p r i s o n ed R o m a n f o rc e R eturning t o R o m e wi t h o ut
.

d el ay Cincinn a tus l a id d o wn h i s o ffic e at o nc e a nd re

, ,

turn ed t o h i s p l o wi ng S ixt een d ays a ft er h e h a d l eft it S O

abru p tly Cincinnatus was a n Old R o m a n
. .

2 9 4 R o m e a nd t h e L a ti n Co n f e d er a cy (4 9 3 3 38
.
,
—

Aft er t h e exp ulsi o n o f t h e kings in 5 1 0 B C t h e R o m a ns . .

w er e a ttack ed by t h e fri ends o f t h e kings and by num er o us

h ill trib es o n t h e w est sl o p e o f t h e Ap ennines In s p it e o f .

t h e d ev o ti o n o f suc h m en as H o r a tiu s a nd Cincinn atus

R om e h a rdly h eld h er o w n a g a inst t h es e en emi es P o rtu .
 T HE C ON ! U ES T OF ITAL Y

nat ely R o m e gain ed alli es am o ng t h e L atin citi es sout h o f

R o m e in L atium T h es e citi es w er e unit ed in a L a ti n
.

Co nfedera cy w h ic h a id ed R o m e fo r a c entury and a h al f

, ,

until j eal o us o f t h e gr o wing p ow er Of R o m e t h e L ati n

, ,

citi es tri ed t o d estr o y R o m e T h e citi es of t h e co nf ed eracy

.

w er e d efeat ed (338 ) s o m e b eing inc o rp o r a t ed in R om e and

o t h ers b eing mad e d ep end ents o f t h e l a rg er city .

2 9 5 T h e Co n q u e s t o f V eii
. T h e earli est c o nqu ests
.
-

o f R o m e w er e n o rt h of t h e city in Etruria no t s o ut h i n ,

L atium Etruri a lik e t h e r est o f Italy w as d o tt ed wit h

.
, ,

f o rtifi ed citi es ea c h o f w h ic h c o ntr o ll ed t h e c o untry t h at

,

surr o und ed it T h e n ear est and o ne o f t h e strongest

.
,
'
o f t h es e f o rtifi ed citi es was t h e Etruscan city of V e ii
, ,

wh ic h fo ugh t with R o m e fo r c o ntr o l o f t h e Tib er vall ey .

Aft er s ev eral y ears o f a li fe a nd d ea t h struggl e V eii was

cap tur ed and its in h abitants wer e s o ld int o S l a v ery T h is .

vict o ry g a v e R o m e undis p ut ed p o ss essi o n o f t h e Tib er

vall ey T h is v a ll ey as w e n o tic ed
.
,
r eally contro ls
t h e w est ern S l o p e o f t h e Ap ennin es and t h e w est ern slo p e ,

o f t h e Ap ennin es is r eally Italy .

2 9 6 T h e S a ck in g o f R o m e b y t h e G a u l s
.
— S carc ely .

h a d R o m e d o wn ed h er n ear est and m o st dang er o us rival ,

b efo r e a new p eril ar o s e Only S i x y ea rs l a t er R o m e was

.

s eiz ed a nd sack ed by n o madic G auls t h e R o mans taking ,

r efuge in t h e citad el T h e G a uls final l y agr eed t o wit h

.

dr a w o u p a ym ent o f a t h o us a nd p o unds o f go ld b u t wer e ,

driv en o ff w e are t o ld b efo r e t h e m o n ey w as p aid T h e

, ,
.

G auls finally wi t h dr ew t o t h e vall ey o f t h e P o but no t ,

b efo r e t h ey h ad d estro y ed t h e p o w er o f t h e Etruscan

citi es Alt h o ugh t h e G auls h a d sack ed R o m e and
.
‘

d estro y ed all o f t h e o l d r ecords t h ey mad e it easy for ,

R o m e lat er t o c o nqu er t h e w h o l e of Etruria .

2 9 7 T h e W a r s with t h e S a m nit es — B y t h e middl e

. .

of t h e fo urt h c entury t h e R o mans c o ntr o ll ed t h e west ern

coast o f Italy s o ut h w a rd alm o st t o N ap l es T h is bro ug h t .
 R OM E

t h e Ro m a ns into c o nflict wit h t h e S a mnit es a rud e w ar , ,

lik e and aggr es siv e h ill p eo p l e living ea st Of N a p l es T h r ee .

p r o tr a ct ed war s f o ll o w ed In t h e s ec o nd o f t h es e
. in a ,

b attl e at t h e Cau din e F orks (3 2 1 D C ) t h e R o man a rmy

’
. .

w as c a p tur ed a nd d eep ly h umili a t ed by b eing s ent und er

t h e y o k e a gr ea t disgr a c e
,
T h e yo k e w as m a d e by p lacing
.

t w o s p ears u p rig h t in t h e gr o und a nd fa st ening a t h ird

acr o ss b etw een t h em at suc h a h eigh t t h at t h e v a nquis h ed
s o ldi ers must st o o p t o p a ss und er .

'
In t h e last w a r wit h t h e S a m nit es a ll o f Ro m e s ene ,
’

mi es no rt h eas t and s o ut h unit ed in a n effo rt t o c h eck

, , ,

t h e gr o wing p o w er o f t h e city o n t h e Tib er In 2 9 5 R o m e .

g a in ed a sign a l vict o ry o v er t h e Etruscans and G auls in

t h e n o rt h a nd fiv e y ears lat er subdu ed t h e S a mnit es ,

making t h em d ep end ent alli es o f R o m e R o m e w as no w .

sup r em e fro m t h e R ubico n t o t h e Gr eek citi es o f t h e

s o ut h .

2 9 8 T h e W a r s w i th P yrr h u s
. T h e G reek citi es ap .

p ea l ed t o P yrr h u s King o f Ep irus in G r eec e

,
P yrr h us .

bro ugh t t o It a ly an army and a large numb er o f el e

p h a n t s It. was
1
t h e e l ep h a nts r a t h er t h a n t h e a rmy
t h a t t h r ew t h e R o m a n a rmy into c o nf usi o n s o t h at P y r ,

r h us w o n t w o victo ri es B u t t h ey did h i m no g oo d fo r
.
,

t h e R o m a n army r efus ed t o r etr eat and t h e R o man s en ,

at e r efus ed t o tr ea t fo r p eac e s o l o ng as P yrrhus was o n

R o man s o il T h e t erm P y rr hi c vi ctory h as ev er sinc e

.

b een us ed to d eno t e an ap p ar ent vict o ry w h ic h is littl e

b ett er t h an a d efea t In t h e end R o m e c o m p l et ely co n
.

qu er ed P yrr h us and t h e G reek citi es .

1 Py rr h u s h o p ed t o u ni t e u nd er h i s ru l e a ll of t h e G reek c i t i es of t he
W es t a nd c o nq u er C a rt h a ge . I n s h o rt h e h o p ed t o b e t h e Al exa nd er t h e
,

G rea t of the W es t . He d i d s p end sev e ra l y ea rs i n S i c i l y a s w ell a s I t a l y ,

bu t wa s b ea t en i n b o t h c o u nt ri es .
 R OM E

A T ri u m p h T ri u m p h

w ere enr o ll ed as vo t ers ; t h e oth ers w er e R oman citiz ens

wit h out t h e suff rag e T h en t h er e wer e t h o s e t h at h a d t h e
.

L a ti n rig h t Alt h ough t h es e h a d fewer rig h ts t h a n a R o man

.

citiz en t h e rig h t of int ermarriag e wit h R om a n citiz ens

,

was grant ed t o t h em M o st o f t h e c o lonists wer e Latin

.

citiz ens T h ird t h er e w er e t h o s e wit h t h e I ta li a n right

.
,
.

T h es e had t h e rig h t t o own p ro p erty and do busin ess but ,

did no t h av e as full righ ts as t h e Latin citiz ens .

301 T h e R o ma n Army
. T h e R oman army w h ic h h ad
.
,

d efeat ed t h e p h alanx es o f P yrr h us and was to m eet t h e

train ed tro o p s of C art h age was o ne o f t h e fin est mi litary
,

bo di es t h e world h as ev er s een It was c o mp o s ed of citi

.

z en s o ldi ers wit h a w ar fo oting of

,
-
fo r R o m e ,

and about as many mor e fr o m t h e alli es Ev ery Ro man

'

man fro m 1 7 t o 45 was subj ect t o military s ervic e fo r a

t erm of 2 0 years T h e soldi ers drew p ay and wi t h eac h
.
,
 T HE R OM A N S TAT E AN D AR M Y

Of C ms a r , 4 6 B C
. .

camp aign cam e c o nsid er a bl e b o o ty esp eci a lly in t h e l at er

,

wars ag a inst ric h C art h ag e and t h e w ea lt h y East .

T h e infantry w as o rganiz ed in l e gi ons o f a b o ut 4 500

’

s o ldi ers eac h lat er 6000 T h e l egi o n fo ugh t in t h r ee

,
.

lin es no t in a c o mp a ct mass lik e t h e M ac ed o ni a n p h a l a nx

,

Eac h s o ldi er w as tr a in ed c a r efully in t h e exer

cis e o f a rms a s t h e o p en o rd er o f t h e l egi o n d em a nd ed
,

t h a t t h e s o ldi ers s h o uld h av e S kill as w ell as str engt h .

A R o m a n s s h i eld w a s lik e t h a t o f t h e G r eek s o ldi er h i s

’
,

s p ear was s h o rt er and h e d ep end ed m o r e o n t h e s h o rt

swo rd T h o s e s o ldi ers t h at did no t h av e s p ears h url ed
.

s h o rt iro n p o int ed j a v elins T h e c a v a lry was m a d e u p

-
.

o f t h e w ea lt h i er y o ung men but it n ev er b ecam e a s i m

,

p o rt a nt a n a rm o f t h e s ervic e a s t h e M ac ed o ni a n h o rs e
men o f Al ex a nd er o r t h e N umidi a n c a v a lry of Hannib a l
3 1 6 no t e)
, .
 R OM E

302 . Tri u mp h
A T h e gr eat est h o no r t h at c o ul d
.

b e c o nferr ed o n a R o man g en eral was t h e rig h t t o c el ebrat e

a triump h A h ug e p ro c ession m o v ed t h ro ug h g aily
.

d ec o r a t ed str eets o f R o m e t o t h e t emp l e o f Ju p it er o n

C a p it o lin e h ill N ea r t h e h ea d o f t h e p r o c essi o n w er e t h e
.

c o nsuls p r ec ed ed as u s ual by t h e lict o rs wit h o t h er m ag

, ,

i s t ra t es and t h e s en a t o r s T h en c a m e t h e b o o ty in t h e
.
,

lat er days m a king a p ro c essi o n s ev er a l mil es in l engt h .

Aft er t h e b o o ty m a rc h ed t h e c a p tiv es wi t h o cc asi o n a lly ,

a king t o giv e a dd ed h o n o r t o h i s c o nqu ero r In t h e r ear .

cam e t h e a rmy l ed by t h e fo rtun a t e c o mmand er in a

, ,

trium p h a l c h a ri o t T h e p eo p l e a nd t h e s o ldi ers s h o ut ed

.

trium p h e T h e trium p h end ed wit h a fea st

. In lat er .

tim es t h e em p ero rs er ect ed trium p h a l arc h es t o com

m emo rat e s o m e vict o ry .

3 03 S u mm a ry
. R o m e o ccu p i ed t h e c entral p a rt o f
.
-

t h e c entr a l p eninsul a ext ending fr o m Eur o p e int o t h e M edi

t erran ea n It w as a t a c o mm erci a l cr o ss ro a d s d efend ed
.
-

by h ills and sw a m p s a nd it c o ntr o ll ed t h e m o st imp o rtant

,

vall ey o f t h e w es t ern S l o p e o f t h e Ap ennin es In t h e v a ll ey .

o f t h e P o w er e t h e G a ul s n o rt h o f R o m e w a s Etruria east
, , ,

t h e S a bin es s o ut h Latium a nd fa rt h er s o ut h C am p a ni a
, , , ,

and S a mnium .

T h e o l d R o m a ns w er e s im p l e sturdy p ea sants s ev er e , ,

unim agin a tiv e a nd c o ur a g eo us T h e f a t h er rul ed h is .

family st ernly a lt h o ugh t h e Ro m a n m atr o n h a d a p o siti o n

,

o f dignity T h e ea rly R o m a ns wo rs h i p p ed O bj ects Of

.

natur e t h ey em p h a siz ed fo rm in r eligi o n a nd in l a w T h ey

,
.

l ea rn ed o f t h eir n eig h b o rs t h e Etruscan s t o wo rs h i p go ds

t h a t w er e p o wers r a t h er t h a n Obj ect s t o build w a lls drains , ,

a nd building s a nd t o o rg a niz e g o v ernm ents .

In 5 1 0 B C t h e l a st o f t h e s ev en kings a n Etruscan
. .
,

p rinc e w as
,
driv en o u t and a p atrici a n r ep ublic was e stab
li s h ed . T h e p a trici a ns g o v ern ed t h r o ug h c o nsuls s enat e ,

and c o miti a T h e p l ebs r eb ell ed and gain ed first tribun es

.
, ,
2 36 R OM E

C a r t er , R el i gi o u s Lif e of Anc i ent Ro me 9 — 1 6 2 4—2 7 ; S a d y s , , n

Co mp a ni o n to L a ti n S t u di es 1 49 — 1 59 , .

T H E L I C I N I A N L A w s (3 6 7 avis R ea d i ngs i n A nc i ent D ,

H i s t o ry , II
2 3—2 7 ; Ho w a nd L ei g h Hi s to r y of R o me 9 1 —94 ;
, , ,

Hei t l a nd T h e R o ma n R ep u bl i c
, , I , 9 6 —100 .

T HE R OMAN 7 4—8 5 ;
AR M Y : S ei g no b o s , R o ma n P eo p l e,
n
M u ro S o u r c e B o o k of R o ma n Hi s to ry 2 3—4 0 ; HO W a nd Lei gh
, , ,

Hi s tory of R o me, 3 4 1 4 1
1 — .

S tu d i es
1T h e p la
. c e of R o me I n hi s t o r y . M o rey Ou tl i nes of Ro ma n ,

Hi s o y 9 1 1
t r —
, .

2 R o ma n na mes . J o h ns t o n, P r i va te Life of t h e R o ma ns , 3 5

3 . T h e Et ru s c a n s . C a r t er , R el i gi o u s L if e o f Anci ent Ro me ,

1 6 —2 4 .

4 . R o mu l u s
G u erb er , S to r y of th e Ro ma ns 2 2 —3 3 ; B o t s fo rd ,
.
,

S o rc A c H 3 34 —338
u e B o o k of n i ent i s t o r y , .

5 S t o ri es o f Ol d R o m a ns
. G u erb er , S to r y of th e Ro ma ns , .

—
6 6 ,
6 9 7 6 —78 .

6 . T h e fir s t s eces s i o n o f t h e p l eb s . D i av s , R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent

Hi s to r y , II , 1 9—23 .

7 . Ci nc i nna t u s . D i av s , R ea di ngs , II ,
2 7 —2 9 .

8 . T h e laws o f t h e t w el v e t a b l es . B o t s fo rd , S o u r c e B oo k ,
35 1 —353 .

9 . T he s t r u ggl e b et w een t h e p a t ri c i a ns a nd p l eb s . M o rey ,

O u tli nes o f R o m a n H i s to r y , 5 3 —7 2 .

10 . Sack
R o me b y t h e G a u l s
of . B o t s fo rd , S o u rc e B oo k f
o

A nc i ent Hi s to r y 3 6 2 — 3 65 , .

11 . Hu mi li a t i o n of t h e R o m a ns at C a u d i ne F o rk s . M u nr o ,

S o u rc e B o o k of R o ma n Hi s to r y 7 4—7 7 , .

1 2 P y r rh u s
. B o s fo r d S o u r c e B o o k 3 6 5 — 3 69
. t , , .

1 3 R o ma. n
mu i c p a a nd o l o ni es B o t s fo rdn i i c .
, S o u r c e B o o k,
3 7 1 —3 7 4 .

Q u es ti o n s
1 S h o w h o w t h e Al p s a nd t h e Ap enni nes d i i d e t a l y nt o
. v I i
t h ree grea t a rea s t h e P o v all ey , t h e w es t ern p e a nd
,
‘
M ag na m ,
‘
i

”
G raaci a .

2 . Gi v e t h e na mes a nd lo c ti n
a o s of th e m o s t i m p o rt a nt p eo p l es
of It al y .
 T HE R OM A N S TATE AN D AR M Y 23 7

3 . Wh y w a s R o m e fa v o ra b l y t t
s i u a ed fo r t h e t a s k o f co n r o l t
i
l ng th e Ti b er vall ey ? It aly ? the M edi t err a nea n w o rl d ?

In rel a t i o n to th e . M edi t erra nea n b a s i n , c o m p a re R o m e w i t h

i it
C o r nt h ; w h S y ra cu s e ; wi t h C a r t h a g e W a s t h e l o c a ti o n o f .

v
R o me m o re fa o ra b l e fo r w o rl d d o m ni o n h a n h a t o f a ny o f t h e i t t
o t h er s ?
4 . W h a t w ere th e c h a ra cteri s t i c s o f a n o ld R o ma n ? Wh at
wa s t h e imp to r a nce of t h e fa mi l y in an ci ent R o me ? of th e
fa t h er in
t h e fa m l y ? i
Wh a t w a s t h e na t u re a nd i m p o rt a nc e of

the Ol d R o m a n rel g o n ? i i
5 . Wh a t di d R o me o we t o t h e Et ru s c a ns Wh a t di d sh e owe

t o t h e G r eek s b efo re th e P u i c n w a rs ?
6 . D es cri be t h e go v er nm ent o f R o me a t t h e b egi nni ng o f t h e
rep u b li c . N a m e t h e ch i ef s t ep s b y w h i c h t h e p l eb s ga i ned
equ a l i t y wi t h t h e p a t ri c i a ns . Wh y di d t h e sena t e r a t h er th an

t h e p eo p l e c nt
o ro l R o me a ft er 2 64 B C
. . Wh a t d o es S P . .
! . R .

mea n ?
7 . S h o w t h e i mp o r t a n c f th e o e La ti n c nf o ed era cy to Ro me .

Wh y was th e t
s ru ggl e wi t h V i i e so i mp o r t a nt ? Ho w di d th e
G a u l s h el p R o m e m o re th n th ya e in j u red h er
8 . D c be th e
es ri s t ep s by wh i ch R o m e g a ned i co nt ro l of

It aly . Wh a t w ere the n xt e na t u ra l t

s ep s in exp a ns i o n ; so u th
n o rt h ?

9 . Wh a t was a n al l y ? a co l o ny ? a R o ma n ci t i z en ? Wh a t
w ere La ti n ri g h t s ? It alian i
r gh t s ? Wh y w a s R o me
’
s p o l i cy
t o w a rd t h e It a l i a ns a w i se o ne ? Wh y w a s t h e l egi o n t
b e t er
th n a t h e p h al a nx ?
 CH AP T ER X

CO N ! U ES T OF T HE M EDIT ER R AN EAN (2 64—1 4 6 B C

. .
)

B E F OR E A N D A FT E R T H E P UN I C WAR S
3 04 I mp o rt a n ce o f R o m e s Co n qu es t s — T h e p eri o d
.
’
.

b efo r e t h e P unic wars was a p eriod at first o f s elf d efenc e -

and sl o w d ev el o p m ent fo r t h e R o man r ep ublic fo ll o wed ,

by a p eri o d o f exp a nsi o n t h r o ug h o ut It a ly T h e p eri o d .

1

fo ll o wi ng 2 64 B C w as a t fir s t a tri a l o f str engt h b etw een

. .

R o m e and h er gr ea t riv a l C a rt h a g e B y 2 00 B C ,
. . .

R ome was the u ndi s p u ted mi s tress o f th e wes tern M edi l er

ra nca h . An o t h er h a l f
c entury (2 00 1 4 6 B C ) su ffic ed —
. .

fo r t h e h umiliati o n o f M a c ed o ni a a nd t h e f o rc ed wi t h
dra w a l o f t h e ambiti o us S el eucids 2 1 5 ) fr o m Asi a M in o r .

B y 1 46 B C R ome w as recogni z ed as the gr ea tes t p o wer of

. .

th e ea s tern M edi terr a nea n as w ell as t h e o nly p o w er in ,

t h e w est ern fo r C a rt h a g e w as d estr o y ed in 14 6 B C

,
. .

Aft er 1 4 6 B C it w a s S im p ly a qu esti o n o f tim e b efo r e t h e

. .

wh o l e ea st ern M edit err a n ean b ec a m e R oman a ls o al ,

t h o ug h t h is in evit a bl e exp a nsi o n c o ntinu ed fo r n early

t h r ee c enturi es .

3 05 T h e C h an ge i n t h e Ch a r a ct er o f R o m e
.
—
T he .

influ enc e o f t h es e vict o ri es u p o n t h e go vernm ent a nd

p o lici es o f R o m e w as n ec ess a rily gr ea t fo r n o p o p ular ,

a s s embly c o uld rul e a v a s t r ep ublic wit h s o m a ny v a ri ed

int er ests and fo r eign c o m p licati o ns T h e s en at e b ec a m e .

t h e r eal ruling b o dy o f R o m e T h e p eo p l e l o s t t h eir o l d.

sim p licity T h ey b ec a m e av a rici o us a nd w ea lt h y East

. .

l F reem a n sa y s ,
“
T he fi rs t s t ep in exp a nsi o n, in s h o rt , was
‘

su dd en
a nd s wi ft ev e ry l a t er s t ep w a s sl o w b u t t h e fi rs t c a rri ed ev ery o t h er st ep

q
,

wi t h it as it s nec es sa ry c o nse u enc e Ch i ef P er i ods , p 40

. . .

2 38
 R OM E

S yracus e . L at er t h e C art h agi nians

w er e d efeat ed by
Di —o ny s i —u s tyrant o f S yracus e w h o ext end ed hi s
’ 1
-

, ,

sw a y ov er t h e gr eat er p art o f S icily a nd a l a rg e p a rt o f

“
M agna Gr aeci a ”
as well .

Aft er Di o nysius c a m e T i mo l e o n t h e lib erat o r w h o -

’
-

, ,

s o o n dro ve back t h e C art h agini a ns d ep o s ed t h e tyrants ,

and f o rm ed a c o nfed eracy o f t h e Gr eek citi es He was .

h o n o r ed as t h e n o bl es t o f t h e w est ern G r eeks A g en era .

ti o n lat er A ga th o cl es carri ed t h e w a r wit h t h e Cart h a

-
’
-

gi ni ans int o Africa S till l a t er P y rr h u s gain ed t em p o r a ry

.

vict o ri es in S icily o nly t o l o s e c o ntro l o f a ll o f t h e isl a nd

exc ep t S yracus e b efo r e h e r eturn ed t o Italy w h er e h e w as ,

d efeat ed by t h e R o mans

CA R T H A G E

3 08 . rth a ge
Lo ca t io n
T h is gr eat P h ce ni ci an
of Ca .

city w h ic h h a d dis p ut ed wit h t h e G r eeks fo r t h ree cen

,

t u ri es t h e p o ss essi o n o f t h e fair isl a nd o f S icily a nd h a d ,

gradu a lly b ec o m e t h e o nly p o wer in t h e w est ern M edi t er

ra nean w a s l o c a t ed on a fine h a rb o r a t t h e o utl et o f o ne
,

o f t h e m o st fertil e vall eys o f n o rt h ern Afric a T h e .

r esourc es o f t h e vall ey a nd o f t h e c o ntinent b eh ind C ar

t h age furnis h ed an a mp l e f o o d su p p ly fo r a gr eat city .

T h e l o cati o n o f t h e h a rbor o n t h e gr eat p eni nsula w h ic h

j uts int o t h e M edit erran ean o nly s ev enty mil es fro m ,

S icily was ev en m o r e c entral and c o mmanding t h an t h at

,

o f Ro me Less exp o s ed t h an S icily t o a tt a ck it w as

.
,

alm o s t as cl o s e t o t h e cro ssing o f t h e comm ercial h ig h ways

fro m east t o w est and fro m n o rt h t o s o ut h .

3 09 D o mi ni o ns a d Tr a d e
. n o f C rth g e
a a — T h e Car
t h agi ni ans w er e s o muc h int er es t ed in trad e and t h e g a in
1 Ab l e , wd
s h re , bu t u c
np ri n i p l ed , wi t h ou t m er c y fo r fri end o r co n
si d era t i o n fo r fo e D i o ny s i u s
, ru l ed the g rea t es t k i ng d o m t h a t a ny G reek
ev er es t a b l i s h ed in the Wes t , b u t h e l eft wes t ern G reec e wea k er t han h e
fo u nd i t .
 CAR THAG E

ing of alt h t h at fo r s ev er a l c enturi es aft er t h e fo unding

We q
C o n u es t s
a nd t ra d e
o f t h e city a gr o und r ent was p a id fo r t h e land on w h ic h
w ere ex
t h e city st o o d In o rd er t o ext end t h is c o mmerc e t h e
. t end ed

p p
e o l e w er e f o rc ed t o driv e b a ck t h eir en emi es P h c
e ni ci an .
t o get h er .

citi es in S icily w h ic h a sk ed fo r p r o t ecti o n w er e br o ugh t

und er Cart h agini a n rul e ; no rt h ern Africa was subdu ed ;
col o ni es w er e p l a nt ed in S a rdini a and Sp a in ; and at o ne
tim e p ers o ns w er e s ent t o t h e Atl a ntic c o a st b eyo nd
t h e P illars o f H ercul es (S traits o f G ibr a lt a r ) t o est a blis h
trading p o sts and c o l o ni es T h is o ccurr ed t h e c entury b e .

fo r e t h e traditi o nal d at e assign ed fo r t h e fo unding o f R o m e .

C art h a g e h a d ext ensiv e tr a d e wi t h S p a in B rit a in , , G a rt h a

gi ni a n
no rt h ern and west ern Africa T h is trad e wit h t h e w est .
1
s u p re m a cy
ern M edit err a n ea n and t h e Atlantic was gu a rd ed so in th e

j ea l o usly t h at all intrud ers wer e h unt ed d o wn and dro wn ed w es t ern

M edi t er
.

T h e w est ern M edit erran ean o f t h is tim e h a d b een call ed r a nea n .

a P h oenician l a k e T h is w est ern c o mm erc e o f Car

”
.

t h age was l ess ext ens iv e but p o litically m o r e im p o rt a nt ,

t h an trad e wit h t h e int eri o r o f Africa and wit h c o untri es

east o f t h e M edit err a n ea n T h e tr a d e o f Ca rt h a g e mad e 2
.

h er t h e w ea lt h i est city o f t h at tim e and h er g o v ernm ental ,

r ev enu es w er e v ery gr eat .

3 1 0 T h e G o v ernm ent o f Ca rth a ge

. C a rt h ag e was .

go v ern ed by a c o mm erci a l arist o cracy T h e c o ntr o l o f .

affairs was a lways h eld by a few p o werful f a mili es w h ic h

1
S h e fo u nd ed t ra d i ng p o s t s o r fa c t o ri es fo r t h e ext ens i o n o f t h e C a r
t h a gi ni a n t ra d e G o l d a nd s l a v es t o b e o b t a i ned fr o m t h e regi o n Of t h e
.
,

N i g er d rew h er
, c a n c o a st b ey o nd G i b ra l t a r T h e t i n Of B ri t
t o t h e A fri .

a i n a nd t h e a m b er o f t h e B a l t i c a t t ra c t ed h er s h i p s t o t h e no r t h A t l a nt i c

S p a i n ri c h i n s i l v er m i nes r eq u i red s et t l em ent s a l o ng b o t h t h e A t l a nt i c

.

, ,

a nd t h e M ed i t er r a nea n t o d ev el o p t ra d e a nd t o p ro t ec t t h o s e eng a g ed

i n t h e m i ni ng o f s il v er I ro n b r o u gh t t h e C a rt h a gi ni a ns t o t h e l i t t l e
.

i sl a nd o f El b a w h il e a g ri c u l t u ra l p ro d u c t s fo rm ed a l a rg e p a r t o f t h e t ra d e
,

wi t h t h e B al ea ri c i sl a nd s wi t h C o r si c a S a rdi ni a a nd S i cil y
, , .

2
T h ere w ere t w o c o mm er c i a l t rea t i es b et w een C a r t h a g e a nd R o m e
b efo re 3 4 0 B C I n t h e s ec o nd o f t h es e R o m e w a s no t a ll o wed t o t ra d e
. .

wi t h C o r Si ca S a r d i n i a t h e c o as t o f Afri c a o r o t h er p l a c es m o re di s t a nt
’
-

,
-
’
, .

R
 R OM E

s ucc eed ed in p ro t ecting Cart h agini a n int er es ts abro a d

a t t h e s am e tim e t h at t h ey m a intain ed o rd er and r v nt d
p e e e

i ns u rr ecti o ns at h o m e In h er tr ea tm ent o f h er d ep en .
1

d enci es Ca rt h a g e was b o t h h ars h a nd av a r i c i ous ; h a rs h ,

b ec a us e by l evell i ng t h e w a lls o f t h eir citi es s h e l eft t h em ,

h elp l ess a nd a v a rici o us b ec a us e o f t h e h ea vy tribut e t h at ,

s h e d em a nd ed fr o m t h em T h e C art h a gini a n d ep end en .

ci es w ere b o und to h er o nly by ti es o f f ea r In tim e of .

p ublic d a ng er t h ey almost a lways wer e glad t o revo lt .

3 1 1 T h e Army a nd Navy o f Cart h a g e — T O p ro t ect

. .

h er c o mm erc e fr o m t h e p ir a t es t h at inf es t ed ev ery s ea ,

Ca rt h a g e m a int a in ed t h e l a rg est n a vy o f t h a t d ay ; t o
maint a in h er a ut h o rity o v er h er v ast d o mi ni o n s h e h ad ,

an a rmy c o m p o s ed o f Cart h aginians a nd m erc en a ri es .

2

T h e m erc en a ri es w er e fr equ ently tr ea t ed no t a s s o l ,

di ers but as subj ect s T h ey w er e bulli ed and a bu s ed

,
.

w h en dang er was no t p r es ent o r a b a nd o n ed s o m etim es ,

in t h e fac e o f t h e en emy ; h enc e t h e t erm P un ic f ait h ”

,
’
,

t h at is P h oeni ci a n f a it h l ess n es s It i s no t str a ng e t h en

,
.

t h at w h en r ev ers es cam e t o C a rt h ag e h er a rmi es r evo lt ed

, , ,

s eeking fr eed o m fo r t h eir p eo p l e a nd r ev eng e o n t h eir

d es p o tic rul ers .

3 1 2 C o mp a ri s o n o f R o m e a nd Ca r t h a ge
. It w as .

b etween t h is gr ea t city rul er o f t h e w est ern M edit err a n ean , ,

a nd R o m e mistr es s o f It a ly ,
t h a t a struggl e no w b egan ,

( 2 6 4 B C ) w h ic h
. must .l ea d t o t h e d estructi o n o f o ne o r

‘ Ari s t o t l e c o m m ent s on the re m a rk a b l e freed o m fro m i nsu rrec t i o n

t h at w a s j
e n o y ed b y C a r t h a g e fo r se v era l c ent u ri es . T he ru l i ng c l a s ses ,

h o w ev e r , g a v e no r ea l s h a re i n t h e g o v er nm ent t o t h e p eo p l e , fo r a s
se m b l i es of the c i t i z ens , l ike t h o s e o f S p a rt a c o u l d o nl y a cc ep t o r rej ec t
,

p ro p o sa l s m a d e t o t h em .

2 C o m p a ra t i v el y few C a rt h a g i ni a ns e nt ered t h e a rm y b ec a u s e t h ere ,

was m o re m o ney t o b e m a d e i n t ra d e b u t t h ere w a s u s u a ll y a sa c red ,

b a nd of 2 5 00b o d y gu a rd
as fo r t h e g e nera l , a nd a c i t i z en a rm y O f
m i gh t b e ra i se d w i t h ea se . G rea t er d ep e nd e nc e w a s p l a c ed o n t h e hi red
t ro o p s , t h e s w i ft a nd s ki lfu l N u midia n c a v a l ry fi er c e wa rri o rs fro m S p ai n
,

a nd l ev i es g a t h ered fro m a h u nd red d ep end ent c i t i es .

 R OM E

g a ll ey ran agr o und and w as c a p tured by t h e R o man s .

Wit h t h is as a m o d el a fl eet w as c o nstruct ed t h e r o w ers ,

b eing tr a in ed m ea nw h il e t o ro w o n l and Wit h t h e sam e .

ind o mitabl e p luck t h es e R o m a n landsm en s a lli ed f o rt h

t o m eet t h e gr ea t fl eet o f t h e mistr es s o f t h e w es t ern s ea s .

T h eir g a ll eys carri ed p ick ed s o ldi ers w h o rus h ed acro s s

bridg es t h ro wn fr o m R o m a n v ess el s t o t h o s e o f t h e en emy ,

turning a s ea fig h t int o a s embl a nc e o f a land b a ttl e in ,

w h ic h t h e R o m a ns exc ell ed .

3 1 4 R o m e s N av a l V i ct o ri es F o ur y ea r s a ft er t h e
’
-

. .

'

w a r start ed a gr ea t n a v a l b a ttl e o ccu rred a t M y laa o ff t h e

’

no rt h c o ast o f S icily T h e C a rt h agini an s w er e b a dly

.

d efeat ed B ec a us e h er men c o u ld no t l ea rn t h e a rt o f
.

navigati o n in o ne g en er a ti o n R o m e aft erward l o st s ev er al

,

larg e fl eets by s h i p wr eck but wit h grea t p ersist enc e

, , ,

ea c h fl eet w as r ep l a c ed by a n o t h er As th e P u ni c wa rs
.

wer e deci ded by R o me s co ntr o l of th e s ea R o m e w as w ell

’
,

r ew a rd ed fo r h er p ers ev eranc e Aft er m o r e t h a n twenty

.

y ears Of figh ting Ca rt h ag e a gr eed t o giv e u p S icily and

,

p a y R o m e a l a rg e sum o f m o n ey T h e G r eek h ist o ri a n

.
,

P o lybius c o nsid er ed t h is a gr ea t er w a r t h a n t h a t o f t h e
,

G r eeks wit h t h e P ersi a ns a nd a gr eat er war t h an t h e

,

P el o p o nn es i a n w a r Of G r eec e .

3 1 5 F r o m t h e F ir s t t o t h e S e co n d P u ni c W a r s
. .

B o t h R o m e a nd C a rt h a g e r ea liz ed t h a t t h is fir s t w a r w as
a p r elimin a ry struggl e T h e qu esti o n a t i s su e w as no t
.

t h e c o ntr o l o f S icily . I t was a qu es ti o n wh eth er Ro me o r

Ca r th a ge s h o u ld contr ol th e wes ter n M edi terr a nea n At t h e .

cl o s e o f t h e first P unic w a r Ca rt h a g e h o w ev er h a d h er
, , ,

h a nds full su p p r es s ing a r ev o lt o f h er m erc en a ry tr o o p s .

R o m e t o o k adv a nt a g e o f t h i s in s urr ecti o n t o o ccu p y S a r

dinia and Co rsic a S icily s h e m a d e int o o ne p ro vinc e
.
,

t h e o t h er isl a nd s int o a n o t h er T h is w as t h e b egi nning

.

o f R o m e s gr ea t p r o vinci a l syst em
’

Taking a dv a nt ag e o f t h e p eac e wit h Cart h ag e R o m e ,

 T H E EAR L Y P U NI C WAR S

tri ed t o su p p r ess t h e G a uls in t h e P o vall ey and t h e p irat es

o n t h e Adri a tic T h is was no t d o n e v ery eff ectiv ely
.
,

S inc e R o m e w a s a bl e t o giv e but a sm a ll p a rt o f h er att en

ti o n t o t h es e b a rb a ro us p eo p l es T h ey n aturally t oo k t h e .

first o p p o rtunity t o ris e ag a inst h er .

3 1 6 H a nni b al Inv a d es I t a l y
. In Sp ain Hamilcar .

B a rc a and h i s s o ns r a is ed a fine army

1
In tim e Hanni .

b a l eld est o f t h e li o n s br o o d b ecam e s o l e c o mmand er

” ’
, ,

o f t h es e tr o o p s He at o nc e p r ep ar ed t o invad e Italy
. .

T o do t h is H a nnib a l was f o rc ed t o cr o ss t h e h igh Al p s .

As t h e n a rr o w tr a ils w er e c o v er ed wit h i ce t h o usands o f

h i s m en l o st t h eir fo o ting a nd f ell o v er t h e cli ffs S ev eral .

tim es H a nnib a l w a s fo rc ed t o st o p and cut a new and

br o a d er p at h acr o ss a p a ss Aft er s ev er a l w eeks o f t er .

ribl e su ffering and h a rds h i p w eeks fill ed wit h c o nst ant ,

attacks by t h e n a tive trib es H a nnib a l bro ugh t t he rem ,

n a nt Of h i s fine army int o t h e v all ey o f t h e P o H er e h e .

was w elc o m ed by t h e G a uls Wit h in a y ea r t w o R o man .

armi es w er e tr ap p ed and p r a ctic a lly d estr o y ed by Hannib a l .

I n t h i s tim e o f gr eat d a ng er F a bi u s
— ’
C a nnes .
-

M a x i mus w as ap p o int ed dict a t o r F a bius fo ll o w ed

’
-
.

a p o licy o f a v o iding p itc h ed b attl es t ha t h a s ev er S inc e

b een kn o wn as t h e F a bi a n p oli cy La t er t h e c o mmand ?

cc es s fu l a m i l c a r B a r c a , s p ent H
‘

1
T h e m o st C a r t h a gi ni a n g ener a l
su

q
,

t h e i nt erv a l a ft er t h e fi r s t P u ni c w a r i n c o n u eri ng S p a i n w h i c h h e m a d e ,

i nt o a C a rt h a gi ni a n p r o v i nc e I n S p a i n h e t ra i ned a v ery fi ne a rm y o f
.

Nu mi d i
-
’
-
an h o r s em en a nd S p a ni s h i nfa nt ry , fo r h e at t a c h ed t h e l o y al
S p a ni s h p eo p l e v ery c l o s el y t o h i s o w n i nt eres t s H e p rep a red hi s s o ns .

fo r a m i li t a ry life i n o r d er t h a t t h ey m i g h t a v eng e C a rt h a g e o n R o m e
H
.

T he s t o ry i s t o l d t h a t h e t o o k h i s li t t l e so n a nni ba l , a boy of ni ne y ea rs,

a nd m a de h i m s w ea r , on th e altar of h i s go ds , et er na l h a t red t o t h e
R o m a ns .

2
b
F a i u s h u ng u p on th e ar of H
cc u p y i ng t h e b es t p o si t i o ns
my a nni ba l o

a s H a nni b a l m o v ed d o w n t h r o u gh I t a l y
,

b u t refu s i ng t o b e d ra w n i nt o a ,

b a t t l e Ha nni b al di d no t d a re a t t a c k a s F a bi u s p o si t i o ns w ere t o o
‘

’
.
,

s t ro ng A ft er a t i m e h o w ev er t h e R o m a ns b ec a m e i m p a t i ent a nd c r i t
.

i ci s ed t h e F a b i a n p o li c y c a ll i ng t h e d i c t a t o r F a bi u s Cu ncta tor
,
De
”
l a y er ) i n d eri si o n .
 R OM E

w as turn ed o ver t o t h e t w o c o n s ul H annib a l no w s .

w atc h ed h is c h a nc e At Ca n u m in ea st ern It a ly H a nni

.
’
, ,

b a l att a cking fro m s ev eral dir ecti o ns t h r ew int o incr edibl e

, ,

c o nf usi o n a n army n ea rly twic e a s l a rg e as h is o wn .

T h e R o m a n a rmy l o st a l l o rd er o nly t h o s e on t h e o utsid e

,

o f t h is s eet h ing ma s s b eing a bl e t o fig h t T h e d ea d w er e .

s a id t o h a v e numb er ed mo r e t h a n No t a fa mily
in R o m e esc ap ed b er ea v em ent T h e s en a t e l o st eigh ty .

m emb ers Cannaa was a t erribl e bl o w t o t h e yo ung re

.

p ublic .

3 1 8 H a n ni b al Tri es t o wi n o v e r t h e It a li a n s
.
— A
ny .

o t h er p eo p l e in suc h a crisis w o uld h a v e b een gl a d t o

, ,

a cc ep t t erms o f p eac e but no t s o t h e R o m a n s A new

, .

a rmy w as r a is ed a t o nc e a nd p u t in t h e fi eld t h o ug h it ,

did no t dar e t o fac e H a nnib a l Hannibal m ea nw h il e w as

.

d o ing ev eryt h ing in h i s p o w er t o S h ak e t h e a ll egi a nc e o f

t h e R o m a n a lli es He h a d fr eed at o nc e a l l o f t h e alli es
.

t a k en p ris o n er a t Ca nnm and in p r evi o us b a ttl es He .

Off er ed o ne a nd a ll t h e m o st fa v o r a bl e t erm s o f tr a d e a nd

s elf g o v ernm ent if t h ey w o uld d es ert t h e R o man ca u s e °

-
.
,

Wh er ev er h e w ent s o m e citi es natur a lly a cc ep t ed h is t erms

and o ff er ed no o p p o siti o n but o t h ers st o o d st ea df a st in
,
1

t h eir fri end s h i p fo r R o m e R o m e w as sur ely g etting a

.

r eward fo r h er wis e p o licy t o w a rd h er a lli es Onc e Han .

nibal m a rc h ed r a p idly a lm o st t o t h e gat es o f R o m e but ,

h e did no t d a r e st o p a nd l ay s i eg e t o t h e city .

3 1 9 M et a u r u s
. Wit h o nly t h e G a uls a nd a few citi es
.

t o su p p o rt h i m Hannib a l k ep t h i s a rmy in It a ly und e

, ,

f eat ed a nd undisc o ur a ged but gradu a lly dwindling It ,

.

w as o nly a qu esti o n o f tim e b efo r e h e w o uld b e fo rc ed o u t

o f It a ly unl ess h el p c a m e AS R o m e c o ntro ll ed t h e s ea
.
,

h el p must c o m e by l a nd In 207 t h is s eem ed at h a nd

.
,

c i t i es t h a t d ese rt ed R o m e w ere C a p u a a nd S y ra c u se
’

1 Am o ng t h e .

T h e si eg e O f t h e se c i t i e s fo rm ed t w o v e ry i nt eres t i ng a nd i m p o rt a nt e v e nt s
i n t h e s e c o nd P u ni c w a r . S ee S i
e gn o b o s R m a n P e
,o p l eo1 1 1 — 1 12 , .
 R OM E

M ac ed o nian p h al a nx Ea c h
tim e t h e vict o ry w as w o n by
.

t h e m o r e a ctiv e R o man tr o o p s as t h e b a ttl es w er e fo ug h t

,

o n r o ug h gr o und T h e s ec o nd b a ttl e a t P y d na ( 16 8
’
.
,

d ecid ed t h e fa t e o f M a c ed o ni a Her tr ea s ur e w as t a k en .

t o R o me in h a bit a nts Of E p i rus w er e s o ld int o ’

-

sl a very a nd M a c ed o ni a b ec a m e first a d ep end ency a nd

, , ,

a ft erw a rd a p r o v inc e o f R o m e .

3 2 2 T h e W a r a g a in s t Anti o ch u s o f S yri a — A riv a l

. .

gr eat er t h a n t h e king o f M a c ed o ni a w as t h e a mbiti o u s

An t i o c h us o f S y ri a w h o h a d c o nqu er ed t h e p eo p l es o f
’
- -

Asi a M in o r a nd h a d inv a d ed G r eec e T h e R o m a ns .

m a rc h ed t o t h e h el p o f t h eir a lli es in t h e Ea s t a nd d e
fea t ed Anti o c h u s a t M a g ne s i a ( 1 9 0 -

Al
’
-

t h o ug h t h ey k ep t no t errit o ry i n Asi a fr o m t h is tim e ,

R ome wa s recogni zed as th e gr ea tes t p o wer i n th e ea s tern

M edi ter r a nea n as well a s i n the Wes t One st o ry illus .

tr a t es t h is A s ucc es s o r o f Anti o c h us wis h ed t o co n

.

qu er Egyp t T h e R o m a n s en a t e s ent a l eg a t e t o S yri a

.

t elling h i m no t t o do it T h e S yri a n king a gr eed t o co n

.

sid er t h e m a tt er Imm edi a t ely t h e R o m a n l egat e dr ew

.

a circl e in t h e s a nd a b o ut t h e king t elling h i m t h a t h e ,

s h o uld no t p a s s o utsid e t h e circl e until h e h a d agr eed

no t t o m a k e war o n Egyp t T h e S yri a n king yi eld ed
.

at o nc e fo r h e did no t wi s h a w ar wit h R o m e Aft er t h e

,
.

c o nqu est o f M a c ed o ni a and S yria t h e w h o l e civil i z ed

wo rld t h enc efo rt h r ec o gniz ed t h e R o m an s en a t e a s t h e
su p r em e tribun a l w h o s e c o mmis s i o n ers d ecid ed in t h e
,

l ast r es o rt b et w een k ings a nd n a ti o ns ”

’

3 2 3 T h e Co n q u es t o f G r e e ce
.
— R o m e h a d a lw a ys .

l o o k ed u p t o G r eec e as a c o untry o f cultur e a nd a h ig h

civilizati o n Ordin a rily s h e int erfer ed in G r eek a ff a irs
.

o nly a t t h e r equ es t o f s o m e G r eek a lly Aft er t h e s ec o nd .

P unic war t h e R o m a ns b eg a n t o d evi s e t h e o v ert h r o w o f

t h e m o st ent er p ri s ing G r eek citi es b ec a us e t h ey h a d tr a d e
w h ic h t h e ric h R o m a n m erc h ants and bank ers w ant ed .
 C OM P L E TI ON OF N ! U ES T S
CO

t h es e gr eat citi es t o b e p unis h ed

’

R h odes w a s t h e firs t of ,

b ec a us e S h e was p r o s p ero us .

La t er R o m e f o und a bund a nt excus e t o int erf er e in t h e

a ffa irs o f G r eec e p r o p er fo r t h e G r eek s qu a rr ell ed co n
,

t i nu a l l y a ft er t h e o v ert h ro w o f M a c ed o ni a a t P ydn a .

In t h e end Greece was su bdu ed i n 14 6 B C One o f its m o st . .

p o w erful citi e
,
s C o ri nth w a
,
s p lund er ed its in h abitants ,
w er e

s o ld int o sl a v ery its buildings w er e d estr o yed and its sit e

,

w as curs ed by t h e R o m a ns .

3 2 4 T h e D e s tr u ct i o n o f C a r t h a g e
.
— T h e p r o s p erity
o f C a rt h a g e lik ewis e a r o us ed envy a m o ng t h e av a rici o us

R o m a ns : F o r a l o ng tim e t h e m o st s ev er e o f t h e R o m a ns ,

C a t o t h e Cens o r h a d end ed ev ery s p eec h wit h t h e w o rds

, ,

Ca rt h a g e must b e d estr o y ed An excus e fo r w ar c a m e

”
.

w h en Ca rt h ag e mad e w ar o n h er n eigh b o r N umidi a an ,

a lly o f R om e t h a t h a d

r ep eat edly inj ur ed C ar

t h a ge.

At first t h e R o m a ns
w er e succ ess ful ; Car
t h age was c o m p ell ed t o .

giv e u p s o m e o f h er b est
citiz ens as h o st ag es and
surr end er h er n a v a l
v ess els a nd h er arms .

T h e R o m a ns t h en d e
ma nd ed t h a t C art h ag e
b e a band o n ed as t h ey
,

fea r ed s o p o w erful a
c o mm erci a l riv a l T h e .

p a ti ent Ca rt h a gini a ns
r eb ell ed Wit h m ar
.

R m n A t il l y o a r er .

v ell o ns en ergy t h ey
b eg a n t o r ebuild w a lls a nd t o f a s h i o n w eap o ns o u t o f
scr ap s o f m et a l T h e wo m en g a v e t h eir h air fo r t h e c o rds
.
 R OM E

on ug e b o ws F o r s ev eral y ea rs t h e Cart h aginians

t he h .

r esist ed t h e Ro m a n a tt a cks until in 1 4 6 B C st a rving a nd . .

,

o v erw h elm ed t h ey were fo rc ed t o s urr end er Of t h e

, .

t h at b eg a n t h e si eg e but survi v ed Like .

Co rint h a nd in t h e s a m e y ea r C a rt h a g e w as d estr o y ed
, ,

b ec a us e Of t h e c o mm erci a l riv a lry o f R o m e .

1

3 2 5 R o m a n Ex p a n s i o n aft er 14 6 B C
. Und er t h e . .

R o m a n r ep ublic w h ic h l a st ed until 2 7 B C R o m e a dd ed
, . .
,

G aul m o st o f t h e n o rt h ern c o a s t o f Afric a a nd p art s o f

,

Asia M in o r a nd S yri a M o st o f t h is t errit o ry w as co n.

qu ered by t h e gr ea t g en er a l s o f t h e l a t e R ep ublic S u l la ,
’

P o m p ey 3 44 ) a nd Ow s a r
’ ’

W h en Au g us tus es t a blis h ed t h e em p ir e
-
’
he
no t o nly c o m p l et ed t h e circl e o f R o m a n p o s s es si o ns a ro und
t h e M edit err a n ea n but h e wi s ely limit ed t h e em p ir e t o
,

t h e R h in e a nd t h e D a nub e riv ers in c entr a l Euro p e

a nd t o t h e Eu p h r a t es R iv er in Asi a L a t er em p er o rs .

h eld t o t h o s e b o und a ri es wit h o ne exc ep ti o n ,

?

C HA N G ES I N R O M E

326 n er al Ch a n ge s
. Ge D uring t h e l a t er fo r eign w a r s .

a new R o m e w as cr ea t ed du e in l a rg e p a rt t o t h e w a r s , , ,

t h ems elves S o m e o f t h es e c h a ng es w er e (I ) S oci a l

.

ch a nges d u e c h i efly t o t h e new w ea lt h a nd luxury a nd

, ,

S h o wn in c o rru p ti o n in r eligi o n in fa mily l ife and t h e new

, ,

amus em ents ; (II ) P o li ti ca l cha nges w h ic h a ffect ed t h e

1
C a rt h a g e , C o ri nt h a nd T y re w ere a ft er w a rd re b u i l t b ec a u se ,
t h ey
w ere na t u ra l c o m m erc i a l c ent res T h e R o m a ns fo u nd t h a t t h ey h a d .

i nj u red ra t h er t h a n h el p e d t h em s el v es b y d es t ro y i ng t h ese p o rt s t h ro u g h
w h i c h m u c h o f t h ei r t ra d e m u s t b e c a rri ed o n
T h e e m p ero r T ra j a n ( 9 8 — 1 1 7 A D ) w a s a g rea t c o nq u e ro r a nd a d d ed
.

’
2 . .

t o t h e R o m a n em p i re l a nd s b ey o nd t h e D a nu b e R i v e r a nd t h e Eu p h ra t e s
R i v e r b u t h i s s u cc e s o rs d i d n t t ry t o d efe nd t h es e fr nt i rs a g a i ns t t h ei r
s o o e

T o b e s u re B ri t a i n w h i c h h a d b ee n c o nq u e re d b fo re t h e t i m
,

e ne m i e s . .
e e

O f T ra j n w a s h el d fo r fo u r c nt u ri e u nt i l i nv a i ns
a ,
f G e rm a n t ri be s
e s s o o

c a u sed t h e b rea k —u p ”
f t h e R o m a n e m p i re ( ch X I V )
o . .
 R OM E

R o mans w er e h o w ev er rat h er p o o r imitat o rs and t h ey

, , ,

w er e no t int ell ectual o r a rti s tic lik e t h e G r eeks .

1

F a mily b o nds w er e r elax ed und er t h e new era t h at h a d

b egun at R o m e T h er e is no r ec o rd o f a div o rc e earli er
.

t h an t h e first P unic w a r but s ep a r ati o ns o ccurr ed wit h

,

a larming fr equ ency aft er t h e s ec o nd w a r wit h C art h ag e .

Wo m en h a d gr eat er l egal fr eed o m als o fro m t h i s tim e , ,

t h e fa t h er no l o ng er h a ving t h e full rig h ts o f p a tri a p o

“

t estas t h a t i s ab s o lut e c o ntro l as p at er f a milias

, ,
”
.

3 2 9 In t r o d u cti o n o f P u b l i c G a m e s
.
— In s t ea d o f t h e .

o ne annu a l fes tiv a l t h at was h eld b ef o r e t h e s ec o nd P unic

war new g a m es a nd festiv a ls w er e intro duc ed T h es e i n

,
.

AST l ANAX

R o m a n G l a d i a t o rs .

clud ed fi erc e c o mb a ts b etw een anim a ls a nd b etw een men

(gl a di at o rs ) wit h s h o rt sw o rds T h ey w er e fre
qu ently h eld a t t h e exp ens e o f t h e l es s er m agistr a t es ,

w h o s e c h a nc e o f el ecti o n t o h ig h er o ffic es usu a lly d e

‘

p end e d u p o n t h e p l e a s ur e t h at t h ey g a v e t o t h e Ro m an

mo b T h is cu s t o m a nd t h e di s tributi o n o f gr a i n by
.

w ealt h y men w h o wi s h ed t o h a v e a fo ll o wing led t o ” “

1
M a ny R o m a ns h a d a l rea d y l o s t fa i t h i n t h ei r o w n rel i gi o n 2 8 0)
G reek c ep t i c i s m w a s w el c o m ed O rgi e s i n t h e na m e o f t h e G ree k g o d
s .

B a cc h u s w ere p r a c t i s ed S ec re t ly a t R o m e a nd t h ro u g h o u t I t a ly S oo t h .

sa y er s fro m A s i a fl o c k ed t o t h e c a p i t a l c i t y T e m p l e s w e re e re c t ed t o
.

t h e Egy p t i a n I s i s a nd t o nu m e ro u s o t h e r fo re i g n d ei t i es .
 C HA N G ES IN R OM E

an imm ens e a m o unt o f p o litic a l c o rru p ti o n during t h e

l ast c entury and a h a lf o f t h e r ep ublic .

3 30 T h e G o v ernm ent o f t h e P r o vin ce s

. R o m e did .
-

no t s et o u t t o cr ea t e a n em p ir e c o m p o s ed o f p r o vinc es
but s h e w as fo rc ed t o b o rr o w o r d ev el o p s o m e syst em
o f g o v ernm ent fo r t h e s ubj ect p eo p l es w h o m s h e co n

qu er ed T h e m et h o d o f g o v ernm ent fo r t h e ea rly p r o v

.

i nces lik e t h e p r o vinc es t h ems elv es w as C art h a gini a n

, ,
.

A g o v ern o r wit h alm o st a bs o lut e p o w er rul ed ea c h p r o v

inc e and tax es w er e fa rm ed o u t t o p ublic a ns No t
,
1 “
.

a ll o f t h e citi es in a p r o vinc e w er e o n equ a l fo o ting so me

w er e still a lli es ; o t h ers p a id tribut e w h il e a few b ecam e
t h e p r o p erty o f R o m e In g en er a l b efo r e t h e d estructi o n
.
, E
O

o f C a rt h a g e it m a y b e s a id t h a t R o man rul e in h er p r o v
,

i nces and in t h e st a t es o f d ep end ent a lli es w a s b ett er t h a n

t h e rul e it r ep l a c ed T a x es w er e l ess h ea vy in M a c ed o ni a
.

und er R o m e t h a n t h ey h ad b een und er t h e M ac ed o ni an

kings T h e R o man o ffici a ls w er e h o n est c o mp a r ed wit h
.

t h e G r eek a nd Ca rt h a gini a n rul ers Y et in l a t er tim es .

t h e misrul e o f t h e p r o vinc es t h e h eavy t a x a ti o n a nd t h e ,

s a crific e o f busin ess in t h e citi es fo r t h e b en efit o f R o m e

a re bl o ts o n t h e h ist o ry o f t h e r ep ublic
?

T h e R o m a n g o v er no rs w ere u su a ll y ex m a gi s t ra t e s w h o w ere a p
'

1 -

p o i nt ed fo r o ne y ea r l a t er fo r t h ree y ea r s,T h ey w ere a b s o l u t e w i t h i n

.

t h e p ro v i n c es b ei ng s u bj ec t t o t h e s ena t e u nt i l t h ei r t erm o f
, no t ev en

o ffic e h a d exp i red T h ey c o nt ro ll ed t h e p ro v i nc ia l a rm y o f w h i c h t h ere

.

w a s u su a ll y need o n t h e b o r d ers o f t h e p r o v i nc e o r i n u nru l y c i t i e s T h ey .

i ssu ed o rd er s a nd enfo r c ed t h e l a w s I f a p ro v i nc i a l h a d a g ri ev a nc e
.

t h ere c o u l d b e no a p p ea l b ey o nd t h e g o v er no r w h o h a d t h e h i g h es t ju ,

di ci a l p o w er T h ro u gh a su b o rdi na t e t h e g o v er no r s u p erv i sed t h e

.
,

fi na nc es .

2
I f a g o v erno r p l u nd ered a p r o v i nc e no o ne c o u l d t ry hi m u nt i l a ft er
,

h i s t erm w a s o v er T h en h e w a s b ro u g h t b efo re a t ri b u na l o f fel l o w sen

.
-

a t o rs .I f c o nv i c t ed h e w ent i nt o exil e u su a l l y a t h i s c o u nt ry h o me
, , It .

w a s a c o m m o n S a y i ng w h en t h e g o v er no r s t erm w a s t h ree y ea r s t h a t i t
’
, ,

t o o k t h e p l u nd er o f t h e fi r s t y ea r t o p a y t h e s ena t e fo r g i v i ng t h e p o si
t i o n t h a t o f t h e s e c o nd t o b u y o ff t h e j u ry l ea v i ng o nl y t h e p l u nd er o f
, ,

t h e t h i rd y ea r fo r t h e g o v erno r .
 R OM E

3 31 . The P u bl i ca n s
cquisiti o n o f p ro vinc es
. T he a

add ed gr ea tly t o t h e p ublic busin ess w h ic h R o m e tr a ns

act ed t h ro ug h c o ntr a ctors Tax es h ad t o b e c o ll ect ed .

in a p ro vinc e If a s ew er w as t o b e c o nstruct ed a r o ad
.
,

built o r a p ublic building er ect ed t h e wo rk w as d o n e by

, ,

c o ntract T h e contr a cts wer e l et by t h e c ens o rs at fiv e

.

y ear i nt erv a ls T h e c ens o rs estim a t ed t h e a m o unt o f

.

r ev enu e t h at eac h p r o vinc e S h ould bring ; t h e rig h t t o

c o ll ect t h e tax es w a s t h en s o ld t o t h e h ig h est bidd er .

T h e bidd ers w er e n ec essarily ca p it a lists T h es e ass o cia .

ti o ns o f p ublicans c o ll ect ed t h e cust o ms r ev enu es in

Italy and farm ed t h e tax es in t h e p ro vi nc es .

T h e p ublic a ns c o ll ect ed as muc h a s t h ey c o uld usu a lly ,

far in exc ess Of t h e a m o unts p aid int o t h e p ublic tr ea sury .

If a man did no t p a y t h e t ent h o r fift h o f h i s p r o duc e t h at

t h e l a w r equir ed o r did no t p ay t h e r ent o n his land w h ic h
,

mi g h t l eg a lly b el o ng t o t h e stat e h e mig h t b e cast int o ,

p rison o r sold int o slav ery .

3 3 2 S l a v ery
.
—
S lav ery gr ew wit h t h e ext ensi o n of
.

R o man domi ni o n Eac h w ar br o ug h t t h o usand s o f

.

cap tives w h o w er e s o ld as S lav es S l a v es w er e em p l o y ed .

1

in l a rg e numb ers o n t h e gr ea t est a t es o f Italy a nd S icily .

T h ey w er e no t tr eat ed lik e h um an b eings but b eing , ,

h uman r evolt ed in t erribl e slav e insurr ections

,
S icily .

w a s t h e sc en e o f t h r ee p r o l o ng ed s ervil e wars during t h e

c entury aft er t h e f a ll o f C art h age S lav ery mad e t h e .

R o m a ns m o r e call o u s a nd c o rru p t t h a n ev er a nd sl a v e ,

labor caus ed gr eat ec o n o mic cris es .

3 3 3 T h e D e clin e o f t h e M i d d l e Cl a s s
.
—
It a ly h ad o nc e
b een a l a nd o f sm a ll fa rm ers sturdy s elf su p p o rting , ,
-

1
O ne Of the m o st u p ri g h t Of t h e R oman c o m m a nd ers , E mi l i u s P a u l u s ,

so l d i nh a b i t a nt s of Ep i ru s i nt o s l a v ery T en t h o u sa nd o f
the m o s t i nt elli ge nt G reek s i nc l u d i ng t h e s t a t es m a n a nd h i s t o ri a n P o l y b
,

i u s w ere s ent t o R o m e p ra c t i c a lly a s s l a v es w h en t h e Ac h aea n l ea gu e w a s

,

b ro k en u p ( 1 5 1 S l a v e ra id s w ere c o m m o n a nd t h e i s l a nd o f D el o s , ,

o nc e sa c red t o A p o ll o b ec a m e t h e sl a v e m a rk et o f t h e M ed i t erra nea n

,
.
 R OM E

T he first struggl e b etween R o m e and C arthag e b egan

in 2 64 B C in a c o nt est fo r S icily S o o n aft er t h e R o m a ns
. . .

equi p p ed t h ems elv es t o fig h t o n t h e s ea t h ey acquir ed ,

S icily and lat er S a rdini a a nd Co rsica

, , T h e s ec o nd .

P u nic war was t h e w a r w a g ed by H a nnib a l fo r fi ft een y ears

in It a ly ag ainst gr ea t o dds At Ca nnae h e d estr o y ed .

t h e fl o w er o f R o m e s tr o o p s but h e c o uld no t br eak

’
,

d o wn t h e a ll egi a nc e o f R o m e s alli es Wh en H a sdrubal ’

.

w as d ef eat ed at t h e M et a urus H a n nibal w a s

b ea t en alt h o ugh h e did no t a ckno wl edg e d efea t until
,

Z ama A h alf c entury l a t er in 1 4 6 B C C art h ag e ,

. .
,

was d estr o y ed by t h e j ea l o us a nd av a rici o us R o m a n s .

R om e exp and ed t o t h e east as s o o n a s C a rt h ag e was

o u t o f t h e w ay S h e w a s succ essful against t h e kings o f
.

S yri a and Of M a c ed o n (P ydn a 1 6 8 B C ) and ea s ily ov er

, ,
. .

c am e t h e disunit ed stat es o f G r eec e Co nqu ests aft er .

14 6 B C ext end ed R o m a n d o mini o ns t o t h e S c o ttis h h ig h

. .

lands o n t h e n o rt h t o t h e R h in e a nd t h e D anub e o n t h e
,

no rt h east t o t h e Eup h rat es o n t h e east a nd to t h e S a h a r a

, ,

d es ert o n t h e s o ut h .

R om e s succ ess and t h e introduction o f w ea lt h and

’

luxury fro m a br o a d mad e h er p eo p l e l es s r eligi o us a nd ’

m o r a l S h e w as no l o ng er go v ern ed by t h e p eo p l e but by
.

a s et of w ea lt h y s en at o rs T h e p ro vinc es w er e b a dly .

rul ed and t h e pr o vincials w er e o p p r ess ed by t h e t ax

farm ers In Italy t h e ri s e o f gr ea t estat es t h e s p rea d o f
.
,

slav ery a nd t h e d ec ay o f t h e p eas a ntry p r ep ar ed t h e wa y

fo r mo b rul e in R o m e fo r t h e a sc end ency o f g en erals a nd
,

finally fo r t h e emp ir e .

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
W es t ,
T h e Ro ma n Wor ld , R ev i s ed 3 5 7 —4 1 8
, .

S ei g no b o s Hi s to r y , o f t h e R o ma n P eo p l e, 8 6 —1 7 6 .

A nc i ent Ci vi l i z a ti o n 2 3 3 — 2 7 3
S ei g no b o s , ,
.

F reema n Ch i ef P e i o ds of
r ,
E u r op ea n H i s to r y 29 —59 , .
 CHA N G ES IN R OM E 257

P el h a m , Ou tl i nes of R o ma n H i s t o ry , 1 09 — 1 9 8 .

Ho w a nd L ei gh , Hi s to r y of R o me, 13 1 3 2 6
— .

c
B o t s fo rd , S o u rc e B o o k of An i nt Hi t r 3 7 9 —4 16
e s o y, .

t
S mi h , R o me a nd Ca r th a ge .

To p i cs
C AR T H A E G : Ho w a nd L ei gh Hi t y f , s or o R o me, 1 4 3—1 4 9 ;
n
C u ni ngh a m , W t n C i i l
es er i ti n I 140
v
— 1 50
;
za o , ,
S mi t h , R o me a nd
Ca rth a ge 5 —22 , .

H A N N I B AL : D vi a s, R ea di ngs , II ,
—
5 6 60 ; D o d ge, H a nni ba l ,

nni b
”
642 —653 ; P l u t a rch , L i ves , Ha al
“
.

G
M I S O VE R N M E N T O F T H E P R O V I N C E S Anc i ent Wo rld, I Wes t ,

4 1 3 —4 1 7 ; a i s, D v I nfl u enc e of Wea l th i n I mp eri a l R o me, 1 6 2 3 ;

—

P el h a m Ou tl i nes , of R o ma n Hi s to ry 1 7 3 — 18 9 ; Ci er o Ora ti o n ,
c ,

A ga i ns t V erres .

S tu di es

1 . E t ru s c a ns , G reek s a nd C a rt h a g ini n a s . F reema n , S tory

of S i c i l y 7 6 —8 6
, .

2 . D
i o ny s i u s a nd Ti m o l eo n . Bo t s fo r d , S o u rc e B oo k of Anc i ent
Hi s to ry , 2 1 2 46
4 — .

3 . R o me a nd C a r t h a ge b efo r e t h e fir s t Pu i nc w ar . M u nro ,

S ou r e c B o ok of R o me a nd Hi s t o r y , 8 9—9 1 .

4 . Infl u ence of s ea p o w er in s e o nd c Pu nic w ar . M a h an ,

I nfl u enc e of S ea P o wer , 14—2 1 .

5 . R egu l u s , an ol d R o man .

6 . End of th e fir s t P u ni c w a r M u nro S o u r c e B o o k 8 1 —8 4
.
, , .

7 . Ha mil ca r B a rc a . B o t sfo rd S o u r c e B o o k of A nc i ent Hi s

,

to r y , 3 8 0—382 .

8 . Ha nni b al cro s s i ng t h e Al p s . M u nr o ,
S o u r c e B oo k, 8 5— 8 6 .

9 . C a nnaa . H ow a nd L ei g h , Hi s tor y of R o me, 19 4— 198 .

10 . M et au ru s . C rea s y , Dec i s i ve B a ttl es o f th e Wo rld , ch . IV .

11 . S o c i al a nd rel i gi o u s ch a ng es a ft er t h e d efea t of Ha nni b al .

S ei gno b o s , Hi s tory of th e R o ma n P eo p l e, 1 4 4— 1 5 1 .

1 2 S l a ery i n R o m e
. v S ei g no b o s , Anc i ent Ci vi l i za ti o n, 2 5 5
.

261 .

13 . A go v erno r i n hi s p ro vinc e . c
Ch u r h , R o ma n L ife i n th e
Da y s of Ci c ero , 2 4 7 — 2 66 .

,
14 . T ax fa rm ers a nd u su rers u nder th e rep u b li c . D avi s ,

I nfl u ence o f Wea l th i n I mp eri a l R o me, 2 3 — 3 6 .

15 . C au s es of t h e fa l l of th e rep u b li c . Ho w a nd L ei gh ,
Hi s to ry o f Ro me 3 2 2 —3 2 6
, .

s
 R OM E

Q u es ti o ns
1 . Wh a t w ere th th
e grea t t p in t h
r ee xp n i o n s e s e e a s of R o me
Ho w di d th e su b j u ga ti o n f C t h ag nd t h e ci t i e
o ar e a s o f Ea s t
n
i fl u en R o me ?c e

2 Ou t li ne t h e s ru ggl e
. t h e w es er M ed t erra nea t in t n i n : ( 1) be
t w een t h e Et ru s ca ns G reek s a nd C a r t h a g i a ns ; ( 2 ) , in b et w een
t h e C a rt h a gi i a ns n a nd G reek s ; (3 ) b et w een R o me a nd C ar
t h ag e .

3 Wh o w ere G el o n D i o ny si u s Ti m o l eo n
.
, , , Aga t h o l es a nd c
P y rr h u s ? Wh a t w ere Hi mera t h e S i c ili a n , t
exp edi i o n a nd a

Py r rhi c Vict o ry ?
4 . Sho w th e i mp o r t nca e of C a r t h ag e . Co n i de
s r l o ca t i o n ,

d o mi i o nsn , t ra d e, go v ern ment a nd n av y . C o mp a re R o m e wi t h

t
C a r h ag e .

5 H o w m a y w a r s w ere t h ere b e
. n tw n R ee o me a nd C a r h a ge t
ct
C h a ra eri z e ea h , h a i s exp l a i c t t , nv y bi er r efl y the real a t u re n
c
o f ea h s t ru ggl e .

6 i
Exp l a n t h e p o li y o f H a nni b a l
. G e an a c ou o f hi sc . iv c nt
m et h o d s a nd d es cri b e o ne b a t t l e Wh y di d no t t h e a ll i es d es er . t
R o me ? W h y w a s t h e s eco nd P u i c w a r a s w ell a s t h e fir s t n
c
d e i ded b y s ea p o w er ,
“
t h a t i s , b y t h e co nt ro l o f t h e s ea ?
7 . T
el l a b o u t t h e c o nq u es t o f M a ced o ni a , S y r a a nd G reece i .

Wh y w a s R h o d es h u m ili a t ed ? W h y w ere C o ri nt h a nd Car

t h age d es t ro y ed ? Wh y w ere Ty re , Co r inth a nd C a rt h a ge a f t er

w a rd re b u il t
8 . D ra w a m a p sh o wi ng t h e fi v e di ffere t n s t a g es i n R o ma n
exp a ns i o n . Di d R o m e ga i n m o re t errit o ry b efo re 146 B C
. . or

a ft er 1 46 B C . . ? Wh y d o w e t a ke 1 4 6 B C . . as th e end of th e

p er i od of th e
“
exp a ns i o n o f t h e na i o ns t ”
?
9 . N a me t h e t hr ee c l a s ses of c h a nges i n R o m e d u r ng t h e i s ec

e nd a nd fi rs t b efo re C h ri s t Exp l ai n ea c h a s fu l l y a s
cent u ri es .

p o s si b l e . F i r s t na m e t h e c hi ef ch a nges u nd er ea c h c l a s s a nd t h en ,

exp l a i n t h o s e t h a t y o u h a v e n a m ed . M ak e a su mmar y of thi s

fo r y o u r o t e b o o k n -
.

10 . Exp l a i n : M y l aa , the ea rli es t p ro vi nc es , F abia n p o l i cy ,

M eta u r u s , Z a ma , P y d na , M ag nes i a , b equ es t s of the k ing of

P erga mu m , t ax fa -
r mi ng , pu b li c a ns , th e -
‘
c i ty ra b bl e .
"
 CH AP T ER XI
T HE R EV OL U TI ON AN D I M PER I ALI S M
(146 B C . .
—1 4 AD )
. .

335 . r o bl em o f G o v ernin g t h e R o m a n W o rl d
The P ,

1 33 B C . As w e h a v e s een t w o gr eat c h ang es h a d b een

.
,

go ing o n in t h e M edit err a n ea n wo rld during t h e s ec o nd

c entury b efo r e Ch rist ; ( 1 ) t h e exp a nsi o n o f t h e R o man
p o w er until p r a ctically ev ery c o untry t h a t b o rd er ed
o n t h e M edit erran ea n was eit h er subj ect t o R o m e o r

a d ep end ent a lly o f R o m e ; and (2 ) t h e d ec a d enc e o f t h e

o l d sim p l e lif e a nd s p irit o f t h e R o m a n p eo p l e One .

f
p art o th e p ro bl m
e th en was h o w to o rga n i ze th es e conqu ered
”
cou ntri es i nto a si ngl e emp i re, or va s t rep u bli c .

An ot h er p a rt of the p-

r o bl em was
qu esti o n as t o the
wh o s h ou ld govern thi s i mmens e a rea Und er t h e c o nsti .

t u t i o n t h a t h a d b een d ev el o p ed during t h e early y ea rs o f

t h e r ep ublic as w e n o tic ed a ft er 2 8 7 B C th e l a w gave th e
, ,
. .

p ower of governi ng Rome to th e a ssembli es , bu t cu s tom a nd

'

a bi li ty h a d l eft i t to th e s ena te N eit h er t h e ass embli es

.

no r t h e s enat e kn ew h o w t o go v ern p r o p erly s o vast a r ealm

as t h e R o m a n a rmi es h a d c o nqu er ed In 1 33 t h e s enat e .

was not only g o v erning R o man d o mini o ns unwis ely ,

but t h e s enat e its elf was narr o w s elfis h and incom p et ent , , .

T h e ass embli es w er e j ust as incap a bl e o f gov erning fo r ,

t h ey w er e larg ely m a d e u p o f s elf s eeking merc h ants o f -

p r o p ert y o w n ers c o rru p t ed by un a ccust o m ed w ealt h and

s lav ery a nd o f t h e city mo b
,
d egr a d ed by p o v erty
, .

T h e c entury fr o m 133 t o 2 7 B C w as t a k en u p wit h . .

att em p ts t o s o lv e t h es e t w o p r o bl ems T hi s centu ry after .

1 33 B C
. . is so meti mes ca ll ed th e centu ry o f th e Revo lu ti o n .

2 61
 R OM E

T HE EAR L Y R EV O L UT I O N — R EV O LT AG AI N S T S EN A
—
T OR I A L R U LE ( 1 46 88 B C
. .
)
336 . r o f t h e G r a cch i
T h e R efo m s T h e first a tt a ck .
-

u p o n t h e s en at o ri a l rul e c a m e fro m t wo bro th ers o f no bl e

' '
a ims and h ig h p rinci p l es Ti b e ri u s and G a ius G rac c h us ’
- -
.

b el o ng ed t o a p l eb eian f a mily o f no bl es and t h r o ugh t h eir ,

mot h er t h e f a m o us Co r n e li a wer e d esc end ed fro m

,
-
’
-

S ci p i o Afric a nus t h e Eld er ,

T h eir r ea l p ur p o s e was t o
.

r eli ev e t h e distr ess of t h e p o o r citiz ens w h o h ad b een driv en

fr o m t h eir farms 333 ) in t h e v a in eff o rt t o find a living
in R o m e .

337 Ti b eri u s G ra cch u s

. H a ving b een el ect ed trib
.

u ne in 1 3 3 B C T ib erius G r a cc h us tri ed t o get a redi s t ri

. .
,

b u t i o n o f t h e p ublic l a nds acc o rding to t h e Licini a n ,

l a ws T h is aro us ed t h e enmity o f t h e s enat o rs ,

many o f w h o m h ad o ccu p i ed larg e bl o cks o f stat e l a nd

wh ic h t h ey did no t wis h t o giv e u p T ib erius ap p ea l ed .

t o t h e p eo p l e in ass embly a nd t h ey p a ss ed h i s law a s t h ey ,

h a d a l egal rig h t t o d o but t h ey w er e o blig ed t o r em o v e a

,

tribun e w h o h a d v et o ed t h e l aw a t t h e r equ est o f t h e s ena

t o ri a l p arty T h is was a very anci ent u se o f t h e mod ern
.

”
m eth o d t h at w e term t h e r ecall “
Tib erius t h en tri ed to .

s ecur e h is o wn r eel ecti o n as tribune a lt h o ugh t h e law did no t ,

p r o vid e f o r r eel ecti o n T h e s en a.t o rs a l a rm e d at t h e gr ea t ,

incr ea s e in t h e tribun e s p ow er und er Tib erius and fea ring

’
,

t h e l o ss t o t h ems elv es if h i s p rogr a mm e o f r efo rm w as com

p l et ed a tt
,
a ck e d h i m in t h e city str ee ts and p u t h i m to
d eath T h us V i o l enc e p o int ed t h e way t o t h e military
.

rul e w h ic h fin a lly o v ert h r ew t h e r ep ublic B u t t h e d eat h .

of Tib erius did no t end h i s work fo r lat er c ensus es s h o w ,

t h at wit h in a few years t h e numb er o f land o wn ers in Italy

incr eas ed
3 3 8 T h e W o r k o f G ai u s G r a cch u s ( 1 2 3
. G ai ns
G racc h us continu ed t h e work o f Tib erius fo r t h e r eli ef o f
 R OM E

b o ugh t h is fr eed o m On h i s d ep a rtur e h e is r ep o rt ed t o

.

h av e s a id Oh city fo r sal e and d o o m ed t o s p eedy ruin

, , ,

if it finds a p urc h as er ”
.

3 4 0 M ari u s
. th e S avi ou r o f R o m e
, T h e p eo p l e .

d emand ed a l ea d er w h o w as i nc o rru p tibl e T h ey fo und .

o ne in G a iu s M a ri u s an un educat ed man o f h umbl e

’
-

p ar entag e bu t an a bl e g en eral
,
M a rius fo und t h e a rmy .

h o n eyc o mb ed wit h c o rru p ti o n He r efo rm ed it d ef ea t ed .

,

J u gu rt h a and h i s a lli es a nd wi t h t h e ai d o f Lu cius S ul la , ,

’ ’
,

cap tur ed Jugurt h a He w as a t o nc e r eel ect ed c o nsul .

a nd was r ecall ed t o It a ly t o r ep el t h e inv a si o n o f t w o

h o rd es of G ermans t h e C im bri and t h e T eu t o n es

’ ’
-

, .

Th es e trib es h aving d ef eat ed fo ur c o nsuls w er e t h r ea t en

, ,

ing t o s eiz e t h e ric h l a nds o f n o rt h ern It a ly and p lund er

t h e w ea lt h y citi es S i x y ea rs in succ es s i o n M arius h eld
.

t h e c o nsuls h i p In 1 02 at Aq u aa S ex t i m in S o ut h ern
‘ ’
-
.
, ,

G aul h e d estr o y ed t h e h ug e f o rc e o f t h e T eut o n es a nd t h e

, ,

n ext y ear a t t h e R aud in e p lain in n o rt h ern It a ly h e a nni

,
’
,

h i l a t ed t h e C imbri a s w ell F o r fo ur c enturi es R o m e w as .

,

c o m p arativ ely fr ee fr o m inv a si o n by t h e barb a rians .

3 41 T h e S o ci a l W a r
. M a rius m a d e t h e a rmy dem o .

cr a tic by ab o lis h ing s o cial distincti o ns a nd by a dmitting

l a ndl ess men fr o m R o m e and It a ly int o t h e l egi o ns but ,

h e did n o t h ing fo r t h e It a lians As t h e It a li a ns w er e o p .

p r e ss ed by t h e R o mans t h ey form ed a ne w Italian st a t e ,

w h ic h t h ey d ef end ed in a w a r kn o wn as t h e s o ci a l w a r ,

fr o m t h e Latin wo rd socii m ea ning a lli es R o m e ,

.
1

t o ok p r o m p t and vigo ro us m easur es t o crus h t h e r evo lts ,

but t h e It a li a n s w er e no t c o nqu er ed T h en t h e R o m a n .

go v ernm ent o ffer ed full citiz ens h i p t o t h o s e It a li ans w h o

h a d r em a in ed l o y a l La t er t h e s a m e rig h ts w er e gr a nt ed
.

A t ri b u ne M a r c u s D ru s u s c u re fo r t h e d i s c o nt ent ed
’
1
, , t ri ed to se

I t a l i a ns the ri g h t s o f c i t i z ens hi p w h i c h G aiu s G ra cc h u s h a d p ro p o se d fo r

t h em . Hi s l a w w a s p a ss ed , b u t D ru s u s w a s a s sa s s i na t ed , a nd t h e law
was v et o ed by t h e s ena t e .
 S TR U G G LE OF L EA D ER S F OR S U P R EM AC Y 26 5

to t h o s e wh o swo r e all egi anc e t o R o m e wit h in sixty d ays .

1

T h es e l aws and a vig o r o us camp aign by S ulla end ed t h e

w a r alt h o ug h m o r e bl o o d w a s s h ed b ef o r e t h e new It a li a n
,

citiz ens w er e fin a lly enr o ll ed as v o t ers T h e nu mber of .

Ro ma n ci ti zens wasmore th a n dou bled by th es e ch a nges ,

a nd I ta ly from th e Ru bi con to T a rentu m was u ni ted i nto a
si ngl e s ta te .

T HE S T R U G G L E OF M I L I T AR Y LEADER S F OR S U P R E M A CY
—
(88 4 6 B C ) . .

3 42 . The with M i t h ri d a t e s (8 8 8 4
W ar —

Dis o rd er and vi o l enc e w er e c o mm o n f ea t ur es o f t h e p a rty

stri fe t h at w ent o n a t R o m e ea c h y ea r but a s y et no ,

l ea d er h a d us ed an o rg a niz ed a rmy t o s ecur e p o w er .

S ull a t h e arist o cr a t c h a m p i o n o f t h e s enat e w as t h e first t o

, , ,

intr o duc e t h e a rmy int o R o m an p o litics Unfo rtun a t ely .

h e h a d many succ ess o rs He did t h is in o rd er t o s ecur e

.

'
c o mm and o f t h e f o rc e t o b e s ent a g a inst M it h ri d a t es - -

king o f P o ntus T h e ass embly h a d vo t ed t h a t M a rius

.
,

t h e d em o cr a tic l ea d er s h o uld h a v e t h e c o mm a nd t h e s en
,

at e ou
, t h e c o ntr a ry s el ect ed S ull a t h e l ea d er o f t h e
, ,

a rist o cr a ts
?

M it h ridat es s eem ed as gr eat a d a ng er a s t h e inv asi o n s o f

t h e C imbri a nd t h e T eut o n es a few y ea rs ea rli er He .

w as king o f P Ont u S o n t h e s o ut h S h o r e o f t h e B l a ck S ea
, .
3

1
T he I t a l i a ns w a nt ed fu l l ri gh t s o f c i t i z ensh i p a s a p ro tec t i o n .

T h ey di d no t c ar e p a r t i c u l a rl y a b o u t v o t ng i n R o m e b u t t h ey di d wis h
i ,

t o b e a b l e t o p r o t ec t t h em s el v es fr o m i ns u l t a nd t h eir p ro p er t y fr o m
s ei z u r e Onl y fu ll c i t i z ens w ere real l y a b l e t o d o t h i s
.
.

2
As s o o n as S u l l a l eft I t a l y h o wev er M ari u s a nd h i s fri e nd s re
, ,

ent ered R o m e wh ere t h e , y m u r d ered t h e fri end s o f S u l l a a nd p l u nd er ed

t h ei r h o m es M ar i u s w a s no l o ng er a n a bl e g ener a l a nd a w i s e l ea d er
.
,

b u t a h a rs h r ev eng efu l o l d m a n w h o d i ed s o o n a ft er t h i s b u t c h ery

, .

3
H e w a s a m a n o f gi g a nt i c s t a t u re a b l e a nd c ru el b u t wi t h a p o l i s h
, , ,

t h a t c a m e fr o m a G reek ed u c a t i o n On a n a p p o i nt ed d a y h e h a d
.

m as s a c r ed al l o f t h e I t al i a ns i n As i a M i no r m en w o m en a nd c h i l dren, , ,

nu mb er i ng p erh a p s o ne h u ndr ed t h o u s a nd .
 R OM E

Having c o nqu er ed h i s imm edi a t e n eigh b o rs h e h ad in ,

cit ed a ll o f t h e east ern p ro vinc es Of R o m e t o rev o lt .

M it h rid a t es t h en cro ss ed int o G r eec e and w as j o in ed by

t h e G r eeks and m a ny o f t h e M ac ed o ni a ns .

Alt h o ug h S ull a h a d o nly a small army h e h a d no gr eat ,

di fficulty in d ef ea ting t h e fo rc es o f M it h rid at es and driving

t h em o u t o f Euro p e M it h ridat es w as glad t o m a k e
.

p ea c e by surr end ering m o st o f h i s c o nqu es ts in Asi a M in o r .

He p r eferr ed t o w a it for a mor e f a v o rabl e tim e t o a tt a ck

Ro me
3 43 T h e R u l e o f S u l l a
.
— Aft er c o nqu ering M it h ri
d a t es S ull a r eturn ed t o Italy w h ic h t h e d em o cratic p arty
, ,

d efend ed t o t h e b es t o f t h eir a bility B y a V ict o ry j u s t .

o utsid e t h e Co lli ns G a t e o f R o m e h e g a in ed comp l et e ,

c o ntro l o f t h e g o v ernm ent S ulla imm ediat ely b egan a .

s eri es o f p ro scri p ti o ns in w h ic h h e and h i s fo ll o wers

murd er ed t h eir en emi es a nd s eiz ed t h eir p ro p erty NO .

o n e s lif e w as saf e fo r a fr es h li s t o f t h o s e t h a t mig h t b e

’
,

kill ed fo r a r eward w as p ublis h ed ev ery d ay a nd p riv a t e ,

enmity o r gr eed caus ed t h e d ea t h o f many m en o f ability

o r w ea lt h w h o h ad no t o p p o s ed S ull a T h e h o rr o rs o f .

t h es e fi endis h p r o scri p ti o ns w er e no t f o rgo tt en fo r t wo

g ener a ti o ns S ull a c o m p l et ed h i s w o rk by r eestablis h ing
.

t h e rul e o f t h e s en a t e in a c o n s tituti o n w h ic h als o intr o

d u ced s o m e n ec essary r efo r ms T h e c o nstituti o n last ed
?

ba r ely a d ec a d e but S ulla h a d s et an ex a m p l e o f rul e by

.

bl o o d and ir o n t h a t o t h er R o m a ns w ere quick t o fo ll o w .

1 S ul l a res t o red the ru l e o f t h e se na t e . H e t ri ed t o c ri p p l e t h e t ri bu ne

b y no t al lo wi ng a b een t ri b u ne t o
p ers o n w h o h a d h o l d a ny o t h er O ffic e .

T h es e c h a nges l a s t ed b u t a few y ea rs O t h er c h a ng es l a s t ed l o ng er He .

i nc rea sed t h e nu m b er o f fi na nc i a l a nd j u d i c i a l o ffi c ers i n R o m e a nd I t a l y

.

s i nc e m o re w ere need ed H e p res c ri b ed t h a t no ne s h o u l d h o l d i m p o rt a nt

.

o ffi c es u nt il h e h a d s erv ed i n l esser o ffic es t h u s gi v i ng t h e h i gh er m a gi s

,

t ra t es t ra i ni ng fo r t h ei r w o rk T h ese re fo rm s m i g h t h a v e b een v a l u a bl e
.
,

h a d no t R o m e a l rea d y a b a nd o ned c i v i l r u l e fo r l e a d e rs h i p b y i t s g re a t
g enera l s .
 R OM E

t o R o m e, ft er t h e d efeat o f M it h rid at es a nd t h e p irat es

a ,

wit h a gr eat if r a t h er und es erv ed milit a ry r ep ut a ti o n h e

, , ,

fo und t h at t h e ruling n o bl es w er e j eal o us o f h i s fa m e He .

t h er efo r e a lli ed h im s elf wit h a ric h m a n n a m ed Cr as sus ’

a nd an exc eedingly p o p ul a r p a trici a n Ju lius C ae s ar ,

’ ’
.

T h is alli a nc e o f P o m p ey C aes a r a nd Cr a ssus was call ed ,

t h e fir s t tri u m v i rat e T h es e t h r ee men p r a ctic a ll y

’
- -
.

d o minat ed R o m e Aft er a y ea r as c o nsul C ms ar was ap

.
,

p o int ed p r o c o nsul o f G a ul fo r fiv e y ea rs .

3 47 J u li u s Cms ar
. Julius C aes ar is o ne o f t h e m o st
.

int er esting as w ell as o ne o f t h e abl es t men o f h ist o ry

,
.

Alt h o ug h h e b el o ng ed to a p a trici a n f a mily h e w as r elat ed ,

by m a rri a g e t o M a rius t h e l ead er o f t h e p o p ular p a rty

, ,

a nd h a d S id ed wit h M a rius ag a inst S ull a Aft er S ull a s

’
.

d ea t h h e h a d b een el ect ed t o p o siti o n s in w h ic h h e h a d

ent ert ained t h e p o p ul a c e o f R o m e at gr ea t ex p ens e h i s ,

cr edit o rs p a ying t h e bills C aes a r r ealiz ed as p erh ap s few .

men did t h at R o m e c o uld n ev er b e g o v ern ed a gai n by

eit h er t h e s en a t e o r t h e ass embly S inc e R o m e must b e .

rul ed by o ne man a military l ead er C aesar d ecid ed to b e

, ,

t h at man and h e s o ug h t in G a ul t h e army t h at s h o uld

,

mak e h i m mast er o f R o m e .

C zB s ar c o nqu er ed G a ul in a s eri es o f brilli a nt cam

p a igns t h a t h e d escrib es gra p h ically and S im p ly in h i s
w ell kn o wn if no t w ell b el o v ed b o o k o n t h e G allic w ar
-

,
-

,
.

B y skilful di p l o m a cy h e s o lv ed t h e s eri o us p r o bl ems

o f t h e G a llic trib es C aes a r unit ed G a ul a nd mad e it
.

h alf civiliz ed giving t h e p ro vinc e a firm wi s e rul e

-

,
G a ul ,
.

h el p ed h im ev en m o r e fo r it gav e h i m military exp eri ,

enc e It furni s h ed h i m a n a rmy o f v et erans w h o w er e

.

gr eatly att a c h ed t o h i m and would do anyt h ing for

hi m .

348 m p ey. vers us Cm a

Pos r — C 2es a r n eed ed t h is ex .

p eri ence and t h is h el p T h e s en a t e a nd P o m p ey f earing

.
,

C ms a r t o ld h i m t o giv e u p h i s c o mm and and r eturn t o

,
 T HE ES TAB L I S HM ENT OF AN EM P R E I 2 69

Ro me Knowing t h at h e w o uld no t b e s afe in R o m e

.

if h e w er e a l o n e C aesar cross ed t h e R u bi co n R iv er w it h
,
’
-

h i s a rmy (4 9 P o m p ey a nd h i s fri ends imm edi a t ely

fl ed .C aesar at o nc e mad e h ims el f m a st er o f R o m e a nd
It a ly treating wit h g en er o sity h i s o p p o n ents w h o h a d re
,

main ed Wit h h i s a rmy h e fo llo w ed P o mp ey int o Gr eec e

.
,

w h er e h e d ef eat ed h i m P o m p ey fl ed t o Egyp t w h er e .
,

h i s h ea d was br o ug h t t o t h e c o nqu ero r I n th ree y ea rs .

fro m th e ti me th a t h e cr os s ed th e R u bi co n,
Caesa r h a d ma de

h i ms elf ma s ter of th e M edi terra nea n worl d .

T HE ES T AB L I S HM E N T OF AN EM P I R E , 46 B C —
. . 14 AD .

34 9 . The r W o rk
I n o rd er t o carry on h i s
of Caes a .
—

w o rk C aes ar c o nc entr a t ed in h i s o w n h a nds a lm o s t aut o

cr a tic p o wers No t o nly w as h e .

i m p er a tor t h at is milit a ry com

’
- -

, ,

mand er but he h eld t h e Offic es o f

,

dict a t o r consul and many o t h ers

,
?

C aes a r enlarg ed t h e s en a t e and p er

mi t t ed s o m e p r o vincials es p eci a lly ,

t h e G a uls t o h av e full R o man citi

,

z ens h i p .

By st a blis h ing s o und g o v ern

e

m ent in R o m e C aes a r virtu a lly ,

c h a ng ed t h e d ecaying a nd di so r
d erl y r ep ublic int o a n em p ir e He J li C .

u us aes a r
l o o k ed aft er t h e h ea lt h and o rd er
.

o f t h e im p eri a l city He r educ ed t h e mo b t h at h a d b een

.

1 T h e Ru ib c o n s ep a ra t ed I t a l y fro m a p ro v i nc e o n t h e no rt h G o v .

erno r s w ere no t a l l o w ed t o ret u rn t o I t a l y w i t h t h ei r a rm i e s a n a ct o f ,

t h a t k i nd b ei ng c o ns i d er ed t rea so n T h a t i s t h e r ea s o n t h a t C ms a r h e s i
.

t a t ed a t t h e R u b i c o n a nd fi na l l y p l u nged i n s a y i ng
“ ”
T h e d i e i s ea s t
, ,
.

2
H e exer c i sed t h e p o w er s o f c h i ef j u d g e a nd o f t ri b u ne He c o u l d .

no t h o l d t h e o ffic e o f t ri b u ne si nc e h e b el o ng ed t o a p a t ri c i a n fa m i l y
, .

N a t u ra ll y a ll b ra nc h es o f t h e g o v er nm ent w ere u nd er h i s a u t h o ri t y s o ,

t h a t R o m e a nd h er d om i ni o ns w ere g o v erned a cc o rd i ng t o hi s wi s h es .
 R OM E

fed at p ublic exp ens e p artly by establishing in t h e p rov

,

i nces c o l o ni es o f R oman citiz ens a sc h em e p r o p os ed by ,

G a ius G racc h us y ears b efor e B y m a king t h e p ro vincial

.

gov ernors r es p o nsibl e dir ectly t o h ims elf and by cr eat ,

ing a syst em o f mor e dir ect taxation C aesar gav e t o

t h e p r o vinc es a muc h b ett er and a muc h l ess c o stly
go v ernm ent He intro duc ed t h e cal end a r fr o m Egyp t
.
,

S inc e N ew Y ear s day und er t h e o l d R oman cal endar

’

cam e o nly a s h o rt tim e b efo r e t h e s p ring s o lstic e in M arc h .

One o f t h e m o nt h s o f t h e r efo rm ed c a l endar h e nam ed aft er

h ims elf July ,
T h es e exam p l es o f r efo rm s h o w h o w ext en
.

siv e and t h o ro ug h w er e t h e c h a ng es m a d e by C aesar .

3 50 T h e S e co nd Tri u mvi r a t e — C aes a r s aut o cr a tic

’
. .

rul e a r o us ed against h i m t h e envy o f m a ny w h o wis h ed t o

o v ert h r o w h i m As S h a k esp ear e h as s o vividly told us
.
,

C a ssius a nd B rutus w er e a m o ng t h e l ea d ers o f t h e co n

s p i ra cy agains t C aes a r In M a rc h 4 4 B C C aes a r was
.
, . .
,

attack ed in t h e c ap it o l and f ell mort ally wo und ed at t h e , ,

fo o t o f P o m p ey s statu e ’
.

C aesar s w o rk did no t d i e wi t h h i m His n ep h ew and

’
.

a d o p t ed so n Oc ta vi u s arranged a s econd triumvirat e

’
- -

, ,

wit h M a rk Ant o ny and Lep idus C aes a r s mast er o f t h e ,

’

h o rs e
. Oct a vius a lt h o ugh a m er e yo ut h at t h is tim e
, ,

s h o wed h ims elf a c o ld bl o od ed and unp rinci p l ed sc h em er

-
.

Wit h o ut m ercy t h es e t h r ee trium v irs h unt ed d o wn t h eir

en emi es in R o m e a nd abr o ad S o many estat es w er e .

c o nfis c a t ed by t h e triumvi rs t h at no buyers fo r l a nd

could b e fo und a lt h o ugh it was o ff er ed at v ery lo w
,

p ric e s . F o r y ears Italy h a d b e e n losing h er p p

eo l e ,

w h o h a d go n e t o R o m e o r t h e p r o v i nc es Aft er t h e p ro .

s cri p t i o ns Of t h e triumvirs fa rm s h aml ets a nd ev en citi es ,

w ere p ra ctic a lly ab ando n ed .

3 5 1 T h e S u cces s o f O ct avi u s
.
— Aft er t en y ears o f .

a u t o cra t i c rul e Lep idu s h aving b een dro p p ed Anto ny

, ,

and Octavius quarr ell ed T h eir fo rc es met at Ac ti um .

’
-
 R OM E

s o ldi ers ,
mans and Itali a ns h a d gon e to ev ery p art
t h e Ro
o f t h e R o man w o rld T h e M edit erran ean w o rld was
.

b ec o ming R o maniz ed 382 It w as d emanding

a go vernm ent cap a bl e o f ruling a w o rld st at e -
.

AS n eit h er t h e s enat e no r t h e a ss embli es h a d b een ca

p ab l e o f ruling t h e em p ir e R o m e and It a ly h a d b ecom e
,

d emora liz ed B rib ery v o t e s elling and mob influ enc e w er e

.
,
-

no t t h e worst evils t h a t exist ed In busin ess men s eem ed

.
,

t o h av e l o s t a l l id ea o f rig h t and wro ng T h er e was littl e

.

r es p ect fo r t h e s a cr edn ess o f fa mily life T h e m o ral .

stand a rds o f soci ety w er e s h ockingly l o w Alth o ugh t h es e .

c h a ng es w er e no t du e t o t h e lack o f go o d gov ernm ent ,

t h ey w er e aggrava t ed by t h e misrul e of t h e p r ec eding

c entury In tim e wit h b ett er go v ernment t h e c o nditi o ns
.
, ,

in R o m e and Italy
im p ro v ed very muc h .

3 54 . T h e Ru le of

Au gu s tu s soo n . As
as Octavius wa s in
c o ntro l o f t h e R o man
w o rld h e o ffer ed to ,

giv e u p all o f t h e
extraordin a ry o ffi c es

t h at h e h eld and re
st o re t h e rul e o f t h e
s enat e and ass embly .

T h e p eo p l e a t o nc e
t h rust new h on o rs o n
h i m p r o claiming h i m
,

Au gus tus 2 7 B C
’
- -

,
. .
,

A g t u us us .
and a dding t o h is
Offic e o f im p erator ,

fr o m wh ic h w e get our wo rd em p ero r t h e p o wer o f co n

,

sul wit h in t h e city a nd p roconsul o ut s id e He h ims elf .

p r ef err ed t o be call ed p r i n cep s t ’

h at is ,
fir st
,
citiz e n som e ,
 T HE ES TAB LI S HM ENT OF AN EM P R E I 273

wh at lik e P ericl es t h e uncr o wn ed king o f At h ens

, ,

a nd h e r ef err ed t o t h e y ea rs o f h i s r eign by t h e y ears

t h at h e h eld t h e p o wer o f tribun e He did t h is t o g a in .

f a v o r wit h t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e t h e tribun e b eing p ri ,

marily a p o p ul a r o ffici a l .

Alt h o ugh Augustus h eld a lm o st a bs o lut e a ut h o rity ,

h e car efully p r es erv ed t h e forms o f r ep ublic a n rul e T he .

ass embli es met mad e l a ws and el ect ed m agi s trat es

, ,
.

T h e s enat e d elib er a t ed as in f o rm er y ea rs T h e rul e o f .

Augustus w as o ne o f influ enc e as w ell a s p o w er fo r h e ,

was no w m o d erat e kind and b el o v ed by h i s p eo p l e

,
.

3 5 5 T h e P r o vin ce s u n d er Au gu s t u s
. AS a wi s e .

g en eral and stat esm an Augustus ext end ed t h e t errit o ri es

,

o f t h e em p ir e t o t h e R h in e a nd t h e D a nub e o n t h e n o rt h ,

t o t h e Eu p h r a t es o n t h e ea s t and t o t h e S a h ar a d es ert o n
t h e sout h He r eo rg a niz ed t h e p r o vinc es c o ntinuing
.
,

t h e p ro vinci a l r ef o rms o f Julius C aes a r He divid ed a l l .

p r o vinc es int o t w o class es t h e s en a t o ri a l and t h e im p erial

, .

T h e s en a t o ri a l p r o vinc es w er e t h e o ld er and m o r e s ettl ed

‘

p r o vinc es w h ic h w er e dir ectly und er t h e su p ervisi o n of t h e

s en at e T h e m o r e dist a nt and exp o s ed p r o vinc es Augus
.

tus k ep t und er h i s o wn dir ect sup ervisi o n sinc e t h e army ,

w a s n eed ed t o r ep r ess o utbr ea ks o f t h e p eo p l e o r inv a si o ns

from a br o a d T h e p r o vinc es b ec a m e o rd erly and a j ust er
.
,

m et h o d o f c o ll ecting t a x es gr ea tly ligh t en ed t h e burd ens

o f t h e o p p r ess ed p r o vinci a ls .

3 5 6 R o m e u n d er Au gu s t u s
. Augustus rul ed t h e
.

em p ir e until h i s d eat h in 1 4 A D He w a s t h er efo r e a bl e t o

do a gr ea t d ea l m o r e b o t h fo r t h e p r o vinc es and fo r R o m e
t h a n Julius C aes a r h a d b een abl e t o do in t h e t w o or t h r ee
y ears o f h is rul e S o m a ny imp ro v em ents did Au gustus
.

m a k e in t h e im p eri a l city t h at h e c o uld j ustly b o ast t h at

h e fo und R o m e brick and l eft it marbl e ”
.
1

1 T his a p p l i es t o t h ep u bli c t h o ro u gh fa res a nd b u i l d i ng s , no t t o t h e

h o m es Of t h e p eo p l e .
 R OM E

Augustus was v ery g en ero us t o t h e p eo p l e He ex .

t end ed t h e numb er o f p ersons t o wh o m fr ee c o rn w as

grant ed He furnis h ed m o r e elaborat e gam es and amus e
.

m ents for fr ee ent ertainm ents o f t h e p o p ulac e B y h i s .

dir ecti o n t h e wat er su p p ly o f R o m e was im p ro v ed gr eatly .

B u t w h en t h e p eo p l e sugg est ed t h at fr ee c o rn a nd fr ee
wat er s h o uld be su p p l em ent ed by fr ee win e ev en good ,

nat u r ed Augustus r eb ell ed .

Aft er h i s d eat h Julius C aes a r w as d eifi ed by t h e R omans .

Augustus did no t wait fo r d ea t h but s et u p in m a ny p lac es ,

in t h e p ro vinc es altars for t h e j o int w o rs h i p o f R o m e a nd

Augustus T h us w e s ee t h at it was Augustus ambiti o n ’
.

to b e no t o nly t h e rul er of R o m e but t o b e ass o ciat ed a lso ,

wit h t h e go ds as t h e divin e rul er of t h e em p ir e .

3 5 7 G erm a ny a nd P a l es tin e u n d er Au gu s t u s
.
— T he
r eign o f Augustus br o ug h t ep o c h m a king c h ang es t o -

G erm a ny a nd Jud ea T h e Germans h ad p r ess ed a cro ss

.

t h e R h in e s o many tim es t h at Augustus d ecid ed t o invad e

G ermany One o f h i s g en erals cr o ss ed t o t h e Elb e but
.
,

a few y ears l a t er (9 A D ) t h e G ermans und er Ar min i u s

. .
-
’
-

ros e in r eb elli o n ag a inst t h e R o m a n go v ern o r V ar us and ,

’
,

d estro yed a R o man a rmy Aft er n ews o f t h e disast er .

r ea c h ed R o m e Augustus w as h eard t o excl a im V ar u s

, , ,

V arus giv e me back my l egi o ns

,
”
T h e a tt em p t t o m a k e
.

G erm a ny a R o m a n p rovinc e was ab a nd o n ed a nd t h e ,

G ermans w er e all o w ed t o d ev el o p wit h o ut c o ming directly

und er R o m a n influ enc e .

D uring t h e r eign o f Augustus a l ea d er far gr ea t er t h a n

Augustus w as b o rn (5 in t h e littl e vill ag e o f B et h
l eh em in Jud ea T h e birt h o f J esus Ch rist wit h h i s t eac h
,
.
,

ing a nd crucifixi o n and r esurr ecti o n und er Augu stus

,
’

succ ess o r Ti b er i u s intr o duc ed int o a nci ent civilization

,
-
’
-

a new el em ent w h o s e influ enc e u p o n h umani ty was t o

exc eed t h at o f t h e j ustly f a m o us civilizati o ns o f G r eec e

and R om e .
 R OM E

Aft er t h e admissi o n of t h e Italians it b ecam e m o r e ev i

d ent t h at R o m e must b e rul ed by o ne m an a milit a ry ,

l ead er M arius fail ed t o b ec o m e rul er o f R o m e b ec a us e

.

h e l a ck ed ability S ull a t h e c o nqu ero r o f M it h rid a t es

.
, ,

king of P o ntus n ext b ec a m e t h e l ead er in R o m e using h i s

, ,

arm y in It a ly t o enfo rc e h i s wis h es S ull a w as narr o w .

and vindictiv e and f ail ed p artly b ec a us e h e tri ed t o r u l e

t h r o ugh t h e s enat e P o mp ey t h e Gr ea t w h o c o nqu er ed
.
,

t h e Ea st was o blig ed t o fo rm a triumvir a t e wit h C aes a r

,

and Crassus in o rd er t o h av e p o w er in R o m e La t er h e .

qu a rr ell ed wit h C ae s a r w h o h a d gain ed a n a rmy and

,

milit a ry exp eri enc e in G aul C ms ar cr o ss ed t h e R ubic o n .

int o Italy d ef eat ed P o m p ey a t P h arsalus (48

,
and
m a d e h ims elf mast er o f R o m e .

C aes ar h eld m a ny O ffic es a nd rul ed R o m e wis ely but

a rbitr a rily until h e w a s as s a s s in a t ed by men w h o i n
sis ted o n h a ving a r ep ublic His a d o p t ed s o n Oct a vius .
, ,

a ft er f o rming t h e s ec o nd triumvir a t e qu a rrell ed w it h ,

Ant o ny d ef ea t ed h i m a t Actium (3 1 B C ) a nd m a d e h i m
,
. .

s el f i n turn m ast er o f R o m e R o m e h a d a lrea dy b een .

r
p p e ar ed fo r e m p ir e p o litic a lly e c
,
o n o mic a lly and soci a lly , .

Oct a vius w a s h a il ed as Augustus and h eld m a ny O ffic es o r ,

p o w ers but k ep t u p t h e f o rms o f t h e r ep ublic

,
R ea lly .

h e est a blis h ed a n em p ir e (2 7 He r eo rg a niz ed t h e

p r o v m ces int o t w o cla s s es s en a t o ri a l a nd im
, p eri a l H e .

est a blis h ed dir ect t a x es He g a v e R o m e a b ett er wat er

.

su p p ly a nd fin er buildings In h is r eign w h ic h h as b een .

,

c a ll ed t h e Go ld en Age lit er atur e fl o uris h ed and J es us

, ,

C h rist w as b o rn F o r t w o c enturi es af t er Augustus t h e

.

R o m a n em p ir e r em a in ed a t its h eig h t .

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
B o t s fo rd , Hi s to r y of t h e A nc i ent W o rl d , 4 09 —4 62 .

B o t s f o rd , T h e S to r y o f R o me 1 5 9 2 4 1
,
-

D vi
a s, Rea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s to ry , II , 8 5 —1 8 1 .
 T H E ES TAB LI S HM ENT OF AN EM P R E I 277

B eesl y , T h e Gra cc h i , M a ri u s a nd S u lla .

S ei g no b o s , Hi s to ry o f t h e R o ma n P eo p l e, 1 7 7— 28 8 .

P el h a m , Ou tl i nes f R o ma n Hi s to ry 9o , 201 5 0
—
.

Ho w a nd L ei g h Hi s to ry of R o me 3 2 2 5 5 7
, ,
-

To p i cs
T HE WOR K OF G AI U S G R A C CH U s : Bo t s fo r d , S o u rc e B o o k,
4 2 1 — 42 5 ; Ho w a nd L ei gh , H i s to ry of R o me 3 4 3 — 3 5 7 ; B eesl y , ,

T h e Gra cc h i , M a ri u s a nd S u l l a , 3 6 64 : P l u t a r ch , Li ves ,
— “
G ai u s
G ra c ch u s .

T HE WA R
S ei g no b o s , R o ma n P eo p l e 1 9 6— 1 9 9 ; Ho w
S O C I AL : ,

a nd L ei gh , H i s to r y of R o me, 3 9 9 — 4 1 2 ; Hei t l a nd , T h e R o ma n
R p u bl i c ,
e ,
42 3 458
—
II .

CE S AR : Wes t ,
T h e A nc i ent Wo rl d 44 5—4 5 7 , ; Ho w a nd L ei g h ,
Hi s to r y o f Ro me , 5 39 —5 5 1 ; W a r d e F o w l er -

, Caes a r , 3 2 6—3 5 9 ,
37 9 —
38 4 .

T HE G O VE R N M E N T OF AU GU ST U S : M o r ey Ou tli nes of R o ma n
,

Hi s to r y 2 1 7 —2 2 4 ; C a p es Ea r l y E m p i r e 6—23 ; J o nes R o ma n
, , , ,

Emp i r e 1 —1 9 ; P el h a m Ou tl i nes of R o ma n Hi s tory 400—45 5

, , , .

S tu d i e s
1 . Ti b eri u s G ra cc h us . B o t s fo rd S to r y f
o R o me,
1 6 0—1 6 6 .

2 . C o rru p t i o n of th e s ena t e b y J u gu r t h a . D av i s, R ea di ngs ,

II ,
1 09 — 1 1 1 .

3 . T he r ei gn o f t erro r u nd er S u lla . D vi a s, R ea di ngs ,

II ,
1 15
1 17
S er t o ri u s i n S p a i n
4 . l
P u t a r ch L i ves ( G nn 2 2 6 —2 43 .
,
i .

G u erb er , S to r y of th e R o ma ns ,
'

5 T h e r ev o l t o f S p a r t a cu s
. .

1 67 — 1 7 0 .

6 . C aes a r
’
s ea rl y exp eri ence as a R o m an o ffi ci a l . D vi a s,

R ea di ngs , II ,
1 38 — 1 4 2 .

7 . A R o man c a ndi d a t e fo r t h e c o ns ul s hi p , 63 B C
. . D av i s ,

R ea di ngs , II ,
1 29 — 1 3 5 .

8 . C o ns p i r a c y of C a t i l i ne . Ch u r ch , R o ma n L i fe i n th e Da y s
O
f Ci c ero , 1 2 9 — 1 49 .

9 . C i cero a nd D e m o s t h enes . L o dg e Wo rl d s ’
Cl a s s i c s ,
I ,
1 90— 1 9 6 .

10 . G au l i n t h e t i m e of Ow s a r . B o t sfo r d T h e S tor y o f
R o me, 2 02 —2 1 0 .

11 . T h e fu nera l of C aes a r . D i av s , R ea di ngs , II ,

1 54—1 5 8 .
2 78 R OM E

12 . Anto ny a nd C l eo p a t ra . D via s, R ea di ngs , II , 162—16 6 .

13 . T h e d eed s o f Au gu s t u s . Davi s, R ea di ngs , II , 1 6 6—1 7 2 .

14 . Au gu s t u s a s a s o c i a l a nd r eli gi o u s r efo r mer . Fi r t h ,

Au gu s tu s Ows a r , 1 9 9 —2 2 1 .

15 T h e p o et
. Vi rgi l . S a nd y s Co mp a ni o n to R o ma n
S tu di es , 6 1 9 — 62 1 .

16 . D ei fica t i o n of Au gu s t u s . C a p es , Ea rl y Emp i re, 4 1 44 -

.

Q u esti o n s
1 . Exp l a i n as c l ea rl y as p o s s i b l e t h e di fferenc e b et w een t h e
la w a nd t h e fa c t i n t h e go v er nment o f R o m e 1 33 B C Ho w i s . .

th e corru p ti on f R o o me s h o w n b y t h e atte m p t ed refo r ms of th e

G ra c c h i ? in t h t e s ru ggl e wi t h J u gu rt h a ?
2 C o m p ar e t h e p l a ns
.
, p o w ers a nd w o rk of Ti b i er u s a nd G aiu s
G ra c ch u s .

3 Ho w d i d t h e G ra c c hi i nj ur e R o m e ( 1 ) b y m a i nt a i ni ng t h ei r
.

p o w er b y ill egal mea ns ? (2 ) b y d i s tri b u t i ng c h ea p gra i n t o t h e

p eo p l e
4 . S how th e i m p o rt a n c e of th e S o c i al Wa r .
(C o m p are
3 85 , next ch a p t ) er .

5 . Wh a t di d R o m e o we to M a ri u s S u ll a ,
a nd P o m p ey as mili
t ary l ea d er s ? c i v il r u l ers ?
as

6 . Of w h a t va l u e w ere t h e t ri u mvi ra t es t o t h ei r m em b ers ?

Cou l d a t ri u mvi ra t e b e p o s s i b l e ex c ep t a s a t em p o ra ry exp edi ent ,

in a t i me of t ra ns t i o n ?i
7 . M ake a t a ble sh o wi ng t h e p o w ers h el d b y C aes a r a nd

Au gu s t u s a nd t h e refo rm s ma d e b y ea h
, c .

8 S h o w h o w t h e R o ma
. w o rl d w a s p rep a red fo r n em p i re ,

p o li t i c a ll y , c
e o no mi c a l l y , so ci a l ly .

9 . C o mp a re t a xa t i o n a nd th e ru l e o f t h e p ro i n v c es u nd er the
la t e r ep u b li c a nd u nd er m p i re
th e e .

10 . Wh y d i d R o me need a n i m p eri a l go v ernment ?

280 R OM E

S ev erus , w as t h es enat e hous e T h e h eights in t h e back

.

gr o und wer e crown ed by t h e t emp l es o f Jup it er and Juno .

3 61
. I mp eri al R o m e P u b li c B u i l din gs If w e w ere .

t o turn a ro und w e s h ould s ee n ear at h and t h e arc h of

, , ,

Titus and fart h er aw ay t h e Col o ss eum and t h e arc h o f

, , ,

Co nstantin e .Al l o f t h es e w er e er ect ed by em p erors lat er

t h an Augustus B ey o nd t h e P alatin e h ill b etw een t h at
.
,

T h e F o ru m T
, o -
da y .

B y Ga tl es ch t
‘

T h e F o ru m , R es t o red .
econs t r u ct i on a nd p ho t o by P . B i got . a rch i t ect .

1 . C a p i t o l i ne H ill .

2 . T em p l e o f J u p i t er C a p i t ol i nu s .

3 R o ma n F o ru m
H ill
. .

4 . P a l a t ine .

5 . P a l a c es of t h e Em p er o rs .

6 . C i r c u s M a xi m u s .

7 B at h s Of C a ra c a l l a
q
. .

8 . Cl a u d i a n A u ed u ct .

9 T em p l e o f C l a u d i u s
. .

1 0 B a t h s o f T ra j a n
. .

11 . C o l o s s eu m .

12 . F o ru m of P ea c e .

G E N ER AL V I EW I M P E R I AL
 R OM E AN D T H E EM P R E I

and t h e Av entin e h ill w as t h e Circus M aximus t h e l a rgest

, ,

and m o st fam o us o f t h e circus es in t h e emp ir e If w e w er e .

t o asc end C ap it o lin e h il l w e c o uld l o o k o u t acr o ss t h e

,

C am p us M art i ns o n w h ic h st o od t h e fine P a nt h eo n built

, ,

T h e C o l o s s eu m , P res ent C o nd i t i o n .

fo r go ds and many attr a ctiv e t h eatr es p o rtic o s a nd

a ll , ,

b at h s Acro ss t h e riv er in t h is dir ecti o n t h e emp er o r

.

H a drian er ect ed a b ea utiful maus o l eum wh ic h still st a nds,

and i s c a ll ed t h e castl e o f S t Ang el o B eyo nd t h is wh er e

. .
,

to day w e find S t P et er s c h urc h and t h e p o p e s r esid enc e

-
.
’ ’
,

t h e V atican w a s o ne o f t h e many circus es o f R o m e

,
.

3 6 2 P u b li c W el fa r e W o r k i n R o m e
. Lo ng b efo r e .

t h e d a ys o f t h e r ep ublic it h a d b een n ec ess a ry t o dr a in

,

t h e m a rs h es b etw een t h e p rinci p a l h ills in o rd er t o h a v e

,

l and fo r busin ess and h o us es as t h e city grew Ev en in

,
.

t h e tim e o f t h e em p ir e h o w ev er t h e p ublic s a nit a ti o n

, ,

w as imp erfect a nd t h er e w as a lm o st no a tt em p t a t str eet

cl eaning o r c o ll ecti o n o f g a rbag e T h er e w ere r egul a ti o ns
.
 R OM E

in r egard t o t h e h eig h t of buildings but t h e str eets w er e

,

narro w and vacant l a nd in building districts was m o r e

uncommon t h an in l o w er New Yo rk to day F ir es w er e -
.

fr equ ent and t h er e was no fire d ep artm ent exc ep t t h e guard

ians o f t h e p eac e w h o us ed buck ets and ot h er p rimitiv e fire
,

T h e P a nt h eo n .

ap p ar a tus B uilding regulati o ns mus t h a v e b een p o o r o r

?

car el essly enf o rc ed fo r many buildings fell d o wn ea c h year

,
.

T h ere h ad b een a q ueduct s b efo r e Augu stus but t h e new ,

aqu educts construct ed und er t h at emp ero r and Claudius

gr eatly imp ro v ed t h e su p p ly o f w a t er P ublic fo untains .

w ere p lac ed in a l l o f t h e num ero u s p laz a s F ro m t h es e .

wat er was sup p li ed fr ee t o a ll .

1
Crass u s t h e t ri u mv i r
, m a d e a l arg e p ar t of h i s m o ney b y
bu y i ng u p h o u s es t h a t were o n fire o r were ne a r t h o s e
, o n fire . Hi s o wn
fo ll o wers t h en a i d ed i n ext i ngu i s h i ng t h e fl a mes .
 R OM E

R o ma n B rid ge a nd A q u ed u c t .
(P o nt d u G a rd S o u t h
, of Fra nc e )
.

R o m a n T h ea tre, Ora nge, F ra nc e .

 R OM E AN D T H E E M P R E I

3 64 . P r o vin ces of ir e
t h e EmpWit h in t h e boundari es
.

fav o r ed by C aes a r est a blis h ed by Augustus a nd r etain ed

, ,

by m o st o f t h e lat er em p er o rs t h at is fr o m t h e Eu p h rat es
,

R iv er to t h e Atlantic Oc ean and fr o m t h e S a h ar a Des ert

t o t h e Rh in e and D anub e riv ers t h er e w er e num er o us ,

p rovinc es b esid
,
es Italy a nd E gy p t It a ly was a t
. first
a c o untry m o r e im p o rtant t h a n t h e p r o vinc es alt h o ugh ,

l a t er it t o o was divid ed int o p r o vinc es w h en t h e citi es .

b eg a n t o d ecline and t h e o ld er large p r o vinc es wer e fo u nd

t o b e t o o l a rg e fo r satis fa ct o ry g o v ernm ent Egyp t was .

t h e p ersonal p ro p erty o f t h e em p er o r .

T o ea c h o f t h es e p r o vinc es t h e em p eror o r t h e s enat e

355 ) s ent out g o v ern o rs o r d ep uty g o v ern o rs
,
T h es e .

men a nd t h eir num er o us a ssistants l oo k ed a ft er t h e p r es er

v a ti o n o f ord er and t h e administrati o n o f j ustic e Ag ents .

o f R o m e su p ervis ed t h e c o ll ecti o n o f t h e tax es es p eci a lly ,

in t h ese districts t h at did no t h av e t h e rig h t t o l evy t h eir

o wn dir ect t a x .

CL A S S ES I N T HE R OMAN WOR LD
3 65 . r Cl a s s es t h e S en t rs
T h e Up p e ,
T h er e w er e
a o .
-

t w o u p p er cl a ss es in R o m e t h e s enat o rs a nd t h e knig h ts
,
.

T he s en at o rs includ ed no t o nly t h o s e w h o s at in t h e
s en at e t o g et h er wit h t h eir wiv es a nd d esc end a nts but
, ,

all t h o s e fo rtunat e p ers o ns on w h o m t h e emp er o r co n

ferr ed s enat o ri a l r ank A man w as l ess a nxi o us t o b e
"
.

c o m e a s en a t o r b ecaus e o f t h e p o w er t h at h e c o uld
”

h av e as a n o ffici a l o f t h e g o v ernm ent t h a n fo r t h e s o ci a l

p r estig e t h at h e gain ed Ch o ic e s eats w er e r es erv ed fo r
.

s enat o rs in t h e t h eatr es a nd a t all g am es S en at o rs al o n e .

h a d t h e rig h t t o w ear a br o a d p ur p l e stri p e d o wn t h e fro nt

o f t h eir cl o aks o r t o g a s a nd t h ey w er e p ermitt ed t h e u s e
'

, ,

o f t h e titl e m o st h o n o r abl e B y cust o m s en at o rs

.

wer e not a llow ed to engage in busin ess exc ep t t h r o ugh ,

 R OM E

c l i ents s o that t h e s en a t o ri a l cl as s b ec a m e a kind of

,

l a nd ed a rist o cracy in It a ly a nd in t h e p r o vinc es

, .

3 66 T h e K ni gh t s
. T h e o t h er w ea lt h y cl a ss o f R om e
.

and o f ot h er im p o rtant citi es was t h e c ap italist class of

knights T h es e m en h a d a s o ci a l p o siti o n a littl e low er
.

t h a n t h at o f t h e s en a t o rs On t h e fr o nt o f t h eir t o gas
.

w er e t w o n a rro w p ur p l e stri p es T h ey w er e t h e bank ers

.

and t h e men t h at h andl ed a ll o f t h e big busin ess o f

t h e R o m a n w o rld T h ey w er e fr equ ently s el ect ed fo r
.

p o siti o ns o f im p o rtanc e und er t h e em p ir e b ec a u s e o f t h eir

,

busin ess ability and exp eri enc e .

3 67 T h e M i d d l e Cl a s s
.
— T h e middl e cl a ss mig h t b e
.

s a id to includ e ( 1 ) all o f t h e p r o f essi o n a l p eo p l e and small

tr a d esm en o f R o m e a nd t h e o t h er l a rg e citi es (2 ) t h e w ell ,

to do city dw ell ers o r t h e sm all er l a nd ed p ro p ri et o rs liv

- -

ing n ea r t h e citi es o f t h e p r o vinc es ; a nd (3 ) t h e i ndep en

,

d ent small farm ers o f t h e c o untry districts .

M o st o f t h e h o n o rs t h a t c a m e t o t h is class cam e t o t h e
m o d er a t ely w ea lt h y citiz ens o f t h e p ro vinci al “
m u — ui

ci p i a
’
-
”
T h es e m en w er e a ll o wed t o h o ld t h e l o c a l
.

o ffic es a nd sit in t h e l o c a l s enat e T h ey w er e o blig ed t o

.

guarant ee t h e p aym ent o f t a x es fro m t h eir city t o t h e i m

p e rial tr easury A S t.h e citi es d eclin e d t h er e was ,
l ess
h o nor in t h e h o lding o f munici p a l o ffic es and as w ea lt h , ,

b ecam e sc a rc er t h e burd ens o f t a x a ti o n b a nkrup t ed a

,

gr eat m a ny o f t h es e sm a ll l a nd ed p r o p ri et o rs .

3 6 8 D ecl in e o f t h e M i dd l e Cl a s s
.
— I n f a ct in tim e
.
,

a l l of t h e middl e cl a ss es d eclin ed t h e ric h er m emb ers

,

gaining fo r t h em s elv es p o siti o ns in t h e u p p er cl as s es a nd ,

t h e p oor er m emb ers dro p p ing b a ck int o t h e l o w er cl as s es .

B efo r e t h e s ec o nd P unic w ar m o st o f t h e p eo p l e o f It a ly
,

h a d b el o ng ed t o a middl e cl a s s o f sm a ll fa rm ers In t h e .

l at e rep ublic t h e middl e cl as s d eclin ed r a p idly a nd in t h e ,

l at er em p ir e it a lm o s t di s a p p ear ed
3 69 T h e Lo w er Cl a s s es o f Ci t iz ens
. T h e l o wer
.
 R OM E

t h ing w er e unit ed in associati o ns o r gilds T h es e wer e

, .

r eligi o us a nd s o ci a l o rg a niz a ti o ns t h a t did no t t a k e any

activ e p a rt in p o litics and did no t u s e t h e s trik e o r any
,

o t h er m eans t o im p r o v e t h eir c o nditi o n P r o b a bly t h eir .

l o w s o ci a l p o siti o n a nd t h eir l o w w a g es w er e d u e t o co m
p e titi o n wit h S lav es .

3 7 1 S l a v es
. . A fair p ro p o rti o n o f t h e p o p ulati o n
t h rough o ut t h e em p ir e and a m aj o rity in S icily s o ut h ern ,

Italy and a few o t h er l o caliti es w er e slav es S l a v es w ere

, .

a cquir ed a t first t h r o ug h c o nqu est L at er only a sm al l

.

p a rt o f t h e su p p ly o f sl a v es c a m e fr o m t h e fr o nti er M en .

w h o f ell d eep ly int o d ebt s o m etim es s o ld t h eir c h ildr en .

Kidn ap p ers w er e c o nst a ntly at wo rk in t h e citi es and

s o m etim es al o ng t h e h ig h w a ys and t h e h ig h s eas and a ,

busin es s w as m a d e o f r ea ring c h ildr en w h o h a d b een

exp o s ed by t h eir p ar ents N ev ert h el ess t h e p ric e
”
.

o f slav es r o s e during t h e em p ir e b ec a u s e t h e sup p ly f ell

,

far S h o rt o f t h e d em a nd .

S l a v es did a l a rg e p a rt o f t h e w o rk in t h e em p ir e sinc e ,

m a nu a l w o rk w as d es p is ed and wo rk ers w er e tr eat ed as

,

m eni a ls A s h arp di s tincti o n w as

.

dr a wn b etween t h e city sl a v e fre ,

qu ently a n educat ed or cultur ed

G r eek o r S yri a n and a f a rm h a nd ,
-

w h o w as n ec essarily str o ng and

u s u a lly brut a l In t h e citi es sl a v es
.

w er e s o m etim es tut o rs a nd s ecr e

t a ri es m a n a gers o f larg e busin ess es
, ,

o r S kill ed a rtists .

3 7 2 Tr e a t m ent o f S l a v e s
.
— As
slav es o n t h e l a rg e est a t es wer e
tr eat ed v ery h a rs h ly by o v ers eers ,
Sl in F t t
ave e e rs .

t h ey oft en r eb ell ed in t erribl e slave

insurr ecti o ns S l av es w er e usu a lly k ep t c h a in ed and at
.
,

nig h t w er e l o ck ed in t h e p ris o n h o us e w h er e refractory ,

 C LAS S ES IN T HE R OM A N W OR L D

l v es wer e als o p unis h ed cruelly City s la v es w er e

S a .

tr eat ed b ett er a lt h o ugh a sl a v e s li fe w as no t r esp ect ed

,
’

by h i s mast er until t h e l a t er emp ir e and a R o m a n m atr o n ,

p unis h ed h e r S lav es s ev er e ly i f s h e h a p p en e,
d t o b e irri
t at ed . S l a v es w er e a ll o w ed t o ea rn extra m o n ey and buy
t h eir fr eed o m M a st ers fr equ ently fr eed sl a v es in o rd er
.

t o h av e a l a rg e fo ll o wing o f fr eedm en cli ents .

3 7 3 T h e P o s iti o n o f W o m en
.
— Wo m en h a d a lw a ys .

b een fr eer in R o m e t h an in G r eec e Ev en w h en

t h e R o man ma tr o n w as l eg a lly und er t h e a bs o lut e rul e
of t h e p at e r f a mili a s ”
S h e h a d a p
,
o siti o n o f dignity and
h o no r G r a du a lly t h e a ut h o rity o f t h e f a t h er o v er h i s
.

wife and c h ildr en was r educ ed l eg a lly and t o a muc h , ,

gr eat er ext ent a ctu a lly In m a rrying wo m en usu a lly

,
.
,

r em a in ed und er t h e p o w er o f t h eir fat h ers inst ea d o f co m

ing und er t h at o f t h eir h usb a nds .

Und er t h e l a t e r ep ublic w o m en liv ed p r a ctic a lly s ep a

,

r a t e liv eS fro m men T h e R o m a n fa mily no l o ng er w as

.

imp o rt a nt a m o ng t h e up p er cl a s s es One s a tirist s a id t h at .

w o m en c o unt ed t h eir a g es l ess by t h e numb er o f y ea rs

t h a n by t h e numb er o f t h eir h usb a nds Divo rc e o ccurr ed .

wit h sc a nd a l o us fr equ ency As o ne no n—Am eric a n writ er

.

n ai v ely exp r ess es it N o t h ing lik e it h a s b een s een until

,

m o d ern Am eric a ”
T h e cust o m o f a d o p ting s o ns t o c a rry
.

o n t h e fa mily n a m e a nd t o c o ntinu e t h e v en er a ti o n d u e

t o a nc es t o rs w a s a lm o s t univ ers a l a m o ng t h e u p p er
cl a ss es fo r m o st o f t h e n o bl es h ad no s o ns o f t h eir
,

o wn .

Am o ng t h e middl e and l o w er class es wo m en w er e p ro b

a bly d es erving o f m o r e r es p ect Alt h o ug h t h er e w a s a .

gr ea t d eal o f l o o s e living a m o ng t h e p eo p l e in t h e l a t e
r ep ublic and t h e ea rly emp ir e m o st writ ers ex a gg era t e
r

t h e imm o r a lity p r evailing a m o ng t h e l at er R o m a ns .

3 7 4 Ch i l d r en a nd Ed u ca ti o n — Wh en a R o m a n c h ild
.

was b o rn it was br o ugh t b efo r e its f at h er If h e wis h ed

, .
 R OM E

to bring it u p h e li ft ed t h e c h ild fro m t h e floor S o o n

, .

a ft er a c h arm was h ung fr o m a c o rd about its n eck T he .

boys wor e t h es e c h arms until t h ey p u t o n t h e toga of a

man at t h e age o f 1 6 T h e girls w o r e th eirs until t h ey
,
.

w er e marri ed .

T h e girls w er e tr a in ed at
h o m e to s p in w eav e s ew and , ,

l o ok aft er simp l e tasks T h e .

b o ys imit at ed t h eir fa t h ers .

T h ey w er e trained by sl a v es ,

and as t h ey grew o ld er wer e , ,

s ent t o sc h o o l No m o d ern .

sc h oolb o y h at es h i s sc h o o l
a s muc h as t h e R o man b o ys

did t h eirs T h e mast ers .

wer e usually c o ars e and fre

qu ently un educat ed A littl e .

H ing B y
o rs a o
r ea ding
.
a nd writing w er e

t a ug h t t h e mast er r eading ,

a l o ud from a b o o k t h at w as unw o und from o ne stick and

w o und o n an o t h er s o m ewh at lik e a r o ll o f music fo r a

,

p lay er p i a n o Arit h m etic w as studi ed on a n a b a cus o r

” “ ’
-
.

c o unting b o ard Wh en t h e b o y fo rget h i s lin es o r did

.

h i s work p oorly h e w a s fo rcibly r emind ed o f h i s failur e

,
.

LI F E OF T HE P EO P LE

37 5 . R o ma n H o u s es T h e middl e class es did no t Oft en

.

o w n s ep a r a t e h o us es unl ess t h ey w er e sm a ll farm ers Eac h .

family in t h e w ealt h i er cl as s es o n t h e c o ntrary a lw ays , ,

o wn ed a city h o us e a nd o ne o r m o r e c o untry vill a s T he .

c o nv enti o n a l fo rm o f t h e city h o us e is s h o wn in t h e a o
c o mp anying diagram One ent er ed by a d o o r t h at o p en ed
.

o utw a rd o n t h e str eet In g o ing o u t a p ers o n call ed a l o ud

.

s o t h at t h e p ass er b y s h ould m o v e away from t h e door as

-

,
 R OM E

H ou s e F u rni t u re .

P eri s t y l e i n H ou se of t h e V et t ii .
 I
L F E OF T H E P EOP LE

fr ee at t h e p ublic fo untains and win e c o uld b e p urc h as ed

at a p ric e l ess t h a n tw enty fiv e c ents a g a ll o n in o u r
-

m o n ey .

3 7 7 R o m a n D r es s
.
—
T h e R o m a n m en w ere few cl o t h es
. .

It was unusual t o w ea r h o s e o r S h irts T h er e was a w o o l en

.

or p o ssibly a lin en ,

tunic o r l o o s e
,

s h irt o r c o at o v er ,

w h ic h was fo ld ed
t h e l arg e w h it e
woo l en r o b e c a ll ed
t h e toga wh ic h
“

only a R o man
c i t i z en m i g h t
wear .

T h e dr ess of

wo m en w as no t
r a dic a lly di ffer ent
fro m t h at o f t h e
m en fo r t h e l a di es
,

al s o w o r e o ne o r
m o r e l o ng tunics
a nd u s ed a r o b e

w h ic h w as ess en
t i al ly a feminin e
toga . N a tur ally
t h e w o m en us ed
muc h fin er ma
t eri a l s m o r e el a b
,

o r at e p att erns
and m any m o r e
o rnam ents T h ey .

dr ess ed t h eir h air elab o r at ely but w ere no h ats S a n d a ls

,
.

w er e us ed at h o m e and in p ublic a kind o f bo o t fast ened

,

wit h strap s .
 R OM E

378 Div r i n
. e s o s : T h e Ro man s p ent a
T h e B ath s —
l a rg e p art o f h i s tim e at t h e b a t h s w h ic h were large and
,

magnific ent club h o us es H er e h e met h i s fri ends talk ed

.

p olitics or po ssibly
bus iness c o nsid er ed ,

t h e lat est gossi p and

discuss ed t h e co m
ing c h ari o t r a c es In .

t h e lat er d a ys o f t h e
em p ir e t h e b a t h s w er e

t h rown o p en fr ee or ,

a t a n o min a l c h arg e ,

to a l l citiz ens T h es e .

p ublic bat h s w er e o f
c o u rse mo re l i ke
p eo p l e s p alac es
“ ” ’

t h an exclusiv e club
h o us es Wh en t h e .

a rist o cr a t w as no t at

t h e b a t h o r ent ert a in ,

ing at h o m e h e mig h t ,

b e found in h i s re
s erved s ea t at t h e
circus o r t h e amp h i ,

B th a f C
s o c ll E t i
a ra a a,
t h eatr
x er o r
e.
o r ev en at ,

t h e t h eatr e .

3 7 9 T h e Th e a tr e
.
— As a b o ut o ne day in fo u r was a
.

h o liday o n wh ic h gam es o r f estivals w er e giv en t h e ,

p o p ulac e o f R o m e n e v er lack ed f o r amus e m e nt O n e .

o f t h e m o st ext end ed o f t h e f estivals was t h at o f S aturn ,

'
the S a t u r na li a
- -
t h e t h ird w eek of Dec emb er
-

,
For .

s ev eral days t h er e was m errymaking t h e s ervants b eing ,

allowed s p ecial lib ert i es P r es ents wer e exc h ang ed at

.

t h is tim e a nd again o n New Year s day M o st o f t h e

.

’
.

exp ens e o f t h e h o l iday games i n t h e amp h it h eatr e or circu s

 R OM E

the gladiatorial figh ts occurr ed or fi erc e animals w er e ,

h unt ed or wild b easts f o ug h t wit h eac h ot h er o r wi t h

,

unarm ed men H er e was s p o rt th at app eal ed to a l o v e

.

of bloods h ed and brutality .

T h e gladi a tors w er e usu a lly train ed at h l et es w h o fought

wit h t h e w eap ons o f t h eir c o untry singly o r in bands If , .

a man fough t wit h esp eci a l skill , h e migh t b e sav ed fo r

an o t h er c o mbat ev en if h e l o st but usu a lly t h e m an t h at
,

w a s o v erp o w er ed l o o k ed in v a in fo r m ercy S inc e t h e ,

s p ect at o rs usually turn ed down t h eir t h umbs a signal t h a t ,

h e was t o di e .

In t h e ar ena t h e struggl es o f h alf fa mis h ed li o ns and -

tig ers and o t h er fi erc e a nimals f u rnis h ed am p l e excit em ent ,

wh et h er t h ey t o r e at eac h o t h er or tri ed to get at an arm ed

,

m a n by w h o m t h ey h ad b een w o und ed .

C i rc u s M a xi m u s , R e s t o red .

38 1 . ir cu s
The C C h a ri o t r a cing usu a lly t o o k p lac e
.

in t h e Circus M a ximus n ea r t h e p a lac es o f t h e C zes ars

,
.

T h is circus was enl a rg ed s ev er a l tim es s o t h at it h eld more ,

R OM A NIZ ATI ON OF M E DIT ER R AN EAN W OR L D 2 97

t h an rsons T h e r a c e c o urs e w as long and nar

pe .

ro w t h e c h a ri o ts b eing driv en s ev en tim es ar o und t h e

,

p a rtiti o n t h a t ext e nd ed l engt h wis e a l o ng t h e c o urs e .

Usu a lly t h er e w er e t w o o r fo ur h o rs es fo r a c h ari o t and t h e

c h ari o ts w er e driv en by p r o f essi o n als h ir ed by p a rti es ,

r ep r es ent ed by t h e blu e t h e gr een t h e w h it e o r t h e red

, ,
.

At a giv en sign a l t h e d o o rs o f t h e stalls w er e t h r o w n

o p en a nd t h e c h ari o ts rus h ed fo rward t o get t h e b est

p o siti o n a t t h e st a rting lin e M is h a p s w er e fr equ ent at

.

t h e st a rt and a t t h e turns .

R OM A N IZ AT I O N OF T HE M ED I T E R R A N E A N WO R L D
382 . The m ana P ax R o Wh en in 2 9 B C Oct a vius.
,
. .
,

ent er ed R o m e in trium p h t h e gat es o f t h e T em p l e o f

,

Janus w h ic h w er e o p en in tim e o f w a r w er e cl o s ed fo r t h e
, ,

t h ird tim e in t h e h ist o ry o f t h e R o m a n p eo p l e F o r m o r e .

t h an t w o c enturi es a ft er Augustus est a blis h ed t h e em p ir e

p ea c e r eign ed t h r o ug h o ut t h e M edit err a n ea n w o rld w h er e ,

p ea c e h a d b een a lm o st unkn o wn b ef o r e Und er t h e p ax .

'
R o m a na
-

tr a v ell ers w ent a b o ut in c o m p a r a tiv e s ecurity

, ,

m erc h ants t o o k l o ng tri p s a p rimitiv e p o st a l s ervic e w as,

est a blis h ed a nd busin ess o f a l l kinds p r o s p er ed T he .

p ax R o m a n a m eant p ro s p erity as w ell as p ea c e .

Aft er t w o c enturi es h o w ev er t h e b a rbarians b eg a n t o

, ,

p r ess h a rd er o n t h e b o rd ers a nd t h e im p eri a l g o v ernm ent

was un a bl e t o k eep t h e t o wns and t h e p r o vinc es fro m dis

o rd er In 2 42 A D t h e gat es o f t h e t em p l e o f J anus w er e
. . .

o p en ed fo r t h e l a st tim e
?

3 8 3 R o m an R o a d s
. B efo r e R o m a n tim es t h e s ea
.
,

h ad furnis h ed t h e o nly c o m p a rativ el y s afe and easy h ig h

w ays F o r milit ary r eas o ns R o m e h ad b egun t o build
.
, ,

b efo r e t h e P unic w a rs t h e first o f h er fa m o us R o m a n

,

1 T he fa l l of R ome d i d no t o ccu r u nt i l 4 7 6 A . D .
, b u t R o m a n rel i gi o ns
were s u p p res sed m a rry y ea r s b efo re t h a t t i me .
 R OM E

military roads t h e Ap p ian Way In tim e t h es e fine high

, .

ways ext end ed t o ev ery p a rt o f t h e emp ir e as is s h own by ,

t h e acc o mp anying ma p In G aul alon e t h er e were m o r e

.

than mil es of R oman ro ads T h ey wer e p av ed wit h .

larg e st o n e bl o cks laid on a fo undati o n m o re t h an two

f eet d eep T h ey wer e so well mad e t h at som e of t h em are
.

in u s e t o day S oldi ers us ed t h em in marc h ing t o t h e

-
.

Ap p ia n W ay , wi t h R u i ns of Cla u dia n A q u ed u ct .

front T h e p o s t rid ers followed t h em M erc h a nts wi t h

. .

p ack -
animals c o uld b e fo und e v eryw h er e o n t h e r o ads .

T h ey w er e s afe and c o nv eni ent fo r fo o t trav ell ers and h o rs e

men but t h ey w ere l ess c o m fo rtabl e fo r c h a ri o ts o r
,

carriag es b eing almo st as ro ug h as a c o bbl e st o n e p av e

,
-

m ent .

3 8 4 R o m a n Co mm er ce
. Ov er t h es e roads but c h i efly
.
,

by s ea t h e gr eat citi es o f t h e R o man em p ire exc h ang ed

,

go o d s Al exandri a and Anti o c h h ad ext ensiv e trad e wit h

.

t h e East T h e G r eek citi es s erv ed as mark ets fo r t h e

.
 R OM E

on h er own citiz ens w h o w er e fu ll Roma n ci ti zens but on ,

h er c o l o nists and n ear by a lli es w h o h a d m o st o f t h e rig h ts

-

o f citiz ens h i p ,call ed t h e La ti n ri gh t a nd o n d ep end ent ,

a lli es w h o h a d t h e r i gh ts of I ta li a ns Wh en R o m e co n
.

qu ered a city o r a p eo p l e S h e l eft t o t h em m o st of t h eir

,

l o c a l l aws cust o ms and s el f go v ernm ent gr a nting t o t h em

,
-

c ertain s p eci a l p rivil eg es and no t all o wing t h em t o trad e

,

wit h ea c h ot h er o r l o o k aft er t h eir ext ern a l aff a irs B y .

t h is p olicy o f divi d e and ru l e R om e k ep t t h e subj ect

citi es fr o m r evo lting sinc e t h ey f ea r ed t o l o s e t h eir s p ecial
,

p rivil e g es ,w h il e t h e ir di ff er e nt di a l ects k e p t t h em fr o m
uniting ag a inst R o m e .

T h es e Itali a ns gr eatly d es ir ed citiz ens h i p no t s o muc h ,

t h at t h ey mig h t b e a bl e t o go t o R o m e and v o t e o r ev en ,

t o tr a d e m o r e fr eely but t o p r o t ect t h ems elv es in t h eir

,

h om es and o n t h e str eets and h ig h w a ys sinc e t h er e was ,

no r ea l s ecurity fo r a ny but R o m a n citiz ens As a r esult .

o f t h e S oci a l Wa r (8 9 B C ) . w e n o tic ed t h at grad

.

u a ll y a ll It a li a ns gain ed R o m a n citiz ens h i p A g en er a ti o n .

l a t er J u li u s Caesa r g a v e citiz ens h i p t o m a ny G a uls and

o t h er p r o vinci a ls Am o ng t h e ea rly em p er o rs Cl a u di us
.
,

was c o ns p icuo us fo r h is gr a nts o f citiz ens h i p t o individuals ,

t o wns and l a rg er districts F inally in 2 1 2 A D t h e emp ero r

. . .

Ca r a ca l l a in o rd er t o b e a bl e t o l evy o n ev ery o ne a n i nh er
’
- -

i t a nce t a x w h ic h o nl y citiz ens n eed p a y includ ed a lm o st all ,

fr eem en as citiz ens T h us in l ess t h a n t wo c enturi es a ft er

.

t h e d ea t h o f Augustus t h er e was d ev el o p ed in R o m e t h e
id ea t h at citiz en s h i p s h o uld be univ ers al T h is c h ange .

c o m p l et ed t h e d evel o p m ent fro m t h e o l d city s t at e id ea

,
-

by At h ens and Ro m e Of t h e m o d ern id ea Of citiz ens h i p

,
.

3 8 6 T h e Ext e n
. si o n of t h e La ti n L angu a ge T he .

ext ensi o n o f t h e L atin l a ngu a g e in a s ens e a cc o m p ani ed t h e

ext ensi o n o f citiz ens h i p fo r all citiz ens wis h ed t o b e a bl e

,

to s p ea k La tin At first La tin h a d b een o nly t h e l eading

.

dial ect in Lati u m Wh en a ll Italians b ecam e R o man

.
R OM A NIZ ATI ON OF M EDITER R AN EAN WOR LD 301

citiz ens naturally t h ey c o uld c o mmunic a t e wit h n eig h bor

,

ing t o wns mo r e ea sily by using a c o mm o n l a ngu a g e

L atin . If a n It a li a n o r a p r o vinci a l w ent to R o m e h e ,

a lm o st o f n ec es sity us ed L a tin .

T h e gr o up s o f m erc h a nts t h a t w ent fr o m city t o city

o utsid e o f Italy c a rri ed wit h t h em t h e L a tin t o ngu e .

G a rris o ns o f s o ldi ers st a ti o n ed in t h e p ro vinc es o r c o l o ni es ,

est a blis h ed at di ff er ent p o ints b ecam e c entr es fo r t h e ,

sp r ead o f t h e l a ngu a ge o o m e Latin T h is wa s no t t h e

f R — .

b o o k Latin o f t h e b est o r a t o rs but a c o ll o qui a l langu a g e

-

, ,

t h e s p eec h o f t h e str eets a nd t h e b a rr a cks .

Latin first g a in ed a f o o t h o ld in t h o s e p r o vinc es w h ic h ,

lik e S p a in h ad no w ell d ev el o p ed l a ngua g e o f t h eir o wn

,
-
.

It t o o k ro o t fin a lly in a l l w est ern Euro p e a nd fro m it ,

s p rang a numb er o f R o m a n o r R oma nce la ngu a ges c h i efly ,

t h e It a li a n t h e F r enc h t h e S p anis h and t h e P o rtugu es e

, , .

G a rris o ns and c o l o nists in Dacia mad e t h a t p r o vinc e

l a rg ely R o man t h e R o u m a ni a o f o u r d ay Els ewh er e
,
-
’
-

in t h e East Gr eek rat h er t h a n Latin w as t h e univ ers a l

,

t o ngu e a nd t h e o ffici a l l angu a g e fo r Gr eek w a s a lr ea dy ,

in u s e ev eryw h er e in t h e ea st ern M edit err a n ea n a nd w a s

a fin er l a ngu a g e t h a n t h e crud er Latin .

3 8 7 T h e D ev el o p m ent o f R o m a n L a w
. I n t h e law .
-

o f t h e T wel ve T a bles t h e city o f R o m e h a d a crud e a nd

,

f o rm a l s et o f l a ws Th es e wer e a p p li ed a nd exp lain ed by

.

j udg es call ed p r ae t o rs Ev ery y ea r t h e new p r zet o rs

, ,
’
.

issu ed edicts st ating t h e law t h at wo uld b e us ed by t h em

during t h e y ea r T h es e p rcetor s edi cts r a t h er t h an t h e
.
’

Twelv e Tabl es b ecam e t h e law o f R o m e .

AS R o m e ext end ed h er c o nqu es ts S h e was o blig ed t o ,

d ecid e m any c a s es b etw een R o m a ns and f o r ei gn ers o r ,

b etw een t w o fo r eign ers fr o m di ffer ent citi es In d o ing .

t h is t h e p r aet o rs w h o t o o k c h a rge o f s u c h c as es r eli ed

o n g en er a l p rinci p l es o f j ustic e m o r e t h a n t h ey did o n t h e

l a w o f t h e city of R om e AS t h e It a li a ns a nd aft erward

.
 R OM E

p r o v incials w e r e admitt e d t o citiz ens h i p it s eem ed b est ,

t o giv e t h em t h e b en efit o f t h is o utsid e law t h e l a w of ,

th e na ti ons Af t er a tim e t h e em p er o rs g a th er ed all o f

.

t h es e p r ae tor i an edicts t o g et h er and a rrang ed t h em s ci en

-
’
-

t i fica ll y into cod es of laws .

Ab o ut t h e tim e t h at t h es e cod es w er e mad e fo r t h e whol e

R o man w o rld t h e S toi cs and lat er t h e Ch ri s ti a ns w er e
, , , , ,

m a king p eo p l e m o r e consid erat e o f o t h er p eo p l e and m o r e

l eni ent in t h e p unis h m ent Of crimin a ls a nd in t h e tr ea t
m ent o f slav es S o t h es e c o d es includ ed new a nd b ett er
.

m eans fo r p r o t ecting t h e rig h ts o f a ll p eo p l e and es p e ,

ci a l ly t h e rig h ts o f t h o s e t h at c o uld no t easily p r o t ect

t h ems elv es .

T h i s great s y s tem of l a w was R ome s gr ea t co ntri bu ti o n

’

to th e wo r ld T h e inv a si o n o f t h e G ermans in t h e fo urt h

.

a nd fi ft h c enturi es did no t d estr o y it fo r t h e G erm a n s ,

a cc ep t ed as muc h o f t h e R o m a n law as t h ey c o uld und er

st a nd Aft er t h e German invasi o ns Justinian t h e rul er

.
, ,

o f t h e eas t ern R oman em p ir e h a d t h es e R o m a n l a ws ,

brough t t o g et h er into a new and m o r e p erf ect cod e t h e ,

c o d e o f Justinian w h ic h is still t h e basis o f m o st o f t h e

,

l a w syst ems o f w est ern contin ental Eur o p e and surviv es ,

t o d a y in t h e equity law o f Engl a nd a nd t h e Unit ed S tat es

-
.

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
Web s ter A nc i ent Hi s to ry 38 6—3 9 1 46 5 4 9 2 5 6 2 — 600, 63 1 —63 9
, , ,
-

, .

D v
a i s R ea di ngs i
,
n A c e Hi s to y ,
n i nt r 8 5 — 1 03 2 1 1 2 8 4 II , ,
-
.

T u c k er L i fe i n t h e R o ma n Wo r l d of N er o a nd S t P a u l
, . .

F o w l er S o c i a l L if e a t R o me
, .

Th o ma s R o ma n L i fe
, u nd er t h e Cces a rs .

P res t o n a nd D o dge, P ri va te L if e o f t h e R o m a ns .

J o h ns t o n P ri va te Life of th e R o ma ns
, .

G u hl a nd K o ner , L i fe of th e Greeks a nd R o ma ns 2 9 7 —59 6 .

,

D i ll R m n S c i
, o a o et y f ro m N ero to M a rc u s A u rel i u s , 1 00—2 8 6 .

D i I nfl nc
av s , ue e o f Wea l th i n I mp eri a l R o me .

D i ll R m n S c i
, o a o et y i n th e L a s t Centu r y f th e Wes ter n Empi re
o
,

1 4 3—2 8 1 .
3 04 R OM E

9 . C ro p s ra s ed i b y t h e R o ma n s . P r es t n a nd D o dg
o e, P ri va te
L if e, 1 2 5 — 1 3 2 .

10 . T r ea t ment of s l a v es . J o h ns t o n, P r i va te L ife, 1 02 —1 1 1 .

11 . A grea t b a nq u e t of a ri ch p a r v enu . D vi a s, Rea di ngs i n

Anc i ent H i s to r y 2 5 3— 2 5 9 ,
II , .

1 2 T h e R o m a n t h ea t re
. . T ck u er , L i fe i n t h e Ro ma n Worl d ,

2 63 2 7 3
-
.

13 . T he a m p hi t h ea t re . Th ma s Ro ma n L ife 1 09 — 1 1 6
o , , .

14 . T he c i rc u s . T cku er , L ife i n t h e R o ma n Wo rld 2 7 3 — 2 8 0 , .

15 . P rese t s n of t h e S a t u rna l i a . D a vi s, I nfl u enc e f Wea l th

o

i n I mp eri a l R o me, 2 7 3 —2 7 6 .

16 . T ra v el b y l a nd . T u c k er ,
L if e i n th e R o ma n Wo rld ,
1 6 —2 5 .

17 . T ra d e wi t h t h e Ea s t t h ro u g h Al exa nd ri a . D a vi s , I nfl u
c
en e o f Wea l th i n I mp eri a l R o me, 8 3 —9 0 .

18 . I nt erna l i nd u s t ry a nd c o mm er c e . D vi a s, I nfl u enc e o f
W ea l th , 1 05 —1 1 5 .

19 . L a t er R o ma np hi l o s o p h y . B o t s fo r d , S o u rc e B oo k o f
A nc i ent Hi s to r y , 5 10— 5 1 6 .

20 C h ri s t i a i t y
. n a nd l egi s l a t i o n . M o rey , Ou tl i nes f Ro ma n
o

La w, 1 4 8 —1
52 .

21 . R ig h t s of R o ma n ci t i n ze s hi p . C a p es ,
T h e Ea rl y Emp i re,
1 84 1 8 9
-
.

22 . T h e Ro ma n p ol ic e . Lanci a ni , A nc i ent R o me, 2 06—2 1 2 .

Q u es ti o n s
1 . In t h e V i ew s of t h e F o ru m (p 2 8 0)
.
p oin t ou t t h e S a c red
Wa y , c
t h e p a l a es o f t h e C aes a rs , t h e s ena t e h o u s e, t h e ro s t ra .

2 . In t h e ge nera l Vi ew o f R o me, p o i nt o u t t h e C o l o s s eu m , t h e
ic
C r u s M a xi mu s t h e P a nt h eo , t h e C a m p u s M a r t i ns t h e b a t h s
, n ,

o f C a ra ca ll a .

3 I n w h a t w a y w ere t h e t i es o f t h e em p i re l i k e li t t l e R o m es
. ci
N a m e a c i t y t h a t h a d mo re co m m er c e t h a n R o m e .

4 N
a m e t h e b o u nd a r i es o f t h e em p i r e u nd er Au gu s t u s
. a me . N
t w o p r o vi nc es o n ea c h o f t h e t h ree c o nt i nent s b o r d eri ng t h e
M ed i t err a nea n .

5 Wh y d i d t h e u p p er c l a s s es b ec o m e ri ch er t h e l o w er cl a ss es
.
,

p o o rer a nd t h e mi d d l e c l a s s gra d u a ll y d i s a p p ea r ?
,

6 Exp l a i n w h o t h e w o r k ers w ere i n t h e R o m a n w o rl d t ell i ng

. ,

c
w h a t ea h di d W a s i t p o s s i b l e wi t h s o m a ny i d l ers t o p ro d u e
.
, , c
s u ffi c i ent w ea l t h t o gi v e ev ery o ne a c o mf o r t a b l e l i v i ng ? Wh y
n
t h en w a s t h e s t a d a rd Of li fe i n t h e R o ma n w o rl d h i gh er t h a n i t
R OM AN IZ A I I ON OF M E
’‘
DITER R AN EAN W OR LD 3 05

h ad b een fo rm erl y a nd h i gh er t h a n i t w a s fo r fi f t een c ent u ri es

a f t er t h at ti m e ?
7C o m p a re t h e p o s i t i o n o f w o m en i n Egy p t , i n B a b y l o ni a ,
. in
G reec e i n ea rl y R o m e a nd u nd er t h e em p i re
,
.

8 . D c es ri be a R o m a n h o u s e ; t h e d r es s of a hi gh c la ss R o ma n
ma n .

9 . Wh a t
were t h e r ea l di fferenc es b et w een t h e G reek a nd the
R o m a n ga m es a nd a mu s em ent s
10 . S h o w t h e i mp o r t a nc e of th e P a x R o m a na i n t h e hi s t ory

of th e w o rl d .

1 1 I n w h a t di rec t i o n d oes t h e Ap p i a n W a y t a k e u s ?
. Wh a t
i mp o rta nt a qu edu ct d o w e s ee fro m t h e W a y ? W h a t ro a d
w o u l d w e ta k e t o t h e P o v all ey ? G i ve t h e l o c a t i o n o f fo u r o th er
t nt R m n
i mp o r a o a ro a d s .

12 De c i b th e s t ep s in the t
ex ens i o n o f R o m a n ci t i z ens hi p ,
‘

. s r e

t h L ti n l ng
e g a a ua e, R o ma n l a w . S h o w t h at ea ch a dd ed s o me
thi ng t t h ci vi l i o e za t i o n of b o th the a nci ent a nd th e m o d ern
w o rl d .
 CHAP T ER X I II

T HE R OM AN EM P I R E AF T ER AU G U S TU S
F R OM A U GU S T U S T O M A R CU S AU R EL I U S ( —
14 1 80 A . D .
)
38 8 . The J u li a n P ri n ce s
imm ediat e succ esso rs .
— T he
of Augustus w er e r el at ed t o Caesar by bl o o d o r ad o p ti o n ,

a nd a re t h er efo r e call ed t h e Juli a n em p er o rs l In a g eneral .

w a y t h ey tri ed t o carry o u t t h e p o li ci es o f Augustus but ,

t h ey were men w h o lly unlike h im Y et ea c h o f t h es e .

em p er o rs r u l ed t h es e wid e d o minions fairly w ell Eac h .

of t h em was o blig ed t o add t o t h e p ower o f t h e em p er o r ,

S inc e h e lack ed t h e i nflu ence t h at h a d mad e Augustus

su p rem e .

T h e imm ediat e succ ess o r o f Au gustus was T i beri u s ,

a gen eral o f m a tur e y ea rs b efo r e h e b ec am e p rinc ep s ”

.

Tib erius wish ed t o rul e firmly and j ustly but h e was ,

c o ld narr o w and sus p ici o us He surr o und ed h ims elf

,
.

wit h sp i es call ed de ,
w h o t o ok p articular p ai ns
t o h unt o u t o ffend ers In t h e l a st y ears o f h i s r eign
.

Tib erius and t h e s enat e bani s h ed o r p u t t o d ea t h many

wh o m t h ey sus p ect ed o f p l o tting against t h em He was .

fo ll o wed by an a d o p t ed grands o n w h o was p ractically

insan e F r o m our p o int o f vi ew t h e m o st im p o rtant event
.

o f t h is p eri o d was t h e w o rk o f J esus Ch rist in Jud ea ,

ending wit h h i s crucifixi o n .

38 9 Cl a u d i a n P ri nce s
. T h e s enat e was no w a nxi o us .

”
t o abolis h t h e p rinci p at e o r rul e o f t h e p rinc ep s b u t ,

1
T h e t w el v e C aes a rs were
( J u l i a n l i ne) ( C aes a r) Au gu s t u s 2 7 B C , ,
. .

1 4 A D T i b eri u s 1 4 —37 A D C a l i gu l a 3 7 —4 1
. .
, , .
( C l a u di a n l i ne) Cl au di u s
, , ,

4 1 —5 4 N ero 54 —6 8 ( G a l b a 6 8 —6 9 Ot h o 6 9 V i t ell i u s
, , , , , ( Fl av i a n
, , ,

li ne) V es p at i an 6 9—7 9 T i t u s 7 9 —8 1 D o mi t i a n 8 1 —96

, , , , , , .

3 06
 R OM E

On t h e d eat h Of N ero diff er ent facti o ns in t h e army

su p p o rt ed di fferent c a ndidat es fo r t h e p o siti o n Of i m
p at o r
e r One
.
p rinc ep s fo ll o w ed a n o t h er in suc h
rap id succ essi o n t h a t t h e yea r 6 9 A D is call ed t h e y ea r . .

Of t h e f o ur em p er o rs F in a lly V es p a s i cu t h e co m
’
- -
.
,

mand er in t h e Ea st a m a n o f t h e c o mm o n p eo p l e and
, ,

no t ev en a m emb er Of a R o man family b ecam e h ead Of ,

S p o il s fr o m J eru s a l em .

t h e R om a n e m p ir e V esp a sian and h i s s o ns a re call ed

.
,

b ec a us e Of t h eir family nam e rul ers Of t h e F la vi an

,
’
-

h o us e .

3 91 . v rs
T h e Fl a i an R u l e Ves p asian h a d b een c a ll ed
.

t o R o m e fr o m h i s a tt em p t ed c o nqu est O f t h e J ews w h o ,

h a d r ev o lt ed a g a inst R o m a n rul e T h e si eg e o f J erusal em

.

was c o ntinu ed by Ti tus s o n o f V es p a sian Wh en Titus

’
,
.

finally c a p tur ed t h e city n early a milli o n J ews p eris h ed

,

r a t h er t h a n surr end er t o t h e R o m a ns Titus bro ug h t .

back t o R o m e t h e s ev en br a nc h ed g o ld en c a ndl e stick

-
-

a Vi ew Of w h ic h is s h o wn o n h i s trium p h al a rc h A few .

y ears a ft er t h is milit a ry d estructi o n Of J erus a l em P o m ,

p e ii a nd H er cu l a
-
n e—um t w o citi es n ear N a p l es w er e
-
’
, ,

d estroyed by molt en lava and as h es from t h e hug e v o l

 F R OM AU GU S T U S T O M AR CU S AU R ELIU S 309
O

can o V e—su vi u s T h e excavati o n Of P o m p eii during

,
’
-
.

rec ent yea rs h as given us a n idea Of j ust h o w Old R o m a n

h o us es w er e c o nstruct ed We h ave found R o man ut ensils
.

a nd furnitur e and in s o m e cas es dra p eri es t h a t h a d b een

in u s e wh en t h e city was c o v er ed .

T h e rul e Of t h e F lavia n em p erors kep t t h e armi es

from a bsolut ely c o ntro lling t h e c h o ic e Of em p er o r It .

Ves u v i u s fro m F o ru m of P o m p ei i .

no t nly gave R o m e a m o r e stabl e governm ent but it

o ,

d ev el o p ed t h e p o wer Of t h e em p er o r Ves p a sian s y o unger .

’

s o n DO mi ti a n rul ed alm o st a s a tyr a nt disr eg a rding

’
- -

, , ,

b o t h t h e s enat e and m a gistrat es If t h e R o man w o rld .

w a s no t t o r ela p s e int o t h e dis o rd er Of t h e first c entury

b efo r e Ch rist it was n ec essary t h a t t h e em p er o r s h o uld
,

h av e m o re p o w er .

392 T h e F iv e G o o d Emper o r s
.
T r aja n R o m e was .

fortunat e in h a ving fo r n early a c entury rul ers S O wi s e

, ,

and p ublic s p irit ed t h at t h ey w er e call ed t h e fiv e good

“
 R OM E

” 1
e m p er o rs M o st Of t h es e men w er e p rovi ncials wh o
.

t o o k an int erest in t h e p r o vi nc es as w ell as in Rom e .

T h e first im p o rt ant
rul er o f t h ese fiv e
g o o d em p erors was
'
T r a ja n a S p aniard , .

Tr aj an was a gen eral

and a c o nqu er o r He .

s u b d u ed Da c i a ’
-

nort h Of t h e Danub e ,

and mad e t h e p r o v
inc e S O t h or o ugh ly
R o man t h at it is
call ed Ro um a nia at
t h e p r es ent tim e He .

invad ed t h e domin
i o ns Of t h e P ar t h i ’

ans in t h e Ea st but ,

h i s c o nqu ests in t h at
St t f M c A l
p ar t Of t h e W OI ld ( l l d
a ue o ar us u re i u s .
’

no t last Traj a n was o ne Of t h e first em p ero rs t o give

.
2

h el p t o p o o r c h ildr en a w o rk whic h was c a rri ed muc h ,

fart h er by h is succ essor H a drian ,

.

H a d ri a n O r ga niz er — Ha dri a n h as b een ’

393 . h
t e .
-

call ed t h e o nly man o f genius am o ng t h e R o man em p ero rs .

He w as a grea t o rganiz er and build er He o rganiz ed a .

band o f assistants t o h el p in m a n aging t h e g o vernm ent ,

s o t h at t h e em p ir e was b ett er g o v ern ed t h an it h a d b een

b efo r e He gat h er ed t h e scatt er ed R o man laws int o a

.

syst em t h us taking o ne Of t h e first st ep s t o creat e t h at

,

gr ea t c o d e Of l a ws fo r w h ic h R o m e is S O famous In .

R o m e but p articul a rly in t h e p r o vinc es h e construct ed

, ,

l
N erv a , 9 6— 9 8 A D
. .
, T ra j a n 9 8 —1 1 7 ,
, H a d ri a n, 1 17 -

1 3 8 , Ant o ninu s
P iu s , 1 38 — 1 6 1 , M a rc u s Au reli u s . 1 6 1 —1 8 0 A D
. .

2 S ee m a p , fo l l o wi ng p a g e 2 50 .
 R OM E

citiz ens h i p to alm o st ev ery o ne in o rd er t h at he migh t

t ax t h em
396 . Au r el i a n no b i aa nd turally t h e struggl e
Z e .
— Na

Of g en erals fo r im p eri a l h o n o rs l eft t h e fronti ers und e

fend ed a nd t h e em p ire in dis o rd er F o rtun a t ely fo r .

R o m e an em p eror o f c o nsid er a bl e milit a ry ability cam e t o

t h e t h ro n e at t h is crisis .

T h is em p er o r Au r e li an ,
-
’
-

d estro y ed t h e h o rd es Of
G ermans t h at h a d in
va d ed It a ly p u t d o wn a ,

gr ea t insurr ecti o n in t h e
West and r ec o nqu er ed
t h e East In t h e Ea st .

t h e city Of P a l my ra
’
-

east Of Dam a scu s h ad ,

br o ugh t und er h er rul e

a ll Of S yri a a nd m o st Of ,

Egy p t a nd Asi a M in o r .

Z e n o bi a t h e ambiti o us
’
- -

W ll f A li n a s o u re
qu een Of P almyr a h o p ed
a .
,

t o mak e h er s o n em p eror
Of t h is gr ea t r egi o n Aur eli a n s o on d estr o y ed t h e h o p es
.

and p l a ns Of Z en o bia fo r h e c o nqu ered h er c h i ef city and

, ,

fin a lly d estr o yed h er c a p ital P a lmyra bringi ng Z eno bia , ,

b a ck t o R o m e w h er e s h e h el p ed t o gr a c e o ne Of t h e m o st
,

m agni fic ent trium p h s R o m e h a d ever b eh eld Aurelian .

h a d k ep t t h e em p ir e intact .

3 97 T h e R eo r ga niz a ti o n o f t h e Em p ir e
. In 2 8 4 A D . . .

Di o cl e ti a n b ec a m e em p er o r Di o cl etian fr a nkly a b a n
’
- - -
.

d o ned all o f t h e fo rms Of t h e r ep ublic w h ic h m o s t Of h i s

p r ed e c ess o rs h a d u s ed and est a bli s h ed a n a bs o l u te mo na r ch y .

On t h is acc o unt t h e em p ir e fro m 2 7 B C t o 2 8 4 A D is usu . . . .

a lly c a ll ed t h e ea r l y emp i re; t h e em p ir e fr o m 2 8 4 t o t h e

fa ll Of R o m e in 4 7 6 b eing call ed t h e la ter emp i re
“
.
 R OM E

l ead ers fail ed S o o n aft er h i s d eat h t h ere were several

.

generals in t h e fi eld trying t o p r o v e t h eir righ t t o b e

em p eror T h e great est Of t h es e was C o n stan tine w h o s e
’
-

.
,

fat h er h ad b een Caes a r Of t h e West und er Di o cl eti a n .

C o nstantin e s s o ldi ers p r o claim ed h i m em p er o r In

’
.

3 1 2 A D h e d efeat ed h i s c h i ef rival at M i l v i a n B ridg e

’
-
. .
,

j ust o utsid e Of t h e city Of Ro m e In t h is b a ttl e h e a c .

,

cep t ed as h i s b a dg e t h e insigni a Of t h e C h ristians Co n .

tantine s m o t h er w a s an o rt h o d o x Ch ristian a nd h e re
’
,

a l i z ed t h at C h ristianity must b ec o m e t h e c h i ef r eligi o n

of t h e em p ir e .

Imm edi a t ely a ft er t h e b a ttl e Of M i lv i an B ridg e Co n ,

s t a nt i ne r ec o gniz ed C h risti a nity as a stat e r eligi o n and

ex em p t ed t h e p r o p erty o f its c h urc h es in t h e West fr o m

dir ect ta xati o n A few y ears lat er h e p resid ed o ver t h e

.

'
first gr ea t c o uncil Of t h e C h urc h a t Ni cze a Be -

sid e h i s r ec o gni ti o n Of Ch ri s tian ity Co nst a ntin e s gr eat ,

’

w o rk was t h e es t a blis h m ent Of t h e ca p ital Of t h e em p ir e

at B yzantium He c a ll ed t h e new gr eat wall ed city aft er
.

h ims elf Co n stan ti no p l e

’
- - -

,
.

T HE S P R EAD OF CH R I S T I A N I T Y

G eneral .
3 99 . r ep a r ati o n fo r Ch ri s ti a ni ty i n t h e R o man W o rl d
P .

B efo r e taking u p t h e s tudy Of t h e Ch ristian C h urc h in

t h e tim e Of Const a ntin e l et us c o nsid er first t h e co n
,

dit i o ns in t h e early em p ir e t h at h a d fa v o r ed t h e s p read Of

C h risti a nity a nd s ec o nd t h e early h ist o ry Of t h e Ch urc h
, ,
.

In t h e d ays Of Augustus and Tib erius t h e littl e kingd o m

O f H er o d in P al estin e w a s p ractic a lly a p a rt Of t h e R oman

em p ir e T h e d em a nd fo r a R o man c ensus h a d t a ken

.

J o s ep h and M a ry t o B et h l eh em w h er e J esus was b o rn ,

.

Ro man t a x gat h erers or p ublic a ns w er e t o b e fo und in

Jud ea M a tt h ew b el o nged t o t h at h at ed class R oman
. .

soldi ers and centuri o ns kep t ord er and a Ro man rep r es ent
 T HE S P R EA D OF CHR S I TI ANIT Y
'
ativ e P o n tius P i lat e l o o ked aft er t h e int er ests Of
,
’
,

Ro me .

Jud ea wa s no t o nly a p a rt Of R o m e but t h e gr ea t ,

M edit erran ea n w o rld was at p eac e S O t h a t t eac h ers and ,

travell ers mig h t go fr o m o ne end o f t h e em p ir e t o t h e

o t h er
. In t h e east ern M edit erran ean w o rld G r eek was ,

t h e univ ers a l l a nguag e and a h ig h er m o ral standard h a d

b een t a ugh t by t h e S t o ic p h il o s o p h ers .

400 T h e W o r k o f t h e Ap o s tl e s
.
—
F o r s ev eral y ears
.

J esus taug h t am o ng t h e J ews Wh en h e was r ej ect ed.

by t h e J ews h e s ent h i s disci p l es fo rt h t o p r eac h t h e go s

,

p el t o all t h e w o rld . T h e st o ry Of h i s li fe and t eac h ings

is p r es erv ed t o us in t h e f o ur Gos p els T h e w o rk Of h i s .

foll o wers in carrying t h e m essag e t o no n J ewis h p eo p l es -

aft er Ch rist s crucifixi o n a nd r esurr ecti o n is emb o di ed in

’

t h e Acts o f t h e a p o stl es T h e writings Of t h e a p ostl es

.

t o t h e gentil es a re c a ll ed t h e Ep i s tles o r l ett ers ,

.

T h e m o st activ e Of t h e a p o stl es wer e P et er o ne Of t h e ,

disci p l es wh o s e kn o wl edg e Of h um a n nature h el p ed h i m

,

in h i s wo rk and P aul a c o nv ert w h o h ad b een a S t o ic

, , ,
.

P aul w as abl e t o r ea c h t h e G r eeks b ec a us e h e und erst o od

t h e Gr eek mind . P et er P a ul a nd o t h er t eac h ers mad e
, ,

many conv ert s t o t h e new fait h Of t h e fa t h er h oo d Of G o d

and t h e br o t h erh o o d o f man .

401. T h e Early Ch u r ch As t h e numb er o f b eli ev ers

.

incr eas ed in t h e citi es Of t h e ea st ern M editerran ean wo rld ,

it wa s cust o mary for eac h c o ngregati o n t o s el ect dea cons

t o lo o k a ft er t h e p oo r and elders t o rul e t h e c h urc h and
,

d o t h e t eac h ing o r p r eac h ing Th es e p ers o ns wer e c h o s en

.

by t h e a ss o ci ati o n o r c o ngr egati o n In tim e o ne Of t h e .

eld ers w as i n a s ens e s et asid e as ast o r fo t h e s p ecial

p r

wo rk Of l o o king aft er t h e fl o ck ”
Wh en a city h a d a c
.

quired several distinct c o ngreg ati o ns One Of t h e l eading ,

p as t o rs was r ec o g ni z ed as bi s h op T h e bis h o p s Of t h e p ro
.

v i nci al cap itals w er e usually mor e im ortant than thos e of

p
31 6 R OM E

the ot h er citi es Of the p r o vi nc e and t h e bisho p s o r metro

, ,

p o l i ta ns,
O f t h e ca p itals Of t h e di o c es es w er e ev en m o re ,

p r o min ent . A m o ng t h e gr eat bis h o p s t h e bis h o p s Of

,

R o m e early b ecam e l ead ers fo r R o m e was s u p p o s ed t o

,

h a v e r ec eiv ed S p eci a l p rivil eg es fr o m P et er a nd Ro m e ,

was still t h e c a p ital o f t h e w h o l e em p ir e .

402 . P er s ecu ti o n s o f t h e Earl y Ch ri s ti a n s B eginning .

wit h N er o t h e gro wing s ect o f Ch risti a ns h a d b een p er

s ccu t ed by t h e stat e a ut h o riti es S p ea king o f t h e .

Ch risti a ns a ft er t h e gr eat fire in R o m e o ne writ er

s ays : V a st multitud es were c o nvi ct ed no t so muc h o n

“
,

t h e c h arg e Of co nfl agrat i o n as Of h ating t h e h uman rac e

, .

And in t h eir d ea t h s t h ey w er e mad e t h e subj ects Of s p o rt ,

fo r t h ey w er e c o v er ed wit h t h e h id es o f wild b ea sts a nd ,

w o rri ed t o d ea t h by d o gs o r n a il ed t o cro ss es o r s et fire

, ,

t o and w h en day d eclin ed wer e burn ed t o s erv e fo r

, , ,

n o cturn a l ligh ts .

T h er e w ere s ever a l r eas o ns w h y Ro m e o rdin a ril y t o l ,

era nt o f fo r eign r eligi o ns was h ars h wit h t h e Ch ristians

,
.

T h e C h risti a ns k ep t a p art o b eyi ng t h e inj uncti o n t o b e

,

s ep arat e fr o m t h e w o rld Wh en t h ey did no t take

.

p a rt in t h e gr eat p ublic r eligi o us festivals t h ey o ffend ed ,

t h e p o p ul a c e As t h ey r efus ed t o w o r s h i p d ea d em p er o rs
.
,

o r c o nsid er living em p er o rs as d emi g o ds t h e R o m a ns

-

t h o ug h t t h em guilty Of littl e l ess t h a n tr eas o n Th ey .

h eld s ecr et m eetings and t h e g o v ernm ent fear ed and

,

disc o ura ged all s ecr et m eetings p articul a rly Of s o l a rge ,

a s ecret s o ci ety as t h e Ch risti a n Ch urc h F in a lly t h e .

,

R o m a n p eo p l e b eli ev ed t h a t t h e Ch ristians w er e guilty

Of ea ting c h ildr en a nd Of o t h er r ev o lting p r a ctic es Und er .

s o m e em p ero rs t h e Ch risti a ns w er e l eft a l o n e but und er , ,

t h e b est em p er o rs w h o car ed fo r t h e p ublic w el fa re t h ey ,

w ere h ars h ly p ers ecut ed Dea t h as a m a rtyr was p re

.

ferred t o life its el f by t h e ea rly Ch ristians and t h e Ch urc h ,

t h ri v ed o n p ers ecuti o n .
 R OM E

DECL I N E OF T HE R OMA N EMP I RE

4 04 .Divi s i o n o f t h e Emp ir e u n d er Th eo d o s i u s t h e
G r eat . In 3 7 6 A D a few y ea rs b efo re T h eo dosius be
. .
,

c a m e em p eror t h e Germ a n trib es t h at h a d b een t h rea t en

,

ing t h e b o rd ers Of t h e em p ir e fo r c enturi es finally cr o ss ed

t h e Da nub e and r a vag ed t h e p r o vinc es n o rt h Of G r eec e
, .

At Ad ri a no p l e (3 7 8 A D ) t h ey d estr o y ed t h e army Of t h e
- - -
’
. .

em p er o r B efo r e t h is tim e a gr eat m a ny G ermans h a d

.

b een all o w ed t o j o in t h e Ro man a rmy or t o s ettl e p ea c ea bly

as c o lonists o n R o m a n s o il Wh en Th eo d o sius w a s c all ed .

u p o n h e fo rc ed t h e Germans t o st o p p lund ering Until

,
.

aft er h i s d eat h t h e invas i o ns c ea s ed We s h a ll c o nsid er

, .

t h e st o ry Of t h e G erm a n inv a si o ns l a t er .

In 39 5 A D T h eo d o sius I di ed He divid ed t h e em p ir e
. . .

b etw een h is t w o s o ns and t h e West and t h e East w ere ,

n ever ag a in unit ed T h e great R o man em p ir e h a d in

.
,

a s ens e c o m e t o an end H enc efo rt h w e h a ve t h e ea stern

,
.

R o m a n em p ir e o r B y z a n t i ne em p i r e w h ic h last ed a
’
-

, ,

t h o usand y ears a nd a w est ern R o man em p ir e wh ic h

, ,

lasted but a s h o rt tim e a lt h o ugh a n em p i re call ed ,

R o m a n was r eviv ed by Ch a rl em a gn e a nd l a t er

by t h e kings Of Germ a ny .

405 .T h e I nv a d er s a nd t h e W es t er n Em p ir e — V ery .

littl e r esist anc e w a s Offered t o t h e German inv a d ers T h e .

l o cal g o v ernm ents Of t h e em p ir e h ad alrea dy l o st p ra e

tically all Of t h eir aut h o rity a nd t h e em p er o r and h is ,

a ssist a nts no l o ng er c o uld m a intain o rd er o r k eep Off

invad ers T h e bis h o p s a l o n e s eem ed t o r ep res ent a ut h o r

.

ity In m o r e t h a n o ne instan ce t h e bis h o p s built d efenc es

.
,

and p aid tr o o p s o u t o f t h e c h urc h treasury Wh en t h e .

inv a d ers a p p ea red t h e bis h o p s r a t h er t h an t h e ci v il

,

magistr a t es went o u t t o m eet t h em a nd n eg o ti a t ed fo r

t erms Of p eac e T h e G erm a ns res p ect ed t h e a ut h o ri ty
.

Of t h es e c h urc h l ea d ers s o m ew h a t since t h e barbarians ,

w ere n o min a lly Ch ristians .

 D EC LIN E OF T H E R OM A N EM P R EI

N ev erth el ess o l e o f c o untry a nd t o wn su ffer ed

,
t he p e p
grea tly T h e sm a ll fa rm ers fled t o t h eir ric h a nd p ower
.

ful n eigh b o rs fo r p ro t ecti o n T h e b a rb a ri a ns s a cked a nd

.

p lund er e d to t h eir h e ar t s c o nt ent Twic ’

e ev en t h e str.o ng
walls Of R o m e fail ed t o keep ou t t h e i nvaders In 4 55 .

R o m e wa s s a ck ed s o t h o r o ugh ly by t h e Va nd a ls t h a t t h e
t erm vandalism h as b ec o m e a nam e fo r rut h l ess p lund ering .

F ifty y ea rs
”
4 06 The
. F all o f R o m e 47 6 A D ,
. .

aft er t h e d ea t h Of Th eo d o sius a still great er d a ng er t h r ea t

en ed t h e em p ir e A s a vage Asiatic r a c e kn o wn a s t h e
.

Huns h a d fo und a gr ea t l ea d er in t h eir yo ung king At ti l a ,

’
-

a ft erwa rd c a ll ed t h e S c o urg e Of G o d F r o m h is do
“ ”
.

mains i n ea st ern R ussi a Attil a l ed h i s sm a ll dark fi ery , ,

h o rs em en a gainst t h e ric h p r o vinc e Of G aul Aft er ca p .

turing m a ny citi es h e w a s fo rc ed t o give u p t h e si ege o f

,

Orl eans by t h e arrival Of an a rmy o f R o m a n a nd G erm a n

tr o op s und er A e t i u s t h e l a st Of t h e Ro mans
-
’
-

,
In 4 5 1 .

Aet i u s d efea t ed t h e gr eat h o rd e Of t h e Huns in a t erribl e

battl e n ear Cha lons ’
.
1

As t h e w est ern R o man em p ir e was no w alm o st wh o lly

occu p i ed by G ermanic ki ngd o ms t h er e s eem ed t o b e no ,

furt h er r eas o n fo r k eep ing u p a nam e In 4 7 6 A D t h e . . .

G ermans s ent t h e im p erial r eg a li a fr o m Italy t o t h e em

p e ro r a t C o nstantin o p l e and t h e w est ern em p ir e cam e
,

t o an end .

4 07 P o li ti cal a nd M i l it a ry R ea s o n s f o r t h e
. F al l o f
R o me . T h e r eas o ns fo r t h e br eak u p Of t h e R o m a n -

Em p ir e w er e v ery num er o us T h e empi re wa s too la rge

.

to be h eld togeth er p erm a nently T h er e wer e t oo m a ny

.

n a ti o ns a nd p eo p l es a nd div ers e i nt erests within t h e

em p ir e Und er t h e lat e r ep ublic and t h e early em p ir e
.

t h e c entral gov ernm ent did no t h av e en o ug h p o w er t o

1 At t il a a ft erw a rd ma rc h ed i nt o I t al y wher e h e s ecu red a grea t amo u nt

,

of bo o t y . He d i ed t h e next y ea r T h e memo ri es o f h i s t erri bl e ra i d s

.

l a s t ed fo r c ent u ri es .
 R OM E

rul e so gr ea t an area Aft er Di o cl etian t h er e was t o o littl e

.

l o c a l g o v ernm ent s o t h at t h e t a sk Of ruling s o vast an

,

em p ir e was t oo gr eat fo r a c entral bur eaucracy .

F o ll o wing t h e p o litic a l c o llap s e o f R o m e cam e t h e

decli ne of th e a r my T he .
p a x R o m a na h a d giv en
Op p o rt unity for trad e T h e R o m a ns p referr ed to m a k e
.

m o n ey r a t h er t h an to figh t On t h e fronti ers t h e armi es

.

w er e mad e u p c h i efly o f barb a ria ns Wh en t h e invasi o ns .

cam e t h e R o mans d ep end ed o n barbarians t o keep Off

,

t h e barbarians .

Eco no mi c a nd S o ci al Ca u s es o f R o m e s D ecl i ne
’
4 08 . .

M o r e im p ort a nt t h a n t h e military and p o litic a l caus es

O f t h e br eak u p Of t h e em p ir e w er e t h e ec o n o mic a nd social
-

caus es b ec a us e t h e latt er w ere m o r e fundam ent al T h e

, .

m o r a l stand a rds Of t h e p eo p l e w er e l o w As dis o rd er .

b ecam e m o r e g en eral naturally c o mm erc e d eclined

,
.

T h is m eant t h at distant p a rts Of t h e em p ir e h ad muc h

l ess in c o mm o n t h an fo rm erly and t h er efo re did no t need
,

t o b e h eld t o g et h er As l o ng as slav es w er e abund a nt

.

and business p r o s p er ed a ll w ent w ell B u t t h e su pp ly

, .

Of slav es d eclin ed s o t h at t h e emp i r e di d no t p r odu ce

,

enou gh fo r a d ec ent living fo r ev en t h e d eclining p o p u l a

ti o n In o rd er t o h av e a su p p ly Of fo o d a nd furnis h t a x es
.

fo r t h e ex p ensiv e im p erial g o vernm ent t h e p easants and ,

small farm ers w ere fo rc ed t o stay o n t h eir lands a nd cul

t i v at e t h em at a loss M any fr eem en v o luntarily w ent
.

t o t h e grea t l a nd ed p r o p ri et o rs and Off er ed t h eir s ervic es

i n r eturn fo r p r o t ecti o n ag a inst t h e im p erial g o v ernm en t ,

as well as a g a inst r o bb ers and barbari a ns .

4 09. G r o wth o f G r ea t Es t a t es On t h e larg e estat es

.

t h e f o rm er l a ndl ess men and sl a v es b ecam e s erfs w h o w er e ,

b o und t o t h e s o il If it h a d no t b een fo r t h e influ enc e o f

.

t h e Ch urc h m o st of t h es e men w o uld h av e b ec o m e a d o w n

,

t ro dd en class Of slav es T h e p easants b ecam e tena nts

.

of t h e n o bl es and lived in gro u p s o f h o us es surr o undi ng

 R OM E

d eat h Of T h eo d o sius in 39 5 A D t h e w est ern h alf last ing . .

,

until its fall in 47 6 A D and t h e ea st ern em p ire co n . .

,

t inu ing until Constantin o p l e was ca p tur ed by t h e Otto

man Turks i n 1453 A D All Of t h es e d a t es a re im p o rt ant
. . .

T h e imm ediat e succ ess o rs O f Augustus call ed t h e Julia n ,

p rinc es w ere o rdinary m en

,
T h e s ec o nd c entury n early
.

c o incid ed wit h t h e rul e Of t h e fiv e g o od em p er o rs Of ”

,

w h o m w e S h o uld rem emb er Traj an t h e c o nqu er o r H a drian ,

t h e o rgani z er and build er and M a rcus Aur elius t h e S t o ic ,

p h il o s o p h er T h e n ext c entury w a s t h e p eri o d Of t h e

.

b a rr a ck em p ero rs t h e gr ea t est Of wh o m w as t h e co n
,

q u er o r A ur eli a n D i o cl
. eti a n r eo rg a niz ed t h e e m p ir e ,

crea ting an o ri ental c o urt and an Official bureaucr a cy .

Co nst a ntin e g a v e Ch ristianity its first st a nding as a

stat e r eligi o n .

T h e lat e R o man em p ir e g a v e Ch ristianity a n exc ell ent

c h anc e t o d evel o p sinc e new religi o ns wer e p ermitt ed
, ,

t h e em p ir e w a s unit ed a nd a t p eac e a nd h um a nitari a n

id eas were in t h e a i r
“ ”
J esus Ch rist taugh t o nly in
.

P al estin e but h e s ent h i s di s ci p l es a nd a p o stl es t o t h e

,

gentil es M a ny c o nv erts w er e mad e esp ecially a m o ng

.
,

t h e p o o r Of t h e citi es C h urc h es w er e o rganiz ed wi th

.

d eac o ns eld ers a nd bis h o p s T h e Ch risti ans were p er

,
.

s ecu t ed b ecaus e t h ey k ep t a p a rt fr o m o t h er p eo p l e h eld ,

s ecr et m eet i ngs a nd r efus ed t o r es p ect t h e divi ne p o wer Of

t h e em p er o r Und er Co nst a ntin e Ch ristianity was rec o g
.

ni z ed as a st a t e r eligi o n a nd und er T h eod o sius ort h o d o x

,

Ch risti a nity (no t t h e Ari a n fa it h ) was m a d e t h e o nly stat e

religi o n .

B esid e t h e invasi o ns t h ere w er e num er o us c a u s es Of t h e

br ea k u p o f t h e R o m a n em p ire T h e em p ire was t o o large
-
.

t o b e g o v ern ed p erm a n ently as a wh o l e T h e p eo p l e h a d .

fo rg o tt en h o w t o figh t Co mm erc e h a d declined a nd t h e

.

fo o d su p p ly was b a r ely su ffici ent fo r t h e d eclining p o p u l a

ti o n S inc e t h e g o vernm ent could no t maintain o rd er t h e
.
,
 D EC LIN E OF T HE R OM A N EM P R E I 323

gr eat l a nd ed estat es l oo ked aft er t h e l a ndl ess men wh o ,

b ecam e s erfs t h e p eas a nts w h o b ec a m e vill eins and t h e

, , ,

s m a ll land ed p r o p ri et o rs w h o b ecam e t enants Of t h e gr eat ,

n o bl es .

Ge n er al R efe r en ces
A
B o t s fo r d ,H i s t o r y f
o t h e A n c i e n t W o r l d 4 6 2 — 523 ,
.

D a v i s R ea di ngs i n A c e H o y II 8
,
n i n t i s t r 1 2 — 2 1 0 2 8 5—3 09 , , , .

B o t sfo r d A S o u r c e B o o k of A nc i ent Hi s tory 4 8 0—5 44

, , .

G a rd ner R o m e t h e M i
,
dd l e of t h e W o r l d 1 — 109 ,
.

S ei gno b o s Hi s tor y of th e R o ma n P eo p l e 2 8 9 —4 2 1
, ,
.

C a p es T h e Ea rl y E mp i re a nd th e A ge of t h e A nto ni nes
,
.

P el h a m Ou tl i nes of R o m n Hi s o y
a t r 4 7 0 — 57 6 .
, ,

J o nes T h e R o ma n Emp i re
,
.

T op i cs
H A DR I A N : G a rd ner , R o me t h e M i ddl e o f th e Wo rl d ,
—
6 1 68
T h e A ge
C a p es , o f t h e A nto ni nes , 4 9—7 3 ; J o nes , T h e R o ma n
Emp i re, 1 7 6— 195 .

P E R S E CU T I O N S OF T HE CHR I S T I As S ei gno b o s , T h e R o ma n
P eo p e, 3
l 66 —3 7 2 ; M u nr o , S o u r c e B o c k of R o m a n Hi s to r y , 1 64
1 7 1 , 1 7 4 ; F i s h er , Hi s tor y of th e Ch ri s ti a n Ch u r c h 3 0—33 , 4 6—5 1 , .

EC O N O M I C C A U S E S OF T HE DE CL I N E OF R OM E : B o t s fo r d ,
S c of H s o y , 37 5
5 ; M u nr o a nd S ell er y
A n i ent c
B oo k i t — 44
ou r e r

M edi eva l Ci vi l i z a ti o n, 18 —43 ; a v i s , I nfl u enc e of Wea l th D

i n I m p eri a l R o me, 3 14 —3 35 ; C u n ngh a m , Wes ter n Ci vi l i z a ti o n n i
i
i n ts E c o o i c As p ec ts , , 1 8 1 9 5 ;
n m 2 — ll , R o ma n S o c i et y i n t h e I Di
L a s t Centu r y f
o th e Wes ter n Em p i re 2 4 5—2 8 1 , .

S tu d i es
1 . N er o a nd h i s t i m es . G a rd ner , R o me th e M i ddl e o f th e
Worl d , 3 5—50 .

2 . T he d es t ru c t i o n Of J er u s a l em . S ei gno b o s , T he Ro ma n
P eo p l e, 3 1 5—3 2 0 .

3 . T h e d es t ru ct i o n of P o m p eu . B ul w er Ly t t o n, L a s t Da y s
-
of
P o mp ei i , B o o k V , ch a p erst V II —I X .

4 . T he c o nqu es t Of i
B r t ai n . Lee, S o u r c e B oo k o f Engli s h
Hi s to r y 7 2 —7 6 , .

5 T h e mo ra l it y Of t h e fir s t
.
ce nt u ry a ft er C h ri s t . C a p es ,
T h e Ea rl y Emp i re 2 2 3—2 3 2 , .
3 24 R OM E

6 . i
L t era t ure u nd er t h e fiv e go o d em p ero rs . C a p es , Age o f
t h e A nto ni nes , 1 65 —1 9 4 .

7 Ho w t h e R o m a n em p ire w a s s o ld
. at au cti n o . D vi
a s,

R ea di ngs i n A nc i ent Hi s to r y II 2 03—2 06 , , .

8 Ho w Aurel i a n co nq u ered Z eno b i a

. . D vi a s, Rea di ngs , II ,

2 07 —2 1 0 .

9 . T he ru l e o f Di o cl et a ni . B o t sford , S o u rc e B o o k of A nc i ent
Hi s tor y 5 2 7 — 53 2 , .

10 . C o ns t a nt ne t h e G rea i t . G ar d n er , R o me t h e M i ddl e o f
th e W or l d , —
90 1 09 .

11 . T h e S erm o n on th e M o u nt . T h e B i bl e, M a t t h ew ,
ch ap

t er s V — VII .

12 . S p rea d Of th e C h ri s t i an d o t r nes c i . T h e B i bl e, Act s ,

c h p t II
a er .

13 . T he Ari a n c nt v
o ro ers y . Em er t o n, I ntro d u c ti o n to th e
M i ddl e Ages 9 8 1 02 ,
-

14 . Th eo d o s u s a nd i Am b ro s e . D i av s , R ea di ngs , II , 2 9 8 —300 .

15 . G ro w t h of t h e p a p a cy b efo re 47 6 A D . . Em ert o n I ntro ,

d u c ti o n to t h e M i ddl e A ges 102 — 1 08 ,

.

16 . Efl ect O f t h e G er ma ni c i nv a s i o ns on t h e R o ma ns . D il l ,

R o ma n S o c i et y i n t h e L a s t Cent u r y of t h e Wes ter n Em p i re 37 8 —38 2 , .

1 7 T h e s m a ll fa rm ers a nd t h e c o l o ni
. a v i s , I nfl u enc e of . D
W ea l t h i n I mp eri a l R o e, 3 7 2 47
m 2 — .

Q u esti ons
1 . N
me t hr ee i m p o rt a nt em p ero rs Of t h e firs t cent u r y A D ;
a . .

th ree Of t h e fi v e go o d emp ero rs ; t hr ee o f t h e l a t er em p ero rs .

G i v e o ne i m p o rt a nt fa c t a b o u t ea c h .

2 Of w h a t i m p o r t a nc e w a s t h e a rm y t o t h e em p er o r s
. Show
h o w Ha dr i a n a nd D i o c l et i a n c h a ng ed t h e i m p eri al go v ernm ent .

D c es ri be th e r eo r ga ni z ed g o v er nm ent Of Di o c l eti a n .

3 . S t a t e t h e m o st imp o r t a nt t ea c h ngs i of J es u s C h r i st . Wh a t
w o rk d i d P a ul d o fo r t h e ea rl y C h ur c h ? Ho w w a s t h e C h u rc h
o rg a ni zed ? Wh y w ere th e ea rl y C hr i
p er s ecu t ed ?
s t i a ns

4 . Wh a td o es o r t h o d o x m ea n ? Wh y w ere t h e Ar a ns h eret i ic s

a f t er 325 A D . .

5 . Wh a t w a s d o ne b y C o ns t a nt i ne fo r t h e C h r s t i a Ch ur c h ? i n
by T h eo d o s i u s ? H o w i m p o rt a nt w ere t h e b i s h o p s a t t h e t i me
of the i n v a s i o ns ? Wh y w as t h e bis h o p of R o m e t h e gr ea t es t
Of th e b i sh o p s ?
6 . S u mma r i ze th e rea s o ns fo r t h e d ec l i ne of R o me .
 T HE G ER M AN S

h o w ev er , l o o king aft er t h eir fl o cks and dividing u p t h e land

ea c h y ear In t h is way no m anh ad a s ettl ed h o m e and
.

f a rm and t h ey did not los e t h eir z eal fo r war Th ey did

, .

no t build car efully fo r exp osur e m a d e t h em b ett er abl e t o

,

endur e c o ld and h eat T h ey disc o urag ed p rivat e o wner

.

s h i p Of p ro p ert y h o p ing in t h is w ay t o k eep any o ne fr o m

,

gaining a l a rg e am o unt Of p ro p erty and t o k eep all men ,

as n early equ al as p o ssibl e .

4 1 4 Cl a s s es a m o n g t h e G er m ans
.
— If t h e G ermans .

tri ed t o k eep a n ec o no mic equ a lity Of t h eir m emb ers ,

t h ey did no t Obj ect t o s o cial in equ a liti es T h ere w ere .

t h r ee w ell m a rk ed cl ass es T h e nobles h eld t h e imp o r

-
.

tant Offi c es and enj o y ed all o f t h e h o n o rs T h e o rdin a ry .

freemen h ad t h e rig h t t o b ear arms a nd a tt end t h e ass em

bli es T h er e w er e als o s o m e s la ves w h o w er e u s ually
.
,

a gricultur a l b o nd s ervants In t h e lat er German laws if

-
.
,

an Offend er inj ur ed a S l a v e t h er e was eit h er no p enalty o r ,

a v ery sm a ll fine If h e inj ur ed a fr eem a n in t h e s a m e

.

way h e w a s p unis h ed lig h tly ; but if h e did t h e sam e t h ing

, ,

t o a n o bl e t h e p unis h m ent w a s h ea vy
,
.

4 1 5 H O W t h e G er m a n s w er e G o v ern e d
. At t h e tim e .

o f t h e invasi o n s t h e G ermans w er e o rg a niz ed int o gr eat

trib es c o mp o s ed o f m a ny c o mmuniti es T h e larg est

,
.

t rib es w er e rul ed by kings w h o w er e c h o s en always fro m ,

c ertain fa mili es T h e king was a dvis ed by a c o uncil Of

.

n o bl es (p rinc es ) w h ic h h el p ed h i m t o gov ern t h e trib e .

Eac h p rinc e h a d many comp anions n o bl e yout h s w h o

”
,

fo ll o w ed h i m ev erywh er e .
1

Eac h o f t h e l o c a l c o mmuni ti es o f t h e G ermans h a d its

o w n a s s embly a nd l ead er s T h e a ss embly c o mp ris ed a l l .

no bl es a nd a l l fr eem en wh o c o uld b ea r a rms It met .

o nc e a m o nt h usu a lly at t h e tim e o f t h e full m o o n

,
T he .

1 “
On t h e fi el d Of ba t t le i t was m eful fo r t h e p ri nc e t o b e o u t d o ne
sh a

in c o u ra ge , sh a m efu l fo r t h e b a nd Of c o m p a ni o ns t o b e u ne u al i n c o u r q ~

a ge t o t h ei r p ri n ce .
”
 T HE G ER M AN S

a ss embl y c o nsid er ed all p ublic qu estions a nd ch o s e its

o wn l ead ers T h e s p eak ers are h eard m o r e b ec a us e Of
“
.

t h eir ability t o p ersuad e t h a n b ec a us e Of t h eir p o w er t o

co mm a nd If t h e sp eec h es are disp l easing t o t h e p eo p l e
.
,

t h ey r ej ect t h em wit h murmurs ; if t h ey a re p l ea sing ,

t h ey ap p l a ud by Clas h ing t h eir w eap o ns t o g et h er wh ic h

is t h e kind o f ap p l a us e m
,
”
o st h ig h ly est eem ed .

4 1 6 H o w t h e G er m a n s u s e d P riv a t e V en gea n ce
. .

Am o ng t h e early G erm a ns a nd t o s o m e ext ent in l a t er

,

tim es t h er e exist ed a law Of fist righ t t h at is t h e

,
” -

, ,

righ t o f p ers o n al v engea nc e If a man kill ed a n o t h er t h e

.
,

fa mily Of t h e s ec o nd man t o o k u p t h e quarr el and any

o ne Of t h em mig h t murd er t h e a ss a ssin In lat er tim es .

a du el o r wag er Of b a ttl e w a s us ed t o d ecid e w h et h er t h e

, ,

accus er o r t h e accus ed was righ t T h is ap p eal ed t o t h e .

G erm a n id ea o f war as a fin a l m ea ns Of d eciding a ll im p o r

t a nt int er ests in li fe On t h e o t h er h and t h e f a mily o f t h e
.

inj ur ed man ev en in t h e c a s e Of murd er migh t acc ep t a

, ,

p a ym ent O f h o rs es o r c a ttl e o r s o m e o t h er p r o p erty in full

s a tis facti o n o f t h e Offenc e .

4 1 7 Tri al b y Co mp u r ga ti o n
. If a p ers o n a ccus ed Of
.

crim e w a s br o ugh t b efo r e t h e ass embly t h e accus ed ma n ,

w a s lik ely t o b e s et fr ee if a s u fli ci ent numb er Of h i s

,

fri ends wo uld swear in h i s favo r T h es e w er e no t wit .

n ess es and t h e guilt o r inn o c enc e Of t h e a ccus ed was no t

,

c o nsid er ed If many o f h i s fri ends st o o d by h i m h e w as

.
,

acquitt ed even i f h e r ea lly w a s guilty If t h ey fail ed

, .

t o st a nd by h i m h e was c o nvict ed e v en if h e was inn o

, ,

c ent T h e Germ ans h a d gr ea t f a it h t h at t h e g o ds wo uld

.

h el p an inn o c ent man t h r o ugh h i s fri ends and would d es ert ,

a man w h o was guilty .

4 1 8 O r d ea l s
. Among t h e early G ermans many
.

Off end ers w er e tri ed in still di ff er ent ways w h ic h w er e ,

us ed ext ensiv ely ev en in t h e l a t er f eudal age T h es e .

m et h o ds w er e call ed o rd ea ls and w er e ap p ea ls t o t h e
 T H E G ER M A NS

go ds or lat er t o t h e Ch risti a n s Go d t o d ecid e t h e c as e

,
’
, .

T h e a ccus ed m a n was o blig ed t o und erg o t h e o rd ea l t o

p ro v e his guilt o r inn o c enc e S o m etim es t h e a ccus er .

als o w as fo rc ed t o submit t o t h e o rd ea l t o p rov e t h a t h e

h a d no t b een unf a ir in t h e c h a rg e t h a t h e h a d m a d e .

One Of t h e c o mm o n fo rms Of o rd ea l was tri a l by fire .

If t h e p ers o n p a ss ed t h r o ugh t h e fire un h a rm ed h e was ,

inno c ent An o t h er was tri a l by s o m e h o t subst a nc e

.
,

as b o i ling wat er o r h o t iro n If t h e victim w as inj ur ed .

by h o lding h i s arm in b o iling wat er o r by c a rrying a h o t

iro n bar a c ert a in distanc e it p ro v ed t h a t t h e go ds co n ,

s i dered h i m guilty S till ano t h er o rd ea l c o nsist ed in

.

t h ro w i ng t h e a ccus ed int o a p o nd o r riv er If h e s a nk .

,

h e w as inn o c ent alt h o ug h as h e w a s b o und h a nd a nd fo o t

, , ,

t h e p r o o f did h i m v ery littl e g o o d T h es e m et h o ds w h i c h .

surviv ed s o m a ny c enturi es s h o w us w h at crud e a nd

b a rbaric id ea s Of j ustic e p r evail ed a m o ng t h e G ermans .

4 1 9 T h e R el i gi o n o f t h e G e r m a ns
. T h e G erm a ns .

h a d a r a t h er p rimitiv e r eligi o n b efo r e t h ey w er e c o nv ert ed

t o C h risti a nity W e kno w c o m p ar a tiv ely littl e a b o ut t h is
.

r eligi o n b ec a us e alm o s t all o f t h e G erm a ns b ecam e Ch ris

,

tians in n a m e a t l east b efo r e t h ey inv a d ed t h e R om a n

, ,

em p ir e T h ey h a d t wo gr ea t go ds o f t h e h ea v ens Th or
. .

w a s r ep r es ent ed as t h e t h und er go d a nd c a rri ed wi t h h i m -

a gr ea t h a mm er wit h w h ic h h e struck ,
Wo den r ep r es ent ed .
’

t h e gr a nd eur o f t h e h ea v ens a nd was t h e go d Of w a r He .

w a s a id ed by fl eet a nd b ea uti ful s p irit m a id ens c a ll ed -

,
'
v a lkyri es T h e v a l kyr i es ro d e a br o a d o n t h eir s w ift st eeds
.
-

( t h e cl o ud s ) T h e y s n a tc h
. ed dying w a rri o rs fr o m t h e fi eld
Of battl e a nd c a rri ed t h em o v er t h e r a inb o w bridg e B i fr o st

to V a l h a l l a t h e h a ll o f sl a in h ero es H er e t h e v a lkyri es
-

‘
’
,
.

w ait ed o n t h es e fo rtunat e warri o rs in gl o ri o us feas ts and ,

h er e t h e h er o es daily r en ew ed c o mb a t s a t a rm s fr o m w h o s e
w o und s t h ey quickly r ec o v er ed One Of t h e c h i ef go dd es s es .

'
O f t h e G erm a n s F r ey a l o o k ed a ft er t h e h o m e a nd t h e
, ,
 T H E G ER M A NS

h is chi ef o p p o n ent O—d o a c er Aft erwa rd T h eo d o ric

,
-
’
.

ass a ssinat ed Od o a c er wit h h i s o wn h a nd at a b a nqu et .

T h is o di o us crim e l eft a st a in o n t h e car eer Of t h e b est

a nd abl est Of t h e G erm a n l ea d er s .

T h eo d o ric es t a blis h ed i n It a ly and in I l lyria a larg e

'

Ostr o g o t h ic kingd o m . T h eodo r i c tri ed to u ni te th e Ro ma ns

a nd th e Go th s k eep ing many Of t h e O ld R o m a n m u nici p a l
,

instituti o ns suc h as t h e s en at e He mad e laws t h a t

,
.

w er e s imil a r t o t h o s e Of t h e Ro m a n s r ebuilt r o a d s a nd re
,

drain ed s w a mp s t h us r est o ring t h e a gricultur a l p ro sp erity

,

o f t h e ea rly em p ir e . He enc o ur a g ed art a nd lit eratur e ,

w a s t o l er a nt o f o t h er r eligi o us fa it h s t h an h i s o wn and
,

in g en er a l bro ug h t t o h i s kingd o m p eac e a nd p ro s p erity .

42 2 I nv a s i o n b y W a y o f t h e Ri v er R h i n e
.
— Wh il e
t h e V isig o t h s a nd Os tr o g o t h s w er e cr o s sing t h e Da nub e
a nd o ccu p ying s o ut h ern Euro p e ,
o t h er G erm a n tri b es,
 T H E G E R M AN S

Cl o vis was b ap tiz ed i nt o t h e Ch urc h o f h i s wi fe w h o was ,

a R oman C at h o lic As p ractically a ll o f t h e o t h er G er

.

m a ns Of t h e West w er e Arians Cl o vi s no w h a d
t h e su p p o rt Of t h e R o man Ch urc h in h i s c a mp aigns agai nst ,

t h e B urgundi a ns a nd t h e V isig o t h s in sout h ern F ranc e .

As h e was a m a n o f gr eat a bility h e succ eed ed in co n ,

qu ering t h es e en emi es a nd ext end ed h i s d o mini o ns until

t h ey c o v er ed mo st o f G aul T h e succ ess o rs o f C l o vi s .
1

did no t h o ld t h is F r a nki s h kingdo m t o g et h er but divid ed ,

it int o m a ny s m a ll er kingd o m s T h ey w er e call ed M er O .

-

vin gi an kings a nd wer e p o p ul a rly kno wn as t h e do

’
-

no t h ing kings ”
.

F US ION OF R OM A N A ND T E U T ON
4 25 . Na t u r e nva s i o ns
of th e T h es e German mi
I .

g ra t i o ns w er e migrati o ns O f w h o l e p eo p l es fr equ ently num ,

b ering s ev er a l h undr ed t h o u s and men wo m en and c h ildr en , .

As t h ey w er e s eeking fo r p erm a n ent h o m es t h ey did no t ,

d estro y t h e citi es a nd estates o f t h e R o m ans a lt h o ug h t h ey ,

s eiz ed a nyt h ing t h a t p l ea s ed t h eir fa ncy T h e p eo p l e Of .

t h e em p ir e w er e n eit h er driv en o u t no r p u t t o d ea t h exc ep t ,

in a few c as es T h e G erm a n s simp ly c a m e in t o o k p o s

.
,

s essi o n Of t h e b est a nd l eft t h e rest t o t h e p eo p l e T h e

,
.
2

f a rt h er n o rt h w e go t h e m o r e t h o r o ugh do w e find t h e
, ,

c o nqu ests fo r t h e n o rt h ern b a rb a ri a n s w ere l es s civiliz ed

,

t h a n t h eir s o ut h ern ki nsm en .

4 26 F u s i o n o f t h e R a ces
. In g en er a l t h e o rigin a l
.

inh a bit a nts gr ea tly o utnumb er ed t h e G erm a n inv a d ers ,

a lt h o ug h t h e G erm a ns h eld all O f t h e h ig h p o s iti o ns and

1
C l o vi s d i ed a few y ea rs b efo rec t h e Os t ro g o t h so t h a t h e
T h eo d o ri ,

w a s p ra c t i c a l l y a c o nt em p o ra ry O f T h eo d o ri c H e w a s l i k e T h eo d o ri c.

i n t h a t h e w a s a b l e b u t C l o v i s rem a i ned t o t h e e nd a c ru el b l o o d t h i rs t y
, ,

b a rb a ri a n .

2
T h e i nv a d er s u s u a l l y t o o k fro m o ne h a l f t o t w o t h i rd s o f ea c h es t a t e
a nd l eft t h e b al a nc e t o t h e fo rm er o w ners .
 FUS O I N OF R OM A N AN D TEUT ON

furnis h ed p r a ctic a lly a ll Of t h e s o ldi ers T h e G erm a ns .

w er e a yo ung er and m o r e en erg etic r a c e T h e O ld er p eo p l e .

h a d b ec o m e sluggis h a nd h a d l o st t h eir a mbiti o n T h ey .

n eed ed t h e infusi o n Of new bl o o d w h ic h t h e Germ a ns

a dd ed In t h e c o urs e Of a few c enturi es t h e i nt erm ar
.

ri age Of t h e inv a d ers a nd t h e p eo p l e Of t h e em p ir e l eft few

tr a c es o f t h e t w o o rigin a l r a c es fo r o v er a lm o st a ll Of
,

west ern Eur o p e t h ey h ad b ec o m e o ne p eo p l e T h e fusi o n .

o f t h e rac es w as m a d e muc h ea si er by t h e gr ea t ex p a nsi o n

Of t h e C h risti a n o r C a t h o lic C h urc h at t h is tim e 43 1

4 27 . v ern m en t
Go T h e G erm a n kingd o ms c o mbin ed
.

R o man a nd G erman id ea s Of g o v ernm ent T h e G erm a n .

trib a l c h i ef b ec a m e t h e king Of a t errit o ry in imit ati o n

, ,

o f t h e R o m a n id ea Of em p er o r T h e G erm a ns tri ed t o
.

surround t h eir kings wit h Offici a l s w h o h ad t h e s a m e titl es

a s t h e em p er o r s a ssist a nts T h er e w er e c o urts Of l aw
’
.

a ft er R o m a n m o d els a lt h o ug h t h ey a dminist er ed j ustic e

,

a ft er t h e G erm a n fa s h i o n r a t h er t h a n in a cc o rd a nc e wit h

t h e R o m a n l aw .

M a ny t h ings m a d e it difficult fo r t h e G erm a ns t o f o ll o w

t h e fo rms Of R o m a n g o v ernm ent T h e invad ers did no t.

lik e t o s ettl e in citi es and h ad no int er est in munici p a l

,

g o v ernm ent In c o ns equ enc e citi es d eclin ed m o r e t h a n

.

t h ey h a d d o n e und er t h e lat er R o man emp ir e T h e Ger .

m a ns divid ed t h eir kingd o ms am o ng t h e s o ns Of t h e king .

In t h is way t h e kingd o ms l o st a ll Of t h e dignity and a ut h o r

ity t h at t h e earli er R o m a niz ed kingd o m s h ad On t h e o t h er .

h a nd t h e G erm a ns a b a nd o n ed t h e t o wns h i p a ss embli es

, ,

exc ep t in Engl a nd o r in o t h er p l a c es a l o ng w a y fr o m

R o m a n influ enc e .

4 2 8 T h e L a w o f t h e G er m a ni c K in g d o m s
. T h e law .

O f w est ern Eur o p e fo r s ev er a l c enturi es a ft er t h e invasi o ns

w as t h e G erm a n l aw m o difi ed by R o m a n
fo rms and c o urts T h e G erm a ns l eft t o ea c h c o nqu er ed
.
 T H E G ERM A NS

p eo p l e t h e righ t t o b e j udged und er its o wn laws T h i s .

was du e t o t h eir int ens e b eli ef in t h e rig h t Of an individu a l

o r a trib e to do as it p l eas ed In a dis p ut e b etw een a .

native and an invad er t h ey us ed a l aw combi ning R o man

,

a nd G erma n l a w and t h e cas es w er e tri ed in sp eci a l tri

,

b u na l s In imitati o n Of t h e R oman c o d es Of law m o r e

.
,

ov er t h e G erman trib es all o w ed R o m a n l a wy ers t o m a k e

,

co des of th e l a ws of th e Germa n tri bes during t h e p eri o d ,

foll o wing t h e invasi o ns .

T h es e c o d es naturally gav e a gr eat d eal Of a tt enti o n t o

t h e lib erty Of t h e indivi du a l and t h e p rivil eg e Of t h e i n
dividu a l t o p r o t ect h is rig h ts by t h e p eculi a r us ag es Of
t h e G ermans suc h as t h e w a g er o f b a ttl e a nd o rd ea ls
, ,

In t h e n o rt h ern p art Of Eur o p e l a ws w er e littl e

influ enc ed by R o m e Aft er a few c enturi es h o w ev er
.
, ,

w h en t h e Old er R o man l a w o f Justinian 4 10) was studi ed

in t h e new u ni v ersiti es t h e T eut o nic c o d es w er e r ep l a c ed
,

a lm o st entir ely by t h e R o m a n l a w in all Of t h e c o untri es

t h at h a d R o m a nc e l a ngu a g es .

4 29 L angu a ge
. As all Of t h e c o untri es o f t h e w est er n
.

em p ir e h a d us ed L atin t h at langu a g e c o ntinu ed to b e

,

t h e l a nguag e o f t h e educ a t ed p eo p l e Of t h e Ch urc h and , , ,

to som e ext ent Of t h e c o urts As ea c h trib e h a d its o wn

,
.

dial ect La tin was a v ery c o nv eni ent m ea ns Of c o mmuni

,

c a ti o n Ev en i n Germ a ny a nd in Engl a nd t h is univ ersal

.

languag e w as us ed a littl e a nd in o t h er c o untri es it w as

,
o

us ed ext ensiv ely .

T h e new l a nguag es as w e n o tic ed ,

wer e fo rms
Of L a tin T h e It a lian l a ngu a g e w a s s o muc h b ett er t h a n
.

t h at Of t h e i nvad ers t h at o nly a few G erm a n words fo und

t h eir w ay int o Itali a n F r enc h was no t gr ea tly influenc ed
.

by t h e G ermans as o nly a few h undr ed G erm a n ex p r es

,

si o ns w er e add ed t o t h e F r enc h langu ag e Ev en Englis h .

is mor e Latin t h a n G erm an if w e c o mp ar e t h e numb er Of ,

wo rds o f Latin a nd G erm a n o rigin .

 T H E G ER M A NS

T HE CH R I S T I A N CH U RCH

43 1 m p o r t a nce o f t h e Ch u r ch
. I T h e fusio n of German .

and T eut o n was aid ed and t h e unity Of West ern Eur o p e

,

was p r es erv ed largely by t h e Ch risti a n Ch urc h T h e

, .

Ch urc h was in fact t h e gr eat civilizing p o w er Of t h is p eriod .

T h e Ch urc h not o nly sto o d fo r rig h t eo usn ess but it st o o d ,

fo r law and o rd er It p r ea c h ed industry a nd bro t h erly

.

l o v e Its m o nks till ed t h e s o il p lant ed cro p s and p er

.
,

s u a d ed o t h ers to d o t h e sam e L arg ely t h r o ug h t h e i n

.

fl u ence Of t h e C h urc h slav ery was r ep lac ed by s erfd o m ,

t h e s erf b eing a ttac h ed t o t h e land s o t h at h e c o uld no t b e

b o ug h t o r s o ld exc ep t wit h t h e l a nd .

T h e C hurc h s ent o u t missi o nari es It conv ert ed p r ae .

tically all o f t h e p eo p l e Of west ern Euro p e t o t h e o rt h o d o x

fait h In t h is way it unifi ed t h e p eo p l e Of w est ern Euro p e
.

and mad e t h em h av e at l east o ne gr ea t int er est in co m

mo n — t h eir r eligi o n B u t it did m o r e t h an t h a t It
. .

b egan t o o rganiz e t h is gr eat body o f Ch ristian b eli ev ers

int o a r eligi o us em p ir e wi t h t h e bis h o p Of R om e (t h e p o p e)
a t t h e h ead T h is w a s no t d o n e in a s h o rt tim e and it
.
,

was no t p erfect ed until s ev er a l c enturi es l at er Of .

c o urs e many o f t h e c h u rc h m en o f t h is p eri o d wer e no t

h ig h ly civiliz ed M any w er e s elfis h a mbiti o us o r u n
.
,

scru p ul o us and t h e Ch urc h was s o m etim es m o re int er est ed

,

in bringing p eo p l e into t h e Ch urc h t h en in m a king p eo p l e

b ett er .

43 2 G r o w t h o f t h e P a p a cy
. F ro m a v ery early day
.

t h e bis h o p Of R o m e h a d b een l o o k ed u p o n as o ne o f t h e
most imp o rtant bis h o p s Of t h e Ch urc h R o m e was still .

t h e c a p it a l o f t h e em p ir e and by fa r t h e larg est city Of

t h e West
.

T h e Ch urc h at R o m e was b eli ev ed als o t o h av e

.

b een fo und ed by P et er w h o h ad r ec eiv ed s p ecial aut h o rity

,

fro m Ch rist and h ad gr ant ed it t o h i s succ ess o rs B ecaus e .

t h es e bi s h o p s o r p o p es as w e may c a ll t h em now claim ed

, , ,
 T H E C HR S I TI AN C HU R C H

t o h av e univ ersal o v ersigh t o f t h e o t h er bis h o p s a nd

c h urc h es w e s h all s p ea k Of t h e Ch urc h u nd er t h e su p er
,

visi o n Of t h e bis h o p Of R o m e a s t h e C a t h o lic o r univ ersal , ,

Ch urc h .

During t h e G erm a n inv a si o ns t h e bis h o p s o f R o m e h a d

tak en c h arg e Of t h e d ef enc e o f t h e city T h ey h a d n ego .

t i at ed wit h t h e b a rb a rian l ead ers T h e gr ea t est o f t h es e

.

p po e
,
s L eo t h e G r eat was r ec o gniz
,
ed by t h e e m p er o r
at Co nstantino p l e as t h e h ead Of t h e Ch urc h In a ddi .

ti o n t o h i s s p iritual a ut h ority and h i s p o w er as civil rul er

i n tim e Of dang er t h e p o p e b egan t o acquir e land o v er
,

w h ic h h e rul ed T h e c o mbin ation Of civil p o w ers and t h e

.

gov ernm ent Of p ap a l estat es is call ed t h e temp ora l p ower

o f t h e p a p a cy and t h e t erm s h o uld b e r em emb er ed fo r
, ,

in tim e it b ec a m e v ery gr eat .

4 33 T h e W o r k o f t h e M o n k s
. During t h is p eri o d Of
.

c o nfusi o n a gr eat many h o ly men and wo m en d esir ed to

wit h draw fr o m t h e w o rld in o rd er t h at t h ey mig h t b e
com e m o r e r eligi o us T h ey liv ed in m o nast eri es m o st
.
,

Of w h ic h f o ll o w ed t h e rul es l a id d o wn by S t B en edict . .

B en edict b eli ev ed t h a t m o nks s h o uld wo rk wit h t h eir

h ands . S ev en h o urs fo r l a b o r s ev en h o urs fo r p ray er
, ,

s ev en h o urs fo r sl eep was t h e rul e in m any m o n a st eri es

, .

T h e m o nks r ecl a im ed t h e fi elds t h a t w er e g o ing t o wast e

and taugh t t h e p eo p l e t h e dignity o f lab o r T h ey w el .

c o m ed t o t h eir midst all w h o w er e sick Of t h e c o nflict wit h

sin and t h e wo rl d T h ey p r a ctis ed s elf d eni a l living in
.
-

c o mfo rtl ess c ells o n a few crusts and o ft en w earing h air

s h irts
.

Alt h o ugh t h ey liv ed ap art fr o m t h e wo rld t h e ex a mp l e ,

o f t h e m o nks (t h eir industry and t h eir s el f d enial ) h a d a -

muc h gr ea t er influ enc e o n t h e p eo p l e t h a n t h eir p r ea c h ing

c o uld h a v e h a d Y et t h ey h el p ed t h e p eo p l e dir ectly
. .

B eggars w er e fed in gr ea t numb ers a t t h e g a t es Of t h e

mo nast eri es M o n a st eri es ent ertain ed most Of t h e tr a v
.
 T HE G ER M A NS

e ll ers fo r t h er e w er e no ot h er i nns and t h e mo nks or nuns

, ,

h ad c h a rg e Of a larg e numb er o f sc h o o ls .

4 34 Accep t a n ce o f Ca t h o l i c L ea d ers h i p i n It aly a nd

.

G au l. T h e p o p e a nd t h e m o nks w er e v ery anxi o us t o

convert all Of t h e G ermans t o t h e Cat h o lic o r o rt h od o x , ,

fait h Less t h an a h alf c entury b efo r e t h e Goths cro ss ed

.

t h e Danub e t h ey h a d b een c o nv ert ed t o t h e Ari a n fa i th

,

by U l fi l as w h o h a d tr a nsl at ed t h e B ibl e int o t h e

’
-

langu ag e o f t h e Go t h s T h es e Ari a n Ch risti a ns natur al ly

.

h a d a gr eat er r es p ect fo r t h e rig h ts Of t h e Ch urc h

in t h e em p ir e t h a n h eat h en wo uld h a v e h ad and w er e
gr eatly influ enc ed by t h e bi s h o p s Of t h e citi es G raduall y .

t h ey cam e t o r ec o gniz e t h e l ea d ers h i p Of t h e p o p e at

R om e .

T h e c o nv ersi o n Of t h e F ranks t o t h e Ca t h o lic f a it h a nd

t h e c o nqu est Of all G aul by t h e F ranks h el p ed t o unit e a ll
Of t h e Ch risti a ns Of Ga u l for t h e O ld er in h a bitants w er e
,

C at h o l ics .

4 35 T h e Ch u r ch i n B rit ai n
. In B ritain t h e Ch risti an
.

f a it h surviv ed am o ng B rit o ns in t h e n o rt h w h o h a d s ev eral ,

famous m o nast eri es S everal missi o nari es w er e s ent o u t

.

fr o m t h es e m o n ast eri es among t h em S t P a trick t o t h e

,
.

I ri s h and s ev eral t o t h e trib es o f G erm a ny T h e co n .

versi o n Of t h e Angl o S a x o ns in B ritain was du e h o w ev er

-

, ,

t o a C a t h o lic m o nk Au gu s ti ne One d a y t h e gr eat p o p e

’
-

,
.
,

G r eg o ry t h e G r ea t s a w s o m e b eautiful b o y sl a v es in R o m e
,
.

He asked w h o t h ey w er e He was t o ld t h a t t h ey w er e
.

Angl es a nd h ea t h en
,
He r ep li ed t h a t t h ey w er e no t
.

Angl es but ang els a nd h e s ent o u t Au gustin e t o B rit a in

,

t o c o nv ert t h em .

L a t er t h e B ritis h Ch ristians fr o m t h e nort h and t h e .

R o m a n C at h o lic s fro m t h e s o ut h Of t h e island clas h ed ,

b ec a u s e ea c h wis h ed t o man a ge t h e r eligi o us aff airs Of t h e

isl a nd F o rtunat ely it was d ecid ed t h a t t h e R o man
.

Ch urc h s h o uld c o ntr o l Engli s h r eligious aff a irs a nd Eng ,

 T H E G ER M A NS
T he fait h its elf is kn o w n as I s la m Islam is a mo no t h e ’
.

i s t i c fait h . G r eat is Al l a h
”
t h e only G o d and
’
,
t h ere ,

is o ne G o d a nd M o h a mm ed is h i s p ro p h et are still t h e
mott o es Of t h e M o h a mm ed a n d evo t ees T h e M o h a mm e .

dan is a f a talist t h at is h e beli ev es t h a t w h at ev er is was

, ,

ordain ed as h i s fat e and h e c a nn o t c h ang e it T h er efo r e

, .

h e d o es no t try t o do S O T h e ea rly fo ll o w ers Of M O

.

h amm ed t h o ug h t t h at if t h ey di ed fig h ting fo r t h eir fait h

, ,

t h ey wo uld b e sur e o f p a radis e and t h eir victims a ls o ,

wo uld b e s a v ed fro m d a mn a ti o n S O t h ey fo ug h t wit h .

r em a rk a bl e z ea l fo r Isl a m sinc e p a r a dis e was w ell w o rt h

,

striving fo r wit h its attr a ctiv e gard ens its fea sts and its
, ,

b ea utiful m aid ens .

M o h amm ed a nism was v ery ex a cting in its d emand fo r

p ray ers w
,
h ic h t h e f a it h ful t o d a y r ep eat wit h t h eir f a c es
-

t o w ard M ecc a ; fo r its insist enc e u p o n at l ea st o ne p il ‘

grim ag e to t h e h o ly city M ecc a ; and fo r its p eri o ds Of

,

f a sting It p ro h ibit ed t h e eating Of p ig s fl es h a nd t h e

.
’

drinking Of into xicating liqu o rs In g en er a l it d em a nd ed .

a muc h h igh er stand a rd Of c o nduct t h an its fo ll o wers h ad

kno wn alt h o ugh it p ermitt ed p o lygamy It es p eci a lly
,
.

r equir ed t h e giving Of alms t o t h e p o o r .

4 39 T h e S p r e a d o f I s l a m
. T h e r eligi o us ent h usiasm
.

Of t h e M o sl ems and t h e assuranc e Of salv a ti o n fo r t h o s e

t h a t di ed i n battl e c a us ed t h em t o m a k e c o nv ert s in a ll
p arts O f t h e E ast [Link] E gy p ,t and P ersi a w er e add ed
t o Arabi a wit h in a few y ea rs a ft er t h e d ea t h o f t h e P ro p h et .

T h en missi o nary effo rt c eas ed .

A h al f c entury l a t er t h e M o h a mm ed a ns b egan ano t h er

gr ea t crus a ding m o v em ent As i a M ino r was o v errun a nd
.
,

fo r a y ear t h e h o s t s Of Isl a m b esi eg ed t h e str o ng w a lls o f

t h e cap it a l o f t h e Ea st ern em p ir e Co nstant i n o p l e M o re
,
.

t h an o ne h undred t h o us a nd M o h amm ed a ns l o st t h eir

liv es in t h i s t erribl e S i eg e b efo r e t h e M o s l ems wi t h drew ,

unsucc essful Aft er t h e c o nqu est Of n o rt h ern Africa fro m

.
,
 T H E G ER M A NS

T HE EM P I R E OF T HE F RA N K S

442 . The Ea rlyIt w as fo rtu na t eCa r o l ingi a n s .

for Ch rist end o m t h at t h e F rankis h kingd o ms w er e unit ed

und er a stro ng rul er at t h is tim e Of dang er Und er t h e .

M ero vingian kings t h e F ranki s h t errit o ri es w er e h eld by

,

many kings no o ne Of w h o m w a s a r ea l l ead er o r rul er

, .

T h e r eal rul er Of Austrasia a F rankis h kingd o m ea st o f ,

P aris was t h e m a y o r Of t h e p a lac e a kind Of p rim e m in

, ,

ist er One Of t h es e mayo rs h a d m a d e h ims elf t h e r ea l

.

rul er not o nly Of Austrasia but o f all t h e F r a nkis h king

, ,

d o ms His s o n was t h e Ch arl es w h o s e vict o ry at T o urs

.
1

gav e h i m t h e titl e Of M a rt el t h e H a mm er b ec a us e h e , ,

struck suc h h a rd bl o ws T h e rul ers Of t h e h o us e Of Ch a rl es .

M ar t el are call ed C ar O li n gi ans

-
’
- -
’
.

4 43 P ep in t h e S h o r t — T h e s o n Of C h a rl es M a rt el
.
,

P ep in t h e S h o rt w a s abl e t o m a k e h ims el f ev en m o r e
’
,

p o w erful t h a n Ch a rl es M art el h a d b een He fin a lly (7 5 2 ) .

d ep o s ed t h e king and m ad e h ims elf king Of t h e F r an ks .

T h e p o p e cons ent ed t o t h is saying t h at it w as rig h t fo r ,

t h e o ne w h o h eld t h e p o w er t o b e call ed king T h e p op e .

was gl a d t o do t h is b ec a us e h e want ed t h e h el p Of t h e
F ranks a g a inst t h e rud e Lo mb a rds w h o h a d p us h ed int o
no rt h ern It a ly and w er e t h r eat ening to s eiz e t h e lands
,

and d estr o y t h e t em p o ral p o w er Of t h e p o p e S O P ep in .

p unis h ed t h e L o mb a rds a nd gav e t h e p o p e new l a nds ,

c a ll ed t h e Do n a ti o n Of P ep in sinc e t h e p op e h ad h el p ed ,

h i m t o b e king .

44 4 Ch a r l e m a gn e
. P ep in was succ eed ed (7 68 A D ) by
. . .

hi s s o n C h a rl es o r K a rl aft erw a rd call ed t h e G r ea t o r

, , ,
'
Ch a r l e m a gn e
-

Ch arl emagn e w a s a man Of g o o d build

-
.

and im p o sing ap p earanc e He p o ss ess ed gr ea t en ergy .

1
One of t h es e m a y o rs h a d t h o u g h t i t w o u l d b e a go o d p l a n t o m ake h is
so n k i ng , as hi s r o y a l m a s t er h a d j u s t d i e d T he . b
no l es t h o u gh t o t h er

wi se a nd put bo t h fa t h er a nd s o n t o d ea t h .
 T H E EM P R E OF I T HE F R A NKS

and w a s a c o nqu ero r a st a t esman and a p atron o f educ a

,

ti o n and t h e arts He h ad fri endly r el a ti o ns wit h dist ant

.

and p o w erful rul ers suc h as t h e p o p e t h e east ern em

, ,

p e r o r a n d t h e gr ea t cali p h at B a gdad Har o un a l R a sc h id , .

He di ed in 8 14 A D
'

. .

4 45 C o n q u e st s o f Ch a rl em a gn e
.
—
Ch a rl em a gn e first .

p r o c ee d ed a g a inst t h e L o mb a rds in Italy W h e n h e h ad .

c o nqu er ed t h em h e p l a c ed u p o n h i s o wn h ea d t h e ir o n
,

cr o wn o f t h e Lo mbards and a dd ed n o rt h ern Italy t o h i s

ki ngd o m He inv a d ed S p ain c o nqu ering many citi es
.
, ,

m o st o f w h ic h t h e S a r a c ens p r o c eed ed t o r eg a in almo st

imm edi a t ely As a bu ff er st a t e b e establis h ed t h e
.

S p a nis h m a rc h o r m a rk b eyo nd t h e P yr en ees mount a ins

, ,
.

On h i s r eturn fr o m S p a in t h e r ear gu a rd Of h i s a rmy w as

,

attack ed and a nni h il a t ed Aft erw a rd t h e h er o o f t h e .

r ear guard R o l a nd w as m a d e fa m o us in t h e s o ngs Of t h e

, ,

tr o ub a d o urs .

On t h e east Ch a rl emagn e a tt a ck ed t h e barbar o us

S a xo ns and S lavs Year aft er y ear h e c o nqu er ed t h e
.

S axo ns o nly t o h av e t h em ris e and d estr o y h is g a rris o ns

, ,

as s o o n as h e wit h dr ew Aft er m a ny y ears by t h e w h o l e

.
,

sal e d ec ap itati o n o f t h e l ea d ers a nd t h e br ea king u p Of

b a nds o f t h e S a x o ns Ch arl em a gn e fo rc ed t h es e o bstin at e
,

p eo p l e t o b ec o m e h i s o b e di ent C h risti a n subj ects F a rt h er .

ea st h e dr o v e b a ck inv a d ers and m a d e t h e in h a bit a nts

subj ect t o h i m His emp ir e t h er efo r e ext end ed fro m t h e

.

Ebr o in S p ain t o t h e Elb e in G erm a ny a nd fr o m a p o int ,

s o ut h o f R o m e t o t h e N o rt h S ea .

4 46 T h e Wo r k o f Ch a r l em a gn e
. Ch a rl em a gn e was .
-

a g o od rul er fo r t h is wid e d o mini o n S inc e it w as di fficult .

t o rul e suc h a gr ea t a r ea dir ectly h e s el ect ed a p ow erful ,

l ea d er fo r ea c h c o unty and g a v e h i m c o nsid erabl e a u

t h o ri t y. T h es e l ea d ers w er e c a ll ed c o unts T h e p o siti o n .

o f c o unt was no t h er edit a ry in Ch a rl emagn e s tim e a l

’
,

t h ough i t aft erward b ecam e S O In o rd er to k eep t h e .

 T H E G ER M A NS

c o unts in submissi o n Ch arl emagn e s ent out ev ery y ear

s p ecial m ess eng ers call ed mis si do min i ci w h o re ” ’
-
’
-

p o rt ed w h at t h e count s w er e d o ing and a ct ed as a c h eck

o n t h em .

In t h e making of laws Ch arl emagn e c o nsult ed b o t h

t h e n o bl es a nd t h e p eo p l e Ev ery M ay a gr eat ass embly
.

Of a l l fr eem en was h eld call ed a M ay field T h es e a ss em

, .

bli es lik e t h e o ld Germ a n tribal ass embli es h a d t h e rig h t

, ,

C h u rc h Ea rl y M iddl e Age s
’
St . P et er s ,
.

to ap pro ve t h e laws Ch a rl em a gn e est a blis h ed sc h o o ls

.

and g a t h er ed ab o ut h ims elf a l a rg e numb er o f sc h o lars

and writ ers .

4 47 Ch a rl em a gn e t h e Em p er o r
. On C h ristmas d ay .
-

in t h e yea r 8 00 A D Ch a rl emagn e w as wo rs h i p p ing in t h e

. .

gr eat c h urc h Of S t P et er i n R o m e As h e ro s e aft er a

. .
,

few m o m ents o f s il ent p ray er t h e p o p e p l a cing o n h i s , ,

h ead a g o ld en cr o wn p r o claim ed h i m em p er o r an d t h e
, ,

multitud e s h o ut ed T O C h arl es Augustus cr o wn ed t h e

, ,

gr ea t and p ea c e giving I mp era to r o f t h e R o mans b e lif e

-

and vict o ry ! C h a rl em a gn e cl a im ed t o b e t h e succ ess o r

 T H E G ER M A NS

a wr o ng d o ne to t h eir fa mily but t h ey fr equ ently acc ep t ed ,

a p a ym ent gr eat er o r sm a ll er a cc o rding t o t h e rank o f

, ,

t h e inj ur ed p ers o n a s w ell as t h e natur e o f t h e Off enc e in ,

p lac e Of v eng eanc e .

T h e G erm a n inv a si o ns b egan w h en t h e G o t h s cr o ss ed

t h e D a nub e riv er in 3 7 6 A D Und er Al a ric t h e Visig o t h s . .

invad ed It a ly lat er m o ving o n int o S p ain w h er e th ey

, ,

establis h ed a kingd o m T h e Ostr o g o t h s foll o wed und er

.

T h eod o ric trying t o unit e t h e T eut o ns and t h e It a li a ns

, .

T h e V and a ls B urgundians a nd F ranks cr o ss ed t h e

,

R h in e go ing h o w ev er in vari o us dir ecti o ns

, , T h e first
, .

cr o ss ed int o Afric a t h e s ec o nd r emained i n s o ut h ea st ern

,

G aul and t h e l a st und er C l o vi s c o nqu er ed p r a ctically

, , ,

a ll Of G a ul T h e Angl es a nd S a x o ns c a m e t o B ritain
. .

F o r t un a t ely t h e inv a si o ns w er e o v er a nd t h e w est ern

G ermans w er e fairly w ell unit ed b ef o r e t h e S a rac ens i n
vad ed G aul Th es e r eligi o us f o ll o w ers Of t h e Arabian
.

M o h amm ed b eli ev ed in o ne G o d and a futur e l i f e T h ey .

p r a y ed a nd g a v e a lms r eligi o u s ly Aft er t h e H egira .

(6 22 A D ) t h e fait h h a d s p r ead wit h in l ess t h an a c ent u ry

. .

t o P ersia t o t h e gat es o f Co nstantin o p l e and into S p ain

, , .

At Co nst a ntin o p l e t h e M o sl ems w er e r ep ul s ed a nd at

To urs in G a ul 7 3 2 A D t h ey w er e b eat en b a ck by t h e
,
. .
,

west ern Germans und er Ch arl es M art el T h us c entr a l .

Eur o p e w as s a v ed t o a civilizati o n t h at w a s R o man ,

G erm a n a nd Ch ristian .

Ch a rl es M a rt el was m a y o r o f t h e p a l a c e Of all t h e
F ranks .His s o n P ep in t h e S h o rt a id ed t h e p o p e against
, ,

t h e Lo mb a rds a nd in r eturn w a s r ec o gniz ed as king of t h e

F rank s His grands o n Ch arl em a gn e mad e new co n
.
, ,

qu ests against t h e Lo mbards in It aly against t h e S ara ,

c ens in S p ain and against t h e S axo ns and S l a vs i n t h e east .

In 8 00 A D h e was cro wned em p ero r o f t h e w es t h is em

. .
,

p ir e b e ing a gr ea t G erm a nic kingd o m O f c entral w est ern -

Eur o p e .He w as an en lig h t en ed a nd abl e rul er a nd a

 G ER M A N S IN W ES T ER N EU R OP E 347

pa tr o n o f educati o n a nd t h e a rts Wit h Ch a rl emagn e .

ends t h e first p eri od o f tr a nsiti o n fr o m R o m a n t o m o d ern

tim es Th is ea rly p eri o d is t h e p eri o d o f t h e fusi o n Of

.

t h e R oman and t h e G erman ; t h e s ec o nd is t h e F eudal

Age .

C H R ON OL OG I CAL T AB LE

WE S T E R N EU R O P E T HE N E A R EA S T

146 B C . . D es t ru c t i o n o f C a rt h a ge 146 B C . . End of G reek i nd ep end

en e c
—
1 33 1 2 3 B C T h e G r a cc h i . .

9 1 8 9 B C S o ci al W a r
— . . 1 33 B C P ro v i nc e o f A si a . .

88 8— 2 B
C M a ri u s a nd S u ll a
q
. .

6 3 B C C i c ero a nd C a t il i ne 6 7 6 3 B C P o m p ey s c o n u es t s
’
-

. . . .

6 0 B C F i rs t T ri u m v i ra t e
q
. .

5 8 —5 1 B C C o n u es t o f G a u l
. . 4 8 B C P h a r sa l u s ( b a t t l e). .

4 6—4 4 B C R u l e o f C aesa r . .

4 3 B C S e c o nd t ri u m v i ra t e
. . 3 1 B C A c t i u m ( b a t t l e) . .

2 7 B C ES T A B L I S H M E N T O F EM P I R E U N D E R AU G U S T U S
. .

G o l d en Ag e o f L i t era t u re 5 B C B IR T H OF CHR IS T
q
. .

4 3—8 6 A D C o n u es t o f B ri t a i n
. . 7 0 A D D es t ru c t i o n Of J eru s a l em
. .

7 9 A D D es t ru c t i o n Of P o m p eii
q
. .

C o n u es t s o f T ra j a n ( 9 8 1 1 7 ) -

H —
a d ri a n ( 1 1 7 1 3 8 )

F i rs t g rea t c o d es Of R o m a n l a w
M a rc u s Au rel i u s ( dea t h 1 8 0)
2 1 2 Ext ens i o n o f c i t i z ens h i p b y C a ra c al l a
2 7 3 F a ll o f P a l m y ra
2 8 4 R eo rg a ni z a t i o n o f em p i re b y D i o cl et i a n
3 1 3 R ec o g ni t i o n o f C h ri s t i a ni t y b y C o ns t a nt i ne
3 2 3 C o u nc il Of N i cma
3 7 6 B E G I NN I N G O F G E R M A N
I NVA S I ON S
Ch ri s t i a ni t y t h e S t a t e r el i g i o n
3 9 5 D i v i si o n o f t h e em p i re a t d ea t h o f T h eo d o s i u s I
4 4 2 B i s h o p o f R o m e O ffi c i a ll y rec o g ni z ed a s t h e g rea t es t b i s h o p
45 1
“
H u ns d efea t ed a t C h al o ns

47 6 F A L L O F R OM E
5 1 1 d C l o v i s K i ng o f F ra nk s
J
.
,

( 4 9 3 — 2
5 7 ) T h e d
o o ri c t h e Os o go
t r t h (5 2 7 —
, 5 65 ) u s t i ni a n a nd t h e G r ea t

R om an C o de
5 9 0 604 P o p e G r ego ry t h e G rea t
-

62 2 T h e eg i ra H
664 C o u nc il a t W hi t by , R o m a n 7 1 8 D efea t o f S a r a c ens a t C o n
Ch ri s t i a ni t y fo r Engl a nd s t a nt i no p l e

7 2 8 I c o no c l a s t c o nt ro v er s y b et ween ea s t ern a nd w es t ern C h u r c h es

7 3 2 D efea t o f S a r a c ens a t T o u rs
7 5 6 D o na t i o n o f P ep i n
8 00 A D C H A R L E M A G N E EM P E R OR ( 7 8 6 8 09 ) C a li p h
. .
-
a ro u n a l R a s c h i d H
 T HE G ER M A NS
Ge n er al R efe r ences
i
R o b nso n, Hi s to r y o f Wes e n Eu o p e,
t r r 2 1 —91 .

Ro b in so n, R ea di ngs i n E u ro p ea n Hi s to ry , I , 3 5 —1 7 0 .

B emo nt a nd M o no d M ed eva l E o p e 2 1 2 10
i u r —
, , .

Ogg S o u
, r c e B o o k of M e d i ev a l H i s to r y 1 9 — 1 48 , .

Em ert o n I ntro d u c ti o n to th e M i d dl e A ges

,
.

D uru y H i s t or,y f
o t h e M i d d l e A g e s 1 — 138 , .

A d a m s Ci vi l i za ti o n d i g th e
,
u r n M i d dl e A —
ges 1 1 69 , .

Egi nh ar d , L ife of Ch a r l ema gne .

Ca mbri dgeM edi eva l Hi s to r y , I II

, .

To p i cs
OR DE A L s : , I ntr o d u c ti oEm er
n , 8 1 —8 5 t n
; Ogg , S o u r c e B oo k
o

of M edi eva l Hi s tor y , 9 6 2 02 ; Henders o n, Hi s tori ca l Do c u ments

1 —

of t h e M i ddl e A es , 3 1 4—3 1 9 g .

T H E O DO R I c : B emo nt a nd M o no d M edi eva l Eu ro p e

, , 5 5 —6 2
G a rd ner , R o me th e M i ddl e of th e Wo rld ,
1 3 8 —146 ; u ru y , Hi s D
tory of th e M i d dl e A e
g ,
s 34 —38 ; Ca mbr i dge M edi eva l Hi s to ry ,
I , 4 3 7 —4 5 5 .

G R OW T H OF T HE P A P ACY : R o b i ns o n , Hi s to r y f Wes tern o

Eu r o p e 44—5 5 ;
,
Em er t o n, I ntr o d u c ti o n, ,
102 — 1 1 3 ; A da m s
Ci vi l i za ti o n d u r i ng t h e M i d d l e A es
g , 1 0 7 — 136 .

T H E C O R O N AT I O N O F C H A R L E M A N E : R o b i ns o n R ea di ngs i n G ,

Eu ro p ea n Hi s to r y , I
N O 5 6 ; Th a t c h er a nd S ch v i ll Eu ro p e i n
, .
,

th e M i ddl e A ge 1 2 5 — 133 ; Du nca l f a nd Kr ey ,

P a ra ll el S o u rce ,

m
P ro bl e s i n M di l H i t r 3 —26
e eva s o y , .

S tu di es

1 . T h e G erma ns . Bo t s fo r d , S ou rc e B o o k o f Anc i ent Hi s to ry ,

5 44—5 5 4 .

2 . T ci t
a us
’
a cc nt
ou of the ear l y G erm a ns . Ogg S o u rc e B o o k
,

of M ed i eva l Hi s to r y 2 3 — 31 ,
.

3 Th o r . G u erb er M y th s of N o rt h er n L a nds 6 1 — 7 3
.
, , .

4 Valh alla
. G u erb er M y th s of N o r th ern L a nd s 23 —2 8
.
, , .

5 I nfl u enc e o f t h e G erm a n mi gra t i o ns

. M u nro a nd S ell ery .

M edi eva l Ci vi li z a ti o n 44—4 9 , .

6 . T h e d eed s Cl o v i s of . S o u rc e B o o k 4 7 —5 9
Ogg , , .

7 . T he S a xo n i n a si o v n
o f B ri a i n t
Ogg S o u rce B o o k 68 —7 2
.
, , .

8 . G au l a f t er th e i nv a s i o s n
B emo t a nd M o o d M edi eva l
. n n ,

Hi s to r y 8 6 —9 7 , .
3 50 T HE G ER M A NS
9 . On a ma p sh o w the t t
ex en of P ep in ’
s n
ki gdo ms . Poi nt
ou t i
t h e t err t o ri es a dd ed b y C h a rl emag n e .

Ho w di d C h a rl em ag ne m p i re c o mp a re wi t h t h a t o f
’
10 . s e

Au gu s tu s i n l o c a t i o n ? s i z e ? ra c e ? i m p o r t a nc e ? D o es C h a r
l em a gne s emp i re s h o w t h a t t h e R o ma ns a nd t h e T eu t o ns w ere
’

mo re u ni t ed i n h i s d a y o r i n t h e t i me O f T h eo do ri c a nd C l o vi s ?
 I NDEX

—
Ai ci b i a d es , 1 5 6
’

c o nqu es t s
- -

A bra h a m 53
’ -

,
Al exa nd er , o f, 1 65 , 1 6 7
Ach ze a n L ea gu e 1 7 5 d ea t h o f 1 6 7 ,

c i t i z ens h i p p ri v il eg es , 1 8 7 d i v i s i o n o f emp i re 1 7 0 ,

A -
eh m a ns 1 03 ’
, p o rt r a i t o f ( i l ) 1 64 , .

A -
c hi l
l es , 101 ’
y o u t h o f 1 64 ,

A -
’
cr o p O l i s 1 5 2 , 1 9 5 -

, Al exa nd ri a 1 66 ,

p l a n o f, ( il ) 1 5 3 . a nd R o m a n c u l t u r e 2 08 ,

p r es ent c o nd i t i o n, ( il ) 1 1 6 . a s i nt ell ec t u a l c ent re 1 7 4 ,

r es t o ra t i o n o f , ( i l ) fr o nt i s p i ec e . c o m merc e o f, 1 7 3
Act iu m 2 7 0
'
, Al l a h 3 40 ,

Ad r i a no p l e , 3 1 8
-
’ - -
All i es R o man 2 3 1 , ,

Ad ri a t i c S ea , 1 2 7
-
’ -
Al p h a b et c o nnec t i o n wi t h S i gn
,

ZEg ea n a rea 9 5 — 1 2 0 , wri t i ng , 2 5

ea rl y c i v i l i z a t i o n o f, 9 8 o f P h oeni c i a ns , 5 2 8 1 ,

g eo g ra p h y o f, 9 5 o ri gi n o f , 8 1
'
IE go s p o t a m i 1 5 7
- - -

, Al p i ne ra c e, 2 7
’

IE mil i u s P a u l u s , 2 08
— Al t ar o f Z eu s (il ) 1 7 1
’ ’
-

.
,
'
ZE ne a s 1 03
-

, Am p h i c t y O ny , 1 05
’ - - -

'
ZE ne i d , 1 03
-
Amp hi t h ea t r e, G r eek 1 5 4 ,
'
ZEs ch y l u s 1 9 0 -

, s ea t s i n a mp h i t h ea t re, At h ens ,
A e t iu s 3 1 9
’-

, (i l ) 1 4 8 .

E t o l i ah Lea gu e, 1 7 5
’
- -
R o ma n 2 9 5 ,
'
A ga d e 4 2 -

, C o l o s s eu m p r es ent c o nd i t i o n, ,

Ag a mem no n, 1 01
-
’ -

(il ) 2 8 1 .

A g a t h o c l es 2 4 0
-
’
-

r es t o r ed , ( il ) 2 9 5
r
, .

Ag es , t h ree hi s t o ri c , 8 -
'
A na b a s i s 1 9 3 -

C ret a n, 9 9 Angl es , 3 3 1
'
F eu d a l , 3 4 7 —
An t i g o ne 1 9 0
H
-

el l eni c , 1 6 9 An t i o c h u s o f S y ri a 2 4 8
’

H
- -

ell eni s t i c 1 69 — 1 7 7 Ant o ni nes 3 1 1

H
, ,

o m eri c , 1 03 Ant o ny , M a rk i n Egy p t , 2 7 1 ,

M y cenwa n, 1 01 i n s ec o nd t ri u mv i ra t e, 2 7 0
Agri cu l t u r e, i n Egy p t a nd B a b y '
Ap en ni nes M t s , 2 1 8 -
.

l o ni a 3 4 , 8 3 , Ap o ll o 1 04 , 1 06 ,

reec e a ff ec t ed b

G
of Ap o l l o B el v i d ere, ( il ) 2 00
y g eo gr a p h y , .

9 Ap o s t l es 3 1 5
H
,

o f G reec e i n t h e o m eri c Ag e, Ap p i a n W a y , 2 9 8 ( il ) 2 9 8
q
.
,

1 03 A u ae S ex t i m, 2 64
’

q
-

i n p reh i s t o ri c t i mes , 2 3 A u ed u c t s 2 8 2 ,

R o m a n, 2 5 5 S ee I rri ga t i o n . . C l a u d i a n ( il ) 2 9 8 , .

Ag ri g en t u m 1 1 1
’- -

, R o ma n ( il ) 2 84 , .

Al a ri c 3 2 9
’ '
A ra t u s 1 7 5
‘
-
-
,
,
35 2 IND EX
Ar b e l a 1 6 7
'
-
, A t t i ca 9 6
’
-

Ar c h es R o m a n 2 7 9—2 8 0 At t i l a 3 1 9
’
-

, , ,

Ar ch i m e d es 2 05
’
Au gu s t i ne 3 3 8
’
- - -

, ,

Arc hi t ec t u re B a b y l o ni a n 7 5 , , Au gu s t u s 2 7 2 —5
-
’
,

Egy p t i a n 7 4 , p o rt ra i t ( )
il 2 7 "
, .

G r eek 1 5 2 —4 , 1 9 4—7 Au re li a n 3 1 2
’
- -

, ,

o rd ers Of G reek , ( il ) 1 9 5 . wa ll s o f (il ) 3 1 2 , .

R o m a n 2 8 0—3 ,

Ar c h o ns 1 1 5
’
,

- —
A re o p a
’
-

gu s , 1 54
A ri a ns
’
-
,
3 1 7 , 332 , 338 B a by l o n 4 2 —3 , 45 , 4 7 —8
, 1 32 , ,
'
Ar i s t i d es 1 3 6
- -
, ( il ) 4 7 .

Ari s t o c ra c y i n At h ens 1 1 7 , ,
B a b y l o ni a 3 9 S ee a l s o B a b y l o n
, .

i n G reec e 1 8 8 ,
a nd B a b y l o ni a ns .

i n R o m e 2 2 4—7 ,
B a b y l o ni a n c a p t i vi t y 4 7 , 54 , .

Ar i s t o p h a nes 1 9 2
-
’ - -

,
B a b y l o ni a n t em p l e ( il ) 7 5 , .

Ar i s t o t l e , 2 03 2 09 B a b y l o ni a ns l a w s o f 4 3
’
- -

, , ,

Ar m e ni a 1 5 9
-
’ -

,
l i t era t u re o f 7 9 ,

Arm y C a rt h a gi ni a n 2 4 2
, ,
rel i gi o n o f 7 3 ,

M a c ed o ni a n 15 9 1 6 5 , ,
B a rra c k em p ero rs 3 1 1 ,

R o man S ee R o ma n army . . B as k et ry , 2 0
Art C ret a n 9 9
, , B a s t i na d o , 65 , ( ii ) 6 5 .

v a s es ( il ) 9 9 , . B a t h s R o m a n 2 94
, ,

G reek 1 9 4 —2 01 , o f C a ra c a ll a ( i l ) 2 94 , .

p r eh i s t o ri c 1 5 ,
B eh i s t u n ro ck 7 8 ,

B e ma 1 5 4 (i l ) 1 4 9
’
p a i nt i ng ( ii ) 1 4 , .
, , .

Art il l ery R o ma n ( il ) 2 4 9 B en e—
’
, , . fice, 3 2 1
Art i s a ns i n N ea r Ea s t 6 5 , ,
B i s h o p s a s c i v il l ea d ers , 3 1 8
R o ma n 2 8 7 B oe O t i a 9 6
’
-
, ,

A rt s i ndu s t ri a l i n Egy p t 3 9 B o n i fa c e 33 9
’
-

, , , ,

i n t h e N ea r Ea s t 8 5 ,
B o o k s a nc i ent 7 8 —8 1 1 8 9 —9 2 2 7 5
, , , ,

p a l eo l i t h i c 1 8 —2 1
, B ri d g e R o m a n ( i l ) 2 84
, , .

As s em bl y At h eni a n 1 48 , , B ri t a i n c o nv ert ed t o Ch ri s t i a ni t y
, ,

o f G er m a ns 3 2 6 3 44 , ,
338
R om an 2 2 4 2 2 5 2 6 1 , , , i nv a s i o n o f 3 3 1 ,

As s h u r b a n i p a l 4 5 8 0
-
’
- -

, ,
B ro nz e wo rl d wi d e u s e o f 85
,
-

,
'
As s y r i a n em p i re 4 4 , Eu cep h a l u s 1 64
- -

As s y r i a ns 4 4 B u il di ngs i n At h ens 1 5 2 , 1 9 5 —6
’
- -

, , ,

'
At h a na s i u s 3 1 7
- -

, i n i m p eri a l R o m e 2 8 0 ,

A t h e na ( il ) 1 5 2 i n t h e N ea r Eas t 3 5 7 4 7 5
’
-

, .
, , ,

a r c h i t ec t u re — '
At h ens , of 1 5 2 —4 ,
B u r gu n d i a ns 3 3 1 -

1 9 4 —7 By za n t i u m , 1 1 1 , 3 14
’
- -
.

a rt o f, 1 9 4 — 2 01
d em o c ra c y i n 1 4 8—5 0 1 8 8 , ,

ea rl y go v ernm ent o f , 1 1 5

G o l d en Ag e o f 1 4 5—5 4 ; ’
C aa sa r Ju
l i u s a s s a s si na t i o n o f, 2 7 0
’

H
, , ,

i n ell eni s t i c A g e, 1 7 1 c ro s s es t h e R u b i c o n 2 69 ,

li t era t u re o f , 1 8 9—1 9 4 d efea t s P o m p ey 2 6 9

fi
,

l o c a t i o n o f, 9 6 1 1 5 , i n rs t t ri u m v i r a t e 2 6 8 ,

i n P el o p o nnes i a n w a r 1 5 4 7 ,
-
m a n o f l et t ers 2 7 5 ,

i n P ers i a n wa rs 1 3 4 —4 2 , p ro c o ns u l o f G a u l , 2 6 8
h il h f 2 0 1 —7 r efo rm s o f , 2 69
p o s o p y o ,
 IND EX
Cli m a t e , of T i g ri s Eu p h ra t es v a l l ey
-

, i n N ea r Ea s t 90 ,

39 R o m a n d a rk ened b y T eu t o ni c ,

C l o t hi ng G reek 1 8 2 , , i nv a s i o ns 3 3 5 ,

in t h e N ea r Ea s t 6 2 6 7 , , S u m eri a n, 4 1
i n p r eh i s t o ri t i mes , 2 1 c i n T i gri s Eu p h ra t es v al l ey , 4 9 -

'
Ro m a n 2 9 3 , C u maa 1 1 2 ,

C l o v i s , k i ng o f t h e F ra nk s , 3 3 1 C u ne i fo rm w ri t i ng 4 0 4 5 4 8
’ ’
- -

, , ,

C o d e o f D ra o 1 1 6 c C u p i d 1 04
H
, , ,

of a m mu ra i 4 3 b , C y l i nd er s i x s i d ed ( I l ) 4 0 ,
-

,
.

of J
u s t i ni a n 3 2 1 , o f C y ru s ( il ) 1 3 1 , .

w
i n t el v e t a l es 2 2 6 b , C y ru s 1 3 1 ,

c
C o i ns , a n i ent 1 1 7 ( i l ) 1 1 7 , , . c y l i nder O f ( il ) 1 3 1 , .

C o l o ni z a t i o n At h eni a n 1 8 7 11 , , .

G r eek 1 09 — 1 2 ( m a p ) o p p 1 1 1
, , .

R o m an 2 3 1 ,

C o l o ss eu m 2 9 5 ,
Da c i a 3 1 0
’
-

p res ent c
o nd i t i o n o f, ( I l ) 2 8 1 . D a nu b e R i v er 2 5 0 3 2 9 , ,

res t o ra t i o n o f 2 9 5 ,
Da r i u s 1 3 2
-
’
,

C o l o s s u s o f R h o d es , 1 7 2 D a v id 5 3 ,

C o m ed y i n At h ens 1 9 1 —2 ,
D e cem v i rs 2 26
-
’
,

Co mi t i a Cen tu ri a ta 2 24
— D ei t i es 1 04 3 2 8
’ ’
- - - -

, , ,

c
C o m mer e , i n An i ent Ori ent , 8 8 c —
D e l a t o rs 3 06
’
,

o f Al exa nd ri a 17 3 ,
De l o s 1 06
’
,

o f C a rt h a g e 2 4 1 ,
D el p h i 9 6
’
,

o f G reek s i n rea sed b y Al exa nd er c D el u ge B a b y l o ni a n s t o ry o f 7 3

, ,

1 68 D em o c ra c y i n At h eni a n em p ir e , ,

R o ma n 2 1 9 , 2 9 8 , 3 2 2 , 1 4 8 —5 0
C o mmu ni t y l i fe o f t h e G er ma ns 3 2 5 , u nd er C l ei s t h enes i n A t h ens , 1 1 8
C o nf ed era y o f D el o s 1 4 5 c , , G reek 1 8 8 ,

L a t i n, 2 2 9 in R ome 2 27 2 6 1 , ,

C o n s t a n t i ne 3 1 3
’ -

,
—
D e mo s t h c nes 1 6 0 1 94
’
-

, ,

C o ns t a nt i no p l e 2 09 3 1 3 , , s t a t u e ( i l ) 1 60 ,
.

' '
C o n su l 2 2 5 , Di ra na , 1 04 -

C o r i nt h
’
o ngres s a t
, c 138 ,
D ic t a t o r 2 25 2 28 2 7 1
’
-

, , ,

c
d es t ru t io n o f , 2 08 2 4 9 ,
D i d o 1 03
’
,

C o r ne li a 2 6 2
-
’
-

, D i O ce s es , 3 1 3
’
- -

C o u rt s At h eni a n 1 5 0
, ,
- —
Di o cl e t i a n 3 1 2
’
-

G erma n 3 3 4 D i o g e nes 2 04
’
- -

, ,

R o m a n, 3 01 D i o ny s i u s , t y ra nt o f S y ra c u se,
’

fi
- - -

C ra s s u s , i n rs t t ri u m v i ra t e, 27 0 190
28 2 n . D i s c o b o l u s ( il ) 1 9 7
-
' -

,
.

'
c
C re t a n i v i li z a t i o n 9 8 —1 0 1 ,
D i v o rc e i n N ea r Ea s t , 69 ,

i n p r eh i s t o ri p er i o d 1 7 c , i n R om e 2 2 1 , 2 52 , 2 8 9 ,

C ret an v a s e, ( il ) 9 9 . D o m es t i c a t i o n o f a ni m al s 22 , ( il ) , ,
.

C u l t u re o f At h ens a nd ea n i t i es n c 22
H
,

in el l eni s t i p er i o d 1 7 1 —4 c , ofp l a nt s , 2 3
G reek , s t i m u l a t ed b y P ers i a n —
D o mi t i a n, 3 09
’ -

w
a rs , 1 4 1
'
Do ri a ns 1 09 1 1 3 -

, ,

G reek s p rea d b y Al exa nd er 1 6 8

, ,
D ra c o 1 1 6
’
,

1 69 , 2 07 D a at
r m i s t s Greek 1 9 0—2 , ,

G reek , s p a d t o o m e a nd t h e D res s G reek 1 8 2

R
r e , ,

W es t , 2 08—9 w o m a n s (il ) 1 8 2 '

.
 IND EX 355

Dres s i n t h e N ea r Ea s t 6 2 67
,
i nfl u enc e i n M ed i t err a nea n 2 3 9 , , ,

R oman 2 9 3 ,
k i ng s o f R o me 2 2 3 ,

t o g a ( ii ) 2 9 3 ,
.
Eu c l i d , 2 05
’

Eu p h ra t es Ri v er , 3 9 S ee a ls o T igri s .

Eu p h r a t es v a l l ey
Eu ri p i d es 1 9 1
’ - -

Ea s t M ed i t erra nea n c o a s t , (m a p ) 5 0
”
Exo d u s fro m Egy p t , 5 3
“

Ed u c a t i o n, u nd er C h a rl em a g ne, 3 44
i n G reec e , 1 8 2
i n N ea r Ea s t , 6 4
i n R o me 2 8 9 '
,
Fa '
bi -
u s M ax i -
mu s th e d el a y er,
p u ni s h ment , ( il ) 2 90
,

24 5
.

Eg y p t 3 3 — 9 ,
F a m il y , G reek 1 8 0
(m a p s) , 3 4 , o p p 4 9
,

R om an 2 2 1 2 5 2
.

bu s i ness i n, 8 4 — 8 F a rm er s R o m a n, 2 54 ,
, ,

l ife i n, 60—7 0
F a t es ( il ) 1 9 8
i n p reh i s t o ri c t i m es , 1 7
.
,
'
F a y u m 84 ,
v a s es ( il ) 1 7 ,
.

F eu d a l b eg i nni ng s i n R o man em
rel i g i o n o f 7 1 2
-

p i re 3 2 0
,

J u d gm ent o f t h e S o u l (il ) 7 3
,

F eu d al p eri o d i n Egy p t 3 6 11
.
,

wr i t i ng m a t eri al s a nd b o o k s i n
.
,

,
F i re a nd c i v il i z a t i o n 1 8 ,
7 7— 9
F i s t h a t c h et , 1 1 ( il ) 1 1
-

, .

Egy p t i a n h o u s e, (il ) 6 2
F i v e g o o d em p ero r s 3 09
.

,
Egy p t i a n s hi p , (i l ) 8 8
F l a v i an R u l ers 3 08
’
.
-

Em p i re , o f Al exa nd er ,
,
1 64 — 7 0
F l eet G r eek , 1 3 7 9 1 4 0 1 4 5 -

( ma p ) o p p 1 6 7
, , ,

R o m a n, 2 4 3 244
.

As s y ri a n, 4 4 , (m a p s) 4 0 O p p 4 9
,

F o ru m , R o m a n 2 7 9
.
,

A t h e n i a n 1 4 6 —47
,

t o d a y a nd res t o red ( i l ) 2 80
,
-
.
,
o f Au g u s t u s 2 7 3 ,
P o m p ei a n ( il ) 3 09
N ew B a b y l o ni a n 4 6
.
,

,
F r a nk s , 3 3 1 , 3 4 2 — 5
Ol d B a b y l o ni a n 4 2 , ( m a p ) 4 0
'
,
F reed men 2 8 7
B y z a n t i ne , o r Ea st ern Em p i re
,
-

’
F rey a 3 2 8 ,
3 18
F u r ni t u re, G reek c h ai rs , ( il ) 1 8 2 .

o f C aesa r , 2 6 9
R o ma n, ( il ) 2 9 2
Egy p t i a n 3 6 —8 (m a p ) o p p 49
.

.
,

F r a nki s h , 3 4 2 —5
G erma ni c 3 45 ( m a p ) Op p 3 3 1 G
H
.
, ,

i t t i t e, 5 0 ( m a p ) o p p 4 9 , .

P ers i a n, 1 2 9 3 4 (m a p ) o p p 1 3 1 -

, . G am es , G reek , 1 06 9 -

P l a n o f I m p eri a l R o m e, ( i l ) o p p . R o m an 2 5 2 , 2 7 6 2 94 , ,

2 80 G au l , C ms a r i n 2 7 0 ,

R o m a n, 2 6 9—3 2 3 , ( m a p s) o p p S ar a c ens i n 3 4 1 ,

2 50 3 1 2 , G au l s r ev o l t d u ri ng P u ni c w a r ,
,

'
E p a m i no n d a s , 1 58
- — -
24 5
—
Ep i eu ru s 2 04 s a ck R o me 2 2 9
’
-

, ,

E p i ru s , 2 4 8
-
’
Ge la , 1 1 1
’

G e l o n o f S y r a c u s e , 1 40
'
Equ i tes 2 2 4 ,
'
Er a t o s t h e nes , 2 06
- - -

G eo g ra p h y o f ZEg ea n a r ea , 9 5 ,

- —
Er ech t h e u m , 1 9 6 ( il ) 1 5 2
’
, . o f C a rt h a g e, 2 40
E t ru ri a , 2 1 9 2 29 o f ea s t M ed i t erra nea n c o a s t , 4 9
’
- -

E t ru s ca ns c a rri ers o f G reek cu l

-
’
, 50
t u re, 2 08 Of E gy p t , 3 3
3 56 I N D Ex

G eo g ra p h y , o f I t a l y a nd R o m e 4 8 , , G reek go v ernment 1 8 6 —8 ,

2 1 8 —2 2 0 ( m a p ) o p p 2 1 9 , . At h eni a n d em o c ra c y 1 4 8 ,

o f t h e M edi t erra nea n b a s i n, 1 2 8 ea rl y o f A t h ens 1 15 , ,

o f P h oeni c i a , 5 1 ea rl y o f S p a rt a 1 14 , ,

o f T i gri s Eu p h ra t es v a l l ey
-
39 , G reek s a r t o f 1 9 4 —2 01 , ,

G erm a ns c i v i li z a t i o n o f 3 3 5
, , c h a ra c t er o f 1 8 4 ,

c o mmu ni t y l ife o f 3 2 5 , c i v i l i z a t i o n o f 1 7 9 —2 1 0 ,

g o v ernm ent o f 3 2 6 3 3 3 , , c o l o ni z a t i o n o f 1 09 — 1 3 ,

i d eas o f j u s t i c e 3 2 7 , m o d er nnes s o f 5 1 7 9 , ,

a nd t h e L a t i n l a ng u a g e 3 3 4 , s c i enc es a m o ng 2 01 —7 ,

la w o f 333 , so cial l ife o f, 1 8 0—5

m i gr a t i o n o f 3 2 9 —3 1 (ma p s ) u ni t y a mo ng 1 04
H
, , ,

3 3 0, O p p 3 3 l S ee a l s o o u s i ng D ress , et c
°
.
, .

rel i gi o n O f 3 2 8
’
G y l ip p u s 1 5 6
-

H
, ,

a nd t h e R o m a n Em p i re 3 1 8 , 3 1 9 G y m nas i u m a d ri a n s ru i ns
’

, , ,

345 (i l ) 2 8 3 .

c
s o ial c
l a s s es 3 2 6 ,

G i l d s i n R o me , 2 8 8
G il g a mes h l a b o rs o f 7 9
’
-

, , H a
’
d ri -
ah , 3 10
G l a di a t o rs c o nt es t s 2 9 6, , gy m na s i u m , ( il .
) 2 83
i n p u bli c g a m es 2 5 2 ,
tom , 28 1, 3 1 1 b
R o m a n (il ) 2 5 2 , . Ha m m u bi 4 2 - -

ra
’
,

G o l d en Ag e o f G r eec e , 1 4 5 c o d e o f l a ws 4 3 ( il ) 42
H a nni b al 2 4 5—7
.
, ,

G ot h s 32 9 338
, , ,

G o v ernm ent ea rl y At h eni a n 1 1 5 H a s d ru b al ’ -

2 47
H
, ,

o f C art h a g e 2 4 1 eb rews 5 0 5 2 —4
H
, , ,

G er m a n 3 2 6 3 3 3 ec t o r 1 0 1
’
, , ,

G r eek S ee G reek g o v ernm ent

. H e g i ra 3 3 9
-
’
,

i n N ea r Ea s t 9 0 H el l e nes 1 04 1 09
’

H ll ni c G c 1 4 5 5 4
-

, , ,

R o m a n S ee R o ma n g o v ernm ent e e r ee e, —

H ll ni m 1 7 1 2 07
.

S p a rt a n 1 1 4 ,
e e s , ,

G ra c c h u s G a i u s 2 6 2 —3 H l l —i t i A
’ ’ ’
e 1 69 en s c g e,
H l l p nt 1 3 7
-

, ,

G r a c c h u s , T i b e ri u s 2 6 2
’ ’ ’
e es o

H l t 1 13
- -
-

, ,

—
G r a ni cu s R i v er 1 6 5
’
e
’
o s,
,

G r eec e a ft er Al exa nd er 1 7 4 H m 3 08 ’
er cul a ne u
H m (il ) 1 9 8
- - -

q
, , ,

c o n u es t o f b y R o m e 2 4 9 er es ,

H d t 19 3
.
, ,

a d ep end enc y O f R o m e 1 7 6 ero o u s,

H i d 1 04 1 8 9
,

—2
r i
ea l y p er o d O f 1 1 3 0 ,
es o , ,

g eo g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o ns 9 5 ( m a p ) Hi ’
g i y p h i cs , 3 8 , 7 8
er O
- - -

, ,

Op p 95 Egy p t i a n, ( il ) 7 8
H
.
.

i m e ra , 1 1 2 , 1 4 0, 2 3 9
’
G o ld en A g e o f, 1 45
Hip p i
-

H el l eni c p eri o d o f , 145 — 1 6 1

’
-

as , 1 1 7 , 13 5
H ell eni s t i c p eri o d o f , 1 69 —
77 H i p p o e ra t es 2 06
-
' -

i nfl u enc e o f g eo g ra p h y o n 9 6 , 9 7 Hi s t o ri a ns G reek 1 9 2
i
‘

, , ,

l i t era tu re o f 1 8 9 9 4 R o ma n 2 7 5
Hi t
-

, ,

a g es o f,
p eri o d O f exp a ns i o n o f 1 2 7 ( m a p ) ,
s o ry ,
8
op p . 111 ep o ch s o f, 7
p l a c e o f i n h i s t o ry 1 7 9 — 2 10 re o rd s c o f, 6

H it t i t
.
, ,

su bj u ga t i o n o f b y P h il i p (m a p ) 49
’
159 es , 49 , Op p

H m
.
, ,

wa rs w i t h P ers i a 1 3 4 —4 2 ( m a p ) , ,
o
’
er , 1 02 ,
18 9
i c Ag e 1 01 —4
'
1 19 H m O er

H c
-

’
S ee a ls o T ra d e , et c . or a e, 2 7 5
35 8 IND EX
L ea gu es A ch ae a n 1 7 5 ,
-
’
, M a y fiel d o f C h arl em a gne 3 44 ,

jE t o l i a n 1 7 5
’ - -

, M ecc a 3 3 9 ,

C o nfed era c y Of D el o s 14 5 M e d e a 19 1 ’
-

, ,

o f G reek c i t y s t a t es 186 -

, M ed es 1 3 0 ,

G reek d i s so l v ed by S p a rt a
, , M ed i na 3 3 9 ,

15 8 M ed i t er ra ne a n ra c e 2 7
’
- - - -

i m p o rt a nc e o f 1 8 8 , M edi t erra nea n S e a 1 28 2 2 0 , ,

P el o p o nnes i an 1 1 5 , ea s t c o a s t (m a p ) 5 0 ,
’
L e g i o ns 2 3 3 , M egal i t h s 1 6 ,

-
’
Le o n i d a s 1 3 8 -

, M em p h i s 3 5 ,

L eu c t ra 1 5 8 —
M e na n d er 1 9 2
’
, ,

Li c i n i a n l a ws 2 2 7 2 5 5 M enes 3 5
’
- -

, , ,

Li c t o r 2 2 5 n ,
. M er cu ry 1 04
’
-

Li o n G a te M y c enae (il ) 1 00 '

, , . M es o p O t a mi a 3 9
- - - -

Li t era t u re i n As s y ri a 7 9 , , M es s a na 1 1 2
’
-

i n B a b y l o ni a 7 9 , M et al a g e 8 ,

i n t h e N ea r Ea s t 7 7 —8 3 , 9 0 , M e— t a u ru s 2 46
’
,

i n Egy p t 7 8 , M et i c s 1 8 0’
,

i n G reec e , 1 8 9 — 9 4 M i ddl e c l a s s i n R o me 2 54 —5 , , 286,

i n R o m e, 2 7 5 32 1
3 2 9 —3 1 ,
'
Li v y , 2 7 5 M i g ra t i o ns , G erm a n,
Lo s t t en t ri b es , 54 ( ma p ) 3 3 0
’
Lu x o r 3 7 7 4 , , M i le t u s 1 10
-
’
,

res t o red ( il ) 7 4 , . M i l t i a—
’
d es 1 3 6
-

-
’
L y cu r gu s 1 1 5 , M i nerv a 1 04 ,

' '
Ly d i a 1 3 4 , M i s s i d o mi n i ci 3 44 - -
,

M i t h ri d a t es ki ng o f P o nt u s
’
e 256
M
-

, , ,

2 6 5 , 2 67
Ma c ’
c a b ees -

, 17 3 M o a b i t e s t o ne ( il ) 5 2 , .

Mac d o n o r M a c ed o ni a , d efea t ed
’
s -
M o h a m m ed 3 3 9 ,

by R o m a ns 2 4 7 , M o h a m m ed a ni s m 3 3 9 —4 1 , , (m a p )
l o c at io n 9 6 , Op p . 3 40
su b d u ed b y Al exa nd er 1 65 , M o na s t eri es 3 3 7 ,

u nd er P h i l i p 159 , M o ney i nt ro d u c ed i n At h ens 1 1 6 ,

M a g ne s i a 2 4 8
’
- -

, M o nk s 3 3 7 ,

M a nki nd c l a s s i fic at i o ns o f 2 6 , , M o no t h ei s m 5 4 7 6 , ,

in p rehi s t o r i c p eri o d 1 1 — 2 5 , M o ra l i t y a m o ng P ers i ans 1 3 3 , ,

M ar a t h o n 1 3 5 ( il ) 1 3 5
’
-
, , . in Rom e 27 2 ,

M a r c h o f T e n T h o u s a nd M o s l em s 2 09 3 4 0—1
“ ’
158 , , ,

M a r c u s Au re l i u s 2 7 5 3 1 1
’ ’
- -

, , M u m m i es 7 2 ( i l ) 7 2 , .

s t a t u e ( il ) 3 1 0 , . M u u i ci p i a , 2 8 6
- - -

—
M ar d o ni u s 1 4 0
’ -

, M y c a l e 1 40
' -

M a ri u s 2 6 4 —5
’ -

, M y cc nae a n Ag e 1 00
’
- -

M a rri a g e a nd d o m es t i c l if e G reek , Li o n G a t e a t ( i l ) 1 00 , .

18 1 , 182 M y i ae 2 4 4
’
,

i n t h e N e ar Eas t 6 9 , M y ro n 1 9 7
’
,

R o ma n 25 2 289 , ,

M a rs 1 04 ,

M as k s fo r t ra g ed y ( i l ) 1 9 0 , .

M as sil i a 1 1 2
’
- -

, N a v y At h eni a n , , 146 , 156

M a t h em a t i c s a m o ng G reek s , 2 05 C a rt h a gi ni a n 2 4 2 ,

M a x i m a el o a ca 2 2 3
’ ’
- -
, S ec F l eet .
 IND EX 35 9

'
N ea r Ea s t d res s 6 2 , ,
P a l es t i ne 5 0 1 7 3 , ( m a p ) 5 0
-

, ,

(m a p ) 5 0 P a l m y ra 3 12
’
g eo g r a p h y ,
49 —5 2 , -

g o v ernm ent , 60 P a nt h eo n ( i l ) 2 8 2 , .

l i fe o f p eo p l e 6 4 — 7 0 ,
P a p a cy , 3 3 6 3 3 7 ,

r el i gi o n, 7 0— 7 P a p y ru s , 7 9
-
’

t r a d e a nd i nd u s t r y 8 3 —9 ,
P a ri s t h e a w a rd o f 1 01
, ,

wri t i ng a nd l i t era t u re, 7 7 — 8 3 P a r t h e—no n, 1 5 2 1 9 5

’
,

N eb u c h a d nez z a r 4 6 p r es ent c o nd i t i o n ( il ) 1 9 6
’
- - -
.
, ,

N e m e an g a m es 1 08
’
-

,
’
P a t ri ci a ns , 2 2 4 — 7
-

N e O l i t h i c c i v il i z a t i o n 1 5 —8
-
’ -

,
P a r R o m a na 2 9 7 3 1 1 3 2 0
’ -

, , ,

i n C ret e 1 7 , P ea s a nt s , 6 5 2 8 7 — 8 , 3 2 0 ,

i n Egy p t 1 7 ,
h o u s e ( il ) 66 , .

N ep t u ne 1 04
’
,
P e l op i das 1 5 8
-
’ -

N ero 3 07 , P el o p o nnes i a n w a r 1 5 4 —7 ,

p ers ec u t i o n o f C h ri s t i a ns 3 1 6 P el o p o n ne s u s 9 6 1 1 5
’
- - -

, , ,

N i c aa a c o u nc il a t 3 14 3 1 7
'
-

, , ,
-
’
P e nel o p e 1 02 -

N i c i as P ea c e o f 1 5 5 , , P en t a t h l o n 1 08
’
-

N il e R i v er , 3 3 ’
P ep i n 3 4 2 ,
' —
N i n e—v eh 4 5 4 6
’
, , P er g a m u m 1 7 1 ,

N o bl es a m o ng t h e G erm a ns 3 2 6 , ,
a l t a r Of Z eu s a t ( il ) 1 7 1 , .

i n N ea r E a s t 6 1 P er i c l es 1 4 6
’
, ,

R o m a n 2 2 4 2 8 5 3 2 0— 1 , , , p o rt r a i t ( i l ) 1 5 0 , .

N o r di c r a c e 2 7
’
, g o l d en a g e o f 1 4 5 —
54 ,

N u m i d i a 2 49 , 2 6 3
’ - -

,
’
P er i o i ei 1 1 3
- -

Nu mi d i —a n h o rs em en 2 4 5 n
’
-

, .
’
P er s ep o l i s 1 6 7
- -

P ers i a c h a ra c t er o f p eo p l e
, o f,

O 1 33
’
Ob e l i s q u es 7 9 -
co nq u es t o f, by Al exa nd er ,

1 67
,
'
Oc t a v i u s C aes a r , 2 7 0, 2 7 1
- -

r el i g i o n, 1 33
.

Au gu s t u s
O d o a c er , 3 3 0
-
’ -
.

P er s i a n a rs 1 3 4—4 2 w ,

’ P h a l a nx o f Al exa nd er 1 6 5
Od y s s ey 1 02 1 8 9
, ,

c
M a ed o ni a n vs R o m a n l egi o n 2 4 8
-

, ,

( Ed i p u s T y r a n nu s , 1 90
’ — ’ .
,
-

o f P h il i p 159
Ol y m p i a 1 06
,

P h a ra o h s 3 5
,

r es t o red ( i l ) 1 07
,

P h idi a s 1 09 1 9 6 1 9 8
.
,

O l y m p i a d 1 08
’ , , ,
- -

s t a t u e o f At h e na , ( il ) 1 5 2
,
'
O l y m p u s 1 04
.

P h ili p o f M a ed o n 1 5 9 c
-

Omens R o m a n 2 2 2
,

Or a c l es 1 06 1 3 7
, ,
P h il i p p i s 1 9 4 c ,

P h il o s o p h y G reek 2 01 —4
, ,

Or a t o ry , G reek 1 9 3 , ,

R om an 3 1 1
,
’
O s i ri s 7 1 ,

' —
-

P h o ci a ns 1 5 9
,

Os t r a ci s m 1 1 8 1 3 7
’ ,
-

’
P h oe ni ci a ns 5 0
, ,
'
Os t ro —g o t h s , 3 2 9
-

a nd t h e a l p h a et 8 1 b ,

P
as a rri er s o f c
i v i l i z a t i o n, 5 2 c
0 c
o l o ni es o f , 5 1

P a i nt i ng G reek 2 00 , , t ra d e o f 5 1 , 8 7 8 8 , ,

p r eh i s t o ri c 1 5 ( il ) 1 4
’
, , . P i n d ar , 1 8 9
P a l a t i ne h il l 2 1 9 P i r as u s 1 4 6 1 5 7 , ( il ) 1 4 7 ( m a p ,
’ ’
- -

, , ,
.
,

P a l e O l i t h i c c i v il i z a t i o n, 1 1
— ’ - -

Sh o i ng l o ng a ll s ) 1 4 7w w
18 , 22 S ee a l s o P reh i s t o ri c .
-
'
P i si s t ra —t u s , 1 1 7
p eri o d . P l a t aea , 1 4 0
3 60 IND EX
P la t o ,
'
P l e Be i a ns 2 2 5—7
-

fi
,

P l u t a rc h 1 9 3 R a c es c l as s i c a t i o n o f 2 6 7
’
-

, , ,

fu s i o n o f R o m an a nd T
’
P O ly b i u s 1 9 3
- -

, eu ton
P o l y t h ei s m 7 6 , 3 3 2 —5
P o m p ei i d es t ru c t i o n o f, 3 08 R a m e s es I I 3 7
’ -

, ,

P o m p ey 2 6 7 —9
’
, R au d i ne p l a i n 2 6 4 ,

p o rt ra i t ( il ) 2 6 7 ,
. R el i gi o n, B a b y l o ni a n 7 3 ,
'
C h ri s t i a ni t y 2 7 4 3 1 4 7 3 3 6—9
’
P o n t iu s P i l a t e 3 1 5 , , ,
-

P o R i v er 2 1 8 Egy p t i a n 7 1
J
, ,

P o t t ery 2 0 , u d g m ent o f t h e S o u l ( il ) 7 3 ,
.

o f G erm a ns 3 2 8
’
P raa t o r 3 01 , ,
'
P ra z i t e l es 1 9 9 G reek 1 04 1 05 , 1 8 3
H
- -

H
, , ,

erm es ( il ) 1 9 8 ,
. eb rew , 5 4 7 6 ,
'
P re fec t u res 3 1 3 -

, M o h a mm ed a ni s m 3 3 9 —4 1 ,

P reh i s t o ri c h o r s e ( i l ) 2 2 , . m o no th ei s m a nd p o l y t h ei s m , 7 6
P reh i s t o ri c m a n 1 1 — 8 , P ers i a n 1 3 3 ,

P reh i s t o ri c p eri o d , 7 1 1 —2 9 , o f p ri m it i v e m a n 7 0 ,

c i v il i z a t i o n o f 1 8 —2 5 , R o ma n 2 2 1 3 1 4 3 1 6
, , ,

ep o c h s o f 8 , i n T i gr i s Eu p h ra t es v a ll ey , 7 5
-

P re t o r i an gu a rd 3 07 R em u s , 2 2 3
’
- -

P ri es t 6 3 , R ep u b l i c R o ma n, 2 2 4—6 9
,

P ri n c ep s 2 7 2 3 06 3 08 R ev o l u t i o n R o m a n 2 6 2
’
, , , , ,

P ri nc i p a t e o f C l a u d iu s 3 07 , R h ine R i v er 3 3 0 ,

P ri so ners , G reek 1 8 1 , R h o d es , 1 7 2 , 2 4 9
R o a d s R o m a n 2 9 7 (ma p ) 2 9 9
’
P ro p y l ze a 1 5 2
- -

, , ,

P ro s c ri p t i o ns u nd er M a ri u s a nd , A p p i a n W ay , ( il ) 2 9 8 .

S u ll a 2 6 6 , P ers i a n 1 3 3 ,

u nd er s e c o nd t ri u m v i r a t e 2 7 0 , R o m a n a rm y 2 3 2 ,

P ro v erb s 5 3 , d ec l i ne o f 3 2 2 ,

P ro v i nc es P ers i a n 1 3 2 , ,
m a d e d em o c ra t i c b y M a ri u s 2 6 6 ,

R om a n 2 5 0 2 5 3 2 7 3 2 8 5 , , , , i nfl u enc e i n na m i ng em p ero rs ,

P s al m s 5 3 ,
3 07
P t o l e m y , 2 06
’
-
ru l e o f 3 1 1 ,

P t o l em y s i n Egy p t 1 7 0 , s o l d i ers 2 3 2 ( il ) 2 3 1
, ,
.

P u b l i c o ffi c es i n At h ens 1 50 , ,
R o ma n a rt i l l ery ( i l ) 2 4 9 , .

a m o ng G erm a ns 326 , R o m a n g o v ernm ent , u nd e r Au

i n R o m e 2 8 5 —7 , gu s t u s 2 7 5 ,

P u bl i c w o rk s i n Al exa nd ri a 1 7 3 , , u nd er C aes a r 2 7 1 ,

At h eni a n 1 4 6 1 5 2 1 5 4 , , , c h a ng es d u e t o s t ru g g l e o f p l e b s ,

l o ng w a ll s t o P i rae u s ( il ) 1 47 , . 2 2 5 —7
u nd er D a ri u s 1 3 3 , u nd er D i o c l et i a n 3 1 5 ,

G erma n 3 3 0 , i n ea rl y re p u b l i c 2 2 4 ,

i n t h e N ea r E a s t 8 4 8 9 . ,
b efo re t h e R ev o l u t i o n 2 6 1 ,

R o m a n 2 8 1 —3 2 9 1 2 9 4 2 9 7 —8 , , , , o f p ro v i nc es 2 5 3 ,

P u bli c a ns 2 54 , p r i nc i p a t e 3 09 ,

P u ni c w ars , 2 4 3 — 5 0 c o p i ed i n T eu t o ni c ki ngd o m s 3 3 5 ,

'
P y d na 2 4 8 , R o m a ns a rm y o f 2 3 2 3 1 1
, , ,

P y ra m id s 3 5 ( il ) 3 6 , ,
. c h a ra c t er o f 2 2 0 ,

P y rrh u s 2 3 0 2 4 0 , , fa m il y life 2 2 1 , 2 9 0 ,
'
P y t h a g O ra s 1 1 2 2 05
- -

, ,
m o d ernnes s o f 5 ,

rel ig i o n 2 2 1
’
P y t h i a 1 08 -

, ,
3 62 IND EX
S t i l i ch o 3 2 9
’ -

,
T h o r 3 28 ,

S t o i ci s m 2 04 3 02 T h o t m es I I I 37
’ -

, ,

S t o ne a g e 8 ,
T h r ee F a t es ( il ) 1 9 8 , .

new , 1 5 —8 T h u ey d i —
’
-
d es 1 9 3 ,

1—5 i b er , 2 1 9
’
o ld, 1 T
S u bj ec t c i t i es , R o m e p oli y c i b eri u s 3 06
’
s ,
3 00 T ,
’
i g l a t h P i l e s er 44
’
S u l l a , 2 68 T -

S u m eri a ns , 4 0 T i gri s Eu p h ra t es v a l l ey
-

, 39 ,
-
( ma p )
’
S u s a 1 67 ,

Sy r
’
a— u s e, c 111 a g ri c u l t u re
8 3 —4 ,

b efo re t h e P u ni c w a rs , 24 0 c i v il i z a t i o n o f , 4 8 —9
exp ed i t i o n o f G reek s a g a i ns t , 1 55 g eo gr a p h y o f , 3 9
S y ri a 4 9 , , 13 2 l i t era t u re o f , 7 9—8 0
c o nt ro ll ed b y R o m e 2 48 ,
rel i gi o n o f , 7 5 —6

i nfl u enc ed c T i mo le ’
b y G reek u l t u r e ,
17 3 - -
ou , 24 0

'
T o R o m a n 2 8 5 2 9 3 ( il ) 2 93
ga , , , , .

T o o l s p reh i s t o ri c
, 1 1 19 , ,

T a ci '
27 5 -
tu s ,
i n N ea r Ea s t 84 ,

reu t u m T o u rs ( T o o r) , b a t t l e o f 3 4 1
’
T a -
1 12 , 2 18 , ,

bu s es
i n c o ll ec t i o n o f 2 5 4 T r a d e enc o u r a g ed b y Al exa nd er
’
T a xes , a s

c o nq u es t s
, ,

d i rec t i n p ro v i nc es 2 7 1 , , 1 68
i n ea rl y R o m a n p ro v i nc es 2 53 ,
C a rt h a g i ni a n 2 4 1 ,

T el el Am a r na t a b l et s 7 9 ,
o f C r et a ns 9 9 ,

T em p l es i n Egy p t 7 4 , ,
o f G reek c o l o ni es 1 1 1 ,

L u xo r , ( i l ) 7 4 . i n N ea r Ea s t 8 5 —9 9 1 , ,

G reek 1 9 5 ,
Egy p t i a n m a rk et ( i l ) 86 , .

a l t a r o f Z eu s ( il ) 1 7 1 , . i n neo l i t h i c t i m es 1 7 ,

P ar t h eno n ( i l ) 1 9 6 ,
. o f P h oeni c i a ns 5 1 — 2 ,

R o m a n P a nt h eo n ( i l ) 2 8 , . o f R o m e , 2 9 8 —9

i n T i gr i s Eu p h r a t es v al l ey 7 5 -

,
ro u t es o f 8 9 ,

B a b y l o ni a n ( i l ) 7 5 , . T ra g ed y At h eni a n 1 9 0 , ,

T enem e nt s R o m a n, 2 9 3 ,
m a s k s (i l ) 1 9 0 , .

T en l o s t t ri b es , 4 5 T ra j a n 3 1 0
” ’
,

T eu t o n es
’-
2 64 ,
T ra ns p o rt a t i o n i n N ea r
T eu t o ns 2 7 3 2 9 —3 5
’
, ,
c a ra v a n , 88
’
T h a l es 2 05 1 1 2 , ,
by s ea , 88
T h ea t re G reek p l a n O f ( i l ) 1 9 1, , , . t ra d e ro u t es , 89
R o ma n 2 9 4 ,
T r i a l s A t h eni a n 1 50
, ,

ru i ns O f at Ora ng e F ra nc e . ,
b y c o m p u rg a t i o n 3 27 ,

( il ) 2 8 4 . b y o r d ea l 3 2 7 ,

p l a n o f ( il ) 1 9 1 , . i n T eu t o ni c k i ngd o m s 3 3 6 ,

T h e b es d es t ro y ed b y Al exa nd er , T ri b u nes 2 2 5 —7
'
, ,

1 65 p o w er o f 2 6 3 2 6 9 2 7 3 , , ,

h u nd r ed g a t ed T riu mp h R o m a n 2 3 4
‘
37 -

, , ,

v i c t o ry o v er S p a rt a ns o f C aes a r il —3
1 58 , ( ) 2 3 2 , .

T h e m i s t o c l es 1 3 6
’
- -

. T ri u m v i ra t e fi rs t 2 6 7 , ,

T h e O d o ri c 3 2 9 3 3 0 s ec o nd
’
- -

, ,
27 0 ,

T h e O d o S i u s 3 1 7 —8
-
’ - -

, T r o j a n w a r 1 01 ,

T h er m o p y l aa l o c a t i o n 9 6 T wel v e t a bl es (w r i t t en l a w ) 2 2 6
’ — -

, , ,

L eo ni d a s a t 1 3 8 , T y ra nny i n G reek h i s t o ry 1 88 ,

T y ra nt s exp el l ed fro m At h ens 1 1 7

’
T h es p i s 1 90 , ,
 IND EX 36 3

T y re , d es t ro y ed b y Al exa nd er 1 66 , W i nged bu ll ( il ) 4 6 , .

fou nd ed a s P h oeni c i a n c o l o ny , 5 1 W i ng ed v i c t o ry ( il ) 2 01 , .

T y ri a n p u rp l e 5 2 , 8 5 ,
W o d en 3 2 8
’
,

W o m a n p o s i t i o n o f a mo ng
, , G er
m a ns 3 2 5 ,
’
U l fi l as 3 38 -

, p i n G reek s t a t es , 1 8 2
os i t i o n o f ,

U l y s s es 1 01
-
’
, d res s o f G reek ( i l ) 1 8 2 , .

U ni t y G reek 1 05 , , p o s i t i o n o f , i n N ea r Ea s t 6 8 , ( i l ) , .

R om an 2 7 1 2 9 9 , , 67 , 68
p osit ion of i n R o me 2 5 2 2 8 9 , , ,

d res s Of R o m a n, 2 9 3
V al h al l a 3 2 8 ’
-

, S p art a n 1 1 4 , 1 8 1 ,

-
’
V a l k y r i es 3 2 8 , W o men o f t h e N ea r Ea s t gri ndi ng ,
'
Van dal s 3 2 9 , 3 3 1 , (i l ) 6 7 .

V a p i o c u p s , 1 01
’
-
m a ki ng b rea d ( i l ) 68
q
.
,

V e i i c o n u es t o f 2 2 9
’
, , W o o d wo rk i ng 8 5 ,

V enu s , 1 04 W ri t i ng , As s y ri a n 8 0—1 ,

V enu s d e M il o 2 01 (il ) 201 , , . Egy p t i a n 7 8 ,

h i er o gl y p h i c s ( il ) 7 8
’
V es p a s i a n 3 08
- -

, , .

V es t a l v i rg i n ( il ) 2 2 2 , . R o s et t a s t o ne , ( il ) 7 7 .

’
V e s u v i u s 3 09 ( il ) 3 09
- -

, , . m a t eri a l s G r eek ( il ) 1 8 3 , , .

Vi c t o ry o f S a m o t h ra c e, 2 01 , (i l 2 01 P h oeni c i a n 5 2 ,

Vi r g i l 1 03 , 2 7 5
’
, M o a bi t e s t o ne ( il ) 5 2 , .

Vi s i g o t h s 3 2 9 p reh i s t o ri c 2 5
’
, ,

S ee Al p h a b et .

W
W a rs G r eek P el o p o nnes i a n 1 5 4
, , ,
X
P ers i a n 1 3 4 , X en o p h o n ' -
193
R o m a n, a g a i ns t Ant i o c h u s o f
,

X er xes
’
,

S y ri a 2 4 8
q
,

c o n u es t Of G reec e 2 4 8 ,

a g a i ns t J u gu rt h a 2 65 ,

wi t h M a c ed o ni a 2 4 7 Z a m a , 2 47
’

wi t h M i t h ri d a tes 2 67 ,
’
Z e no 2 04 ,

P u ni c 2 4 3 , Z e no b i a 3 1 2
-
' -

s o ci al 2 66 , Z eu s S ee J u p i t er
. .

S ee Army .
-—
Z o r o a s t ri a n i s m
’
- -
1 34

P ri nt e d in th e U ni t e d S t a t es of Am eri ca .
A Histo ry o f the Ancient W or ld
BY G EORG E W . BOT S FOR D
P ro fes s o r of A ncient Hi s t o ry , C o l u m b i a U ni v e rs i ty

Cl ot/1 , 1 2 771 0 , i ll u st r a t ed, 5 88 p ag es, 31 5 0

T h is is a b o o k t h a t r ep r es ents t h e m o st t h o r o ugh s ch o lar

s h i p co mbin ed wit h a ttr a ctive liter a ry styl e P r o fess o r B o ts .

fo rd h a s a n int ern a ti o n a l r ep ut a ti o n a s t h e a u t h o r o f b oo k s
‘

in t h e field of A n ci ent H ist o ry H e h a s writt en s even o t h er

.

su ccess ful h i gh s ch oo l text b o o ks in t h is fi eld a nd is t h e

-

aut h o r o f o t h er s p eci a l w o rks a nd m o n o gr a p h s o n va ri o us

r elat ed t o p i cs P r o fess o r F er gus o n w rot e in t h e A mer i ca n
.

H i s t o ri ca l R ev i ew of J anu a ry 1 9 1 2 ,

T h e g r ea tadv a ntage w h i ch P r o f esso r

B o ts fo rd s H ist o ry o f t h e A n ci ent W o r l d
’

p oss e ss e s is t h a t it s p rin g s f r o m a first

h a nd a cqu a int a n ce wit h t h e s o u r ces .

P r o fes s o r B o t s fo rdwrites in a styl e t h at is sim p l e a nd o f

e x cell ent lit e r a ry qu a lity t h e st o ry o f t h e A n ci e nt N a ti o n s

is w ell t o ld and very r ea dabl e Ev eryw h ere t h e h uman el e

.
.

m ent i s r evea l ed a nd em p h a si s is l a id o n t h e co nt ri buti o n s o f

t h e an ci ent civilizati o ns t o o u r o w n .

T HE M A C M I L L A N CO M P A N Y
P u b li s h ers 6 4 6 6 Fi fth Av enu e
-
New Y ork
A S o u rce Bo o k o f Ancient Histo ry
BY G EORG E WI LLI S BOT S FORD

A ND

LI LLI E SHAW BOT S FOR D

Cl ot/z, 1 2 773 0 , 5 94 p ages ,

T h is v o lum e is uniqu e a m o n g b o o ks o f its kind in t h a t

i t co mb i nes wit h extr a cts f r o m t h e s o ur ces o f G r eek a nd
'

R o m a n h ist o ry a bo ut sixty p a ges o f s o ur ce m a t eri a l co n

cernin g t h e O ri ent a l n a ti o ns T h e gen e r a l p lan o f t h e

.

b o o k fo ll o ws t h at o f B o ts fo rd s H isto ry o f t h e An ci ent
’
“

W o rld ,
a nd it is p a rti cul a rly w el l a d a p t ed f o r u s e with

t h a t t ext .

T o tr a nsl a ti o ns o f extra cts f r o m t h e s o ur ces a re add ed

.
,

w h er e n eces s a ry bri ef ex p l a n at o ry n o tes s h o wi ng t h eir

, ,

f ull si gnifi ca n ce a s h ist o ri ca l d a t a T h es e extr a cts a re o f

.

su ch ch a r a cter t h a t t h ey t h r o w mu ch li gh t o n t o p i cs w h i ch
r eceive fo rma l t rea t ment in a r egul a r t ext b o o k
' i

T h r o u gh o ut t h e b o o k a re r efer en ces t o t h e o ri gin a l

s o ur ces a nd ea ch ch a p ter is fo ll o w ed by s eri es o f qu esti o ns
or studi es T o p i cs t rea ted a re p rinted in t h e mar gi ns in
.

bl a ck fa ce ty p e T h e b o o k is a n indis p ens a bl e a i d a s a
-
.

r efer ence w o rk in t h e s t udy o f a n ci ent h ist o ry .

T HE M A C M IL L A N C O M P A N Y
P u b li s h er s 6 4—6 6 F i ft h Av enu e New Y ork
 '
T u cker s Li fe i n A nci ent A t hens

Cl ot/z, 1 2 771 0 , i l l u s t r a ted, 3 1 5 p ages ,

A b o o k t h at l eaves a n im p r essi o n tru e a nd s o und vivid ,

and distin ct It d ea ls wit h t h e d a ily li fe o f t h e A t h eni a ns

.

a nd giv e s intimat e d et a ils co n cernin t h e str eets a nd ubli c

g p
buildin gs t h e h o us es a nd furnitur e w o m en s li fe a nd fas h
, ,
’

i o ns reli gi o n t h e t h eatr e tri a ls buri a l a nd m a ny o th er t o p

, , , , ,

i cs t h a t m a k e t h e li fe o f t h e an ci ent A t h eni a ns o f inter e st t o

T u cker s Li fe i n t he Ro ma n Wo rld
’

o f Nero an d S t Paul
.

Cl ot/z, 8 210 , i l l u st r a t ed, 45 3 p ages ,

W ritt en as was , rm e r b o o k in t h e b eli ef th at t h e

t h e fo ,
“

o ne g r ea t h O p e fo r cl a ssi ca l l ea rnin g a nd edu cati o n li e s in t h e

int er est w h i ch t h e unl ea rn ed p ubli c ma y b e br o u gh t t o feel

in anci ent li fe a nd t h o u gh t .

T h e ch a p t ers in t h is b o o k d ea l wit h to p i cs ch a ra ct eristi c

o f t h e d a ily s o ci a l li f e o f t h e R o m a ns in a s p e ci a l p eri o d .

A m o n g t h e m o r e im p o rt a nt t o p i cs dis cuss ed ma y b e m en
t i o ned t h e im p eri a l s y st em str eets w a t er su p p ly a nd build
, ,

i ng m a t erials t h e t o wn h o us e t h e co untry s ea t tr a v e l h oli

, , , ,

d a ys a nd a mus em ents p o siti o n o f w o m a n edu cati o n s o cial

, , ,

d a y o f a n a ri st o crat li fe in middl e a nd l o w e r cl a ss es p h i
, ,

lo s o p h y .

T HE M A C M I L L A N CO M P A N Y
P u bl i sh ers 6 4 66 F i ft h Av enu e
-
New Y o rk
University of Toronto
li brary

D O N OT

R EM O V E

C AR D

FR O M

T HIS

P O C K ET

Acm e Li b ra ry C a rd P o ck et
Und er P at . I ndex F il e
“
R ef .
”

M ad e b y LI B R AR Y B UR EAU