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GEOGRAPHY
GRADE 12
THEORY

2020 EDITION
 GEOGRAPHY GRADE 12
STUDY GUIDE
2020
(CAPS CURRICULUM)
Developed for the Gauteng Department of Education in partnership,
Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance
Authors – Petronella Delport (Ekurhuleni North D6)
and Kamalan Nair (Sedibeng West D8)
Gauteng Department of Education
Illustrations and Design
First Edition: September 2020
First Impression: September 2020
Quality Assurance – Portia G January (GDE)
All images courtesy Google Images and 1:50 000 topographic maps, vertical aerial
photographs and orthophoto maps that appear in this study guide courtesy of the
Chief Directorate: National Geo-Spatial Information
Foreword
This Geography Study guide has been designed to meet the needs of learners to instil an
improved involvement and interaction with the content and the study of Geography. The
geographical knowledge is therefore presented in a meaningful way to navigate the
Geography CAPS curriculum.
The learner is guided towards explaining and interpreting both physical and human
geographical processes through the exploration of materials that will elicit an understanding
of spatial processes, spatial distribution and human environment interactions (The Aims of
Geography)
The layout and design provides a framework for conceptual learning of basic geographical
concepts and enables an awakening of curiosity, stimulating thought and discussion on the
topic. Difficult concepts are presented at the beginning with mind-maps, functional
illustrations are presented to enhance understanding and improve retention of the
geography subject content
The authors

Revision: Grade 10 and 11

HIGH- AND LOW-PRESSURE CELL (Grade 10)
Importance of High- and Low-pressure Cells:
The unequal heating of the atmosphere results in the development of high- and low-
pressure cells. It is important that you know the characteristics of High- and Low-
pressure cells

High pressure cell Low pressure cell

Cross section
Plan view

 Air subsides (decends)  Air ascends (rises)

 Air diverges at the centre  Air converges at the centre
 Clear/dry skies  Condesation takes place
 No release of latent heat  Latent heat is released during
 No cloud formation condensation
 Oval shaped isobars  Clouds form and precipitation occurs
Characteristics

 Air circulates in an anticlockwise  Circular shaped isobars

rotation  Air circulates in a clockwise
 Isobar values increase towards rotation
the centre of the high pressure  Also known as a cyclone
 Also called an Anticyclones  Isobar values decrease towards
 Forms: the centre of the low pressure
- South Atlantic Anticyclone  Also called a Cyclone
- South Indian Anticyclone  Forms:
- Kalahari Anticyclone - Coastal low
- Mid-Latitude cyclones
- Tropical cyclones
WORLD PRESSURE BELTS (Grade 11)

Importance of the Pressure belts:

The development of High- and Low-pressure cells results in the development of the pressure belts at different latitudes because of
pressure gradient and Coriolis force that have an impact on the global circulation of the atmosphere.

Pressure belts Caracteristics of the Pressure belts

Polar high at  Associated with cold, dense air which subsides over the poles.
90° N and S  Stable, clear and cold
 conditions prevail
 A region of low pressure associated with the convergence of two
different air masses.
Sub-polar  The air is forced to rise.
Low at  This creates a low-pressure area.
 Also called the polar front and this is where mid-latitude
60° N and S
cyclones originate.
 A region of high pressure associated with subsiding air
Sub-tropical  The descending air is warm and dry.
High at  Deserts form in these regions.
30 °N and S  Associated with clear skies and low rainfall.
 A region of high pressure associated with subsiding air.
 Associated with clear skies and low rainfall.
 Also called the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) where
Equatorial low maximum heating takes place.
at 0°  Hot air rises creating a low-pressure area at the surface.
 The rising air is moisture laden.
 Associated with convergence thunderstorms and high rainfall.
 Confluence of NE trade winds and SE trade winds at 5° North and
Source: [Link]
South results in the development of Tropical cyclones.
trade-winds/
BASELINE ACTIVITY 1.1: GRADE 11 REVISION
1.1 Study FIGURE 1.1, the world map showing Global Air Circulation and
identify the following features.

[Source: [Link]

1.1.1 Name the pressure cell that develops at 90⁰ N and S. (1)

1.1.2 The surface wind which develops between the 30⁰ and 60⁰
North and South. (1)

1.1.3 The pressure belt that would dominates the 30⁰ North and South
latitude. (1)

1.1.4 Identify the surface wind that will be experienced between the
90⁰ and 60⁰ North and South latitudes. (1)

1.1.5 What is another name for the 0⁰ latitude area? (1)

1.1.6 Name the pressure cell that develops at 60⁰ N and S. (1)

1.1.7 Identify the surface wind that will be experienced between the 30⁰
and 0⁰ North and South latitudes. (1)
(7 x 1) (7)
BASELINE ACTIVITY 1.2: GRADE 11 REVISION
1.2 Study FIGURE 1.2 and answer the questions that follow by choosing the appropriate
word/phrase from the text box.

[Source: [Link]

High, Low, Warm, Cold, Diverge, Pressure Cells, Rise, Polar Easterlies, Converge

1.2. In the Polar Cell there is a … pressure. (1

1 )

1.2. In the Polar Cell air sinks because it is … (1

2 )

1.2. Winds in the Polar Cell … in the upper atmosphere. (1

3 )

1.2. The winds in the Ferrel Cell … on the surface. (1

4 )

1.2. Winds converge and … at the equator. (1

5 )

1.2. The Hadley Cell is associated with … pressure. (1

6 )

1.2. Air rises in the Hadley Cell because it is … (1

7 )

(7 x 1) (7)

Page 9 of 75
 CONTENT:

1. CLIMATE AND WEATHER

1.1 Mid-latitude cyclone

1.2 Tropical cyclone
1.3 Subtropical anticyclones and associated weather
1.4 Valley climate
1,5 Urban climate

2. GEOMORPHOLOGY

2.1 Drainage systems in South Africa

2.2 Fluvial processes
2.3 Catchment and river management

3. RURAL SETTLEMENT AND URBAN SETTLEMENT

3.1 The study of settlements

3.2 Rural settlements
3.3 Rural settlement issues
3.4 Urban settlements
3.5 Urban hierarchies
3.6 Urban structure and patterns
3.7 Urban settlement issues

4. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AFRICA

4.1 Structure of the economy

4.2 Agriculture
4.3 Mining
4.4 Secondary and tertiary sectors
4.5 Strategies for industrial development
4.6 The informal sector

Page 10 of 75
Page 11 of 75
 1.1 MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES

1.2 TROPICAL CYCLONES

1.3 SUB-TROPICAL SOUTH ATLANTIC

ANTICYCLONES

SOUTH INDIAN
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

KALAHARI

ASPECT

1.4 VALLEY CLIMATE INVERSION LAYER

FROST POCKETS

URBAN HEAT ISLAND

1.5 URBAN CLIMATE

POLLUTION DOME

Page 12 of 75
 A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT

B. CONDITIONS NESSESARY FOR DEVELOPMENT

C. CHARACTERISTICS

INITIAL
1.1 MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE

D. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT

MATURE
E. SYNOPTIC WEATHER
MAPS

COLD FRONT

WARM FRONT

F. WEATHER PATTERNS
OCCLUDED FRONTS

G. IMPACT ON HUMAN, ENVIRONMENT, ECONOMY

H. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT IMPACT

Page 13 of 75
KEY CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
Term Explanation

A huge mass of air, extending for hundreds of kilometres, with similar

Air mass temperature and humidity

The anticlockwise change in wind direction that occurs as a mid-latitude

Backing cyclone passes over.

The leading edge of a cold air mass of a mid-latitude cyclone.

Cold front
An occlusion where the overtaking cold air is colder than the cold air ahead
Cold front
of it. The overtaking cold front lifts warm air off the ground.
occlusion
The mass of colder air behind the cold front in a mid-latitude cyclone.
Cold sector
The development and strengthening of a mid-latitude and Tropical cyclone.
Cyclogenesis
The boundary separating two air masses with different densities.
Front
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone; an area where the tropical easterlies
ITCZ converge.

A band of very strong westerly winds high in the atmosphere (troposphere)

Jet stream: which partly controls the development of mid-latitude cyclones.

A large, low-pressure weather system made up of warm and cold fronts;

Mid-latitude also called an extra-tropical cyclone, temperate depression or frontal
cyclone depression.

Occluded front A front formed when a cold front overtakes and replaces a warm air mass.

The decaying stage in the development of a mid-latitude cyclone where the

cold front to the rear catches up with the leading warm front, lifts the warm
Occlusion
air off the ground and meets the cold air ahead of the warm front.

Zone separating the cold polar air (easterlies) and warm tropical air
Polar front (westerlies).

The shift of wind in a clockwise direction over time at a specific location, for
Veering wind example from a southerly to south easterly.

The leading edge of a warm air mass.

Warm front
An occlusion where the overtaking cold air is warmer than the cold air
Warm front
ahead of it.
occlusion
The warm air behind the warm front of a mid-latitude cyclone.
Warm sector

Page 14 of 75
 1.1 MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES – NOTES/SUMMARIES

A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT

 In Middle or temperate latitudes

 Between latitudes 30° - 60° north and south
of the equator.
 Forms at a polar front where warm
westerlies and cold polar easterlies meet

OTHER NAMES

 Moderate Cyclones,
 Extratropical Cyclones
 Temperate Cyclones

B. CONDITIONS NESSESARY FOR C. CHARACTERISTICS

DEVELOPMENT  Extensive low-pressure in centre
 Cold polar air mass from cold polar  Clockwise movement of air in Mid-Latitude Cyclone in Southern Hemisphere
easterlies and warm tropical air from warm  Cold front
westerly winds, meet  Cold sector (air behind front cold)
 Cause an imbalance in energy distribution  Warm front
because of difference in temperature.  Warm sector (air behind front warm)
 Differences in wind patterns(direction)  Isobar pattern is oval
contribute to resultant formation.  Moves from west to east because of stronger westerly winds
 Affects the Western side of continents in the middle latitudes
More prominent in winter over South Africa  Diameters are between 1 500 and 3 000km
because of the northward Migration of the ITCZ  Speed of about 50 – 60 km per hour
and with it the migration of the high-pressure cells  Lifespan of between 4 and 14 days.
 They usually occur in families.; Forms all year but better developed in Winter
from April to October in South Africa
Page 15 of 75
 D. DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF A MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE
Cyclogenesis: 4. OCCLUDED STAGE
• Warm sector continues to
The development
narrow.
and strengthening
• Cold front overtakes the
of a cyclone
warm front Cold air
wedges in under warm air
FOUR STAGES
• The warm air then
1. Initial
becomes isolated from
2. Development
the ground.
3. Mature
• This is called an occlusion
4. Occluded

1. INITIAL STAGE 2. DEVELOPMENT STAGE 3. MATURE STAGE

 The low pressure intensifies

 It moves into the westerly wind belt away
 The Polar front is stationary from the polar front.
 Warm westerly and cold polar easterlies blow  A wave develops in the polar front.  A well-developed cold and warm sector
in opposite directions along the polar front.  A small mass of warm air extends into develops.
 The different air masses do not have the same the cold air and rises over.  The cold dense air moves faster and forces
density, temperature and humidity.  This rising air cause a low pressure in the light humid less dense air to rise in the
 Therefore, they do not mix the centre. warm sector.
 Friction develops between the air masses. The cold sector becomes larger than the
 The polar front forms a wave due to the friction warm sector as the cold air moves and lifts
the warm air.

Page 16 of 75
 TWO TYPES OF OCCLUSIONS:

COLD FRONT OCCLUSION: WARM FRONT OCCLUSION:

 Air ahead of the cold front is slightly warmer than the air behind  Air ahead of the cold front is colder than the air behind the cold
the cold front. front.
 This causes the warm air in front to be uplifted along the cold  This results in the air behind the cold front and the warm air in
front. warm sector, rising over the cold air in the front.
 Rising air cools, condensation takes place and forms  Rising air cools, condensation takes place and forms
nimbostratus clouds. nimbostratus clouds.
 This results in rain.  This results in rain.

[Source: [Link]
[Source: [Link]

Page 17 of 75
E. THE APPEARANCE OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES ON SATELLITE IMAGES AND SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS
COLD FRONT WARM FRONT
SATELLITE IMAGE

CROSS-SECTION
SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAP

TOP VIEW / PLAN VIEW

Page 18 of 75
F. ASSOCIATED WEATHER PATTERNS
COLD FRONT WARM FRONT

WEATHER COLD SECTOR COLD FRONT WARM SECTOR WARM FRONT CYCLONE APPROACHING
Air pressure Increase continues Sudden increase Remains steady Decrease stops Steady decrease
at slow rate
Wind direction South Backing from west to West Backing from north-west Northwest
south to west
Wind speed Gusty, decrease Very strong to gale Decrease Strong Increase slowly
slowly force
Temperature Cold, around 5 °C Sudden decrease Warm to mild, Sudden rise Cool, around 8 °C
around 12 °C
Relative Rapid fall High during Steady and high High during precipitation Slow rise
humidity precipitation
Cloud cover Decreasing in Very thick and Low stratus clouds Low and thick High and thinner clouds
succession to towering with clear patches in nimbostratus altostratus, cirrostratus and
cumulus cumulonimbus between cirrus
Precipitation Heavy and later Short period of heavy Intermittent drizzle Continuous rainfall – None
soft, persistent rain and hail or stop steady and quite heavy
showers
Visibility Very good, but poor Poor, especially in Often poor Decrease rapidly Good, but decreasing with
in showers showers and fog nearing front
Page 19 of 75
REASONS FOR WEATHER CHANGES IN COLD FRONT
CHANGE COLD FRONT REASON
Temperature Decrease Cold air behind front has arrived
Wind “backs” becomes SW Clockwise rotation from air around the low pressure
Cloud cover Increases Warm air rises over the approaching cold air, cools and condenses
Cloud type Cumulonimbus Cold air forces the warm air to rise sharply therefore condensation occurs to great heights
Pressure Drops then rises Pressure at its lowest just before cold front then it rises as cold air arrives
Rainfall Heavy rainfall over small area Strong convection and cumulonimbus clouds

G. IMPACT OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES ON HUMANS, ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT

HUMANS ENVIRONMENT ECONOMY
 Winter rainfall determined type of crops that are  Winter rainfall is necessary for  Production of winter crops
POSITIVE

cultivated winter crops benefits the GDP

 Rain replenish water in dams  Production of winter crops results 
 Snow in mountains replenish water when melts in food security

 Snow that falls is dangerous for people  Snow that falls is dangerous for  Expensive for farmers to
 Extreme cold can result in power cuts and disruption livestock protect crops and livestock
of human activities  Extreme cold damage crops and  Floods can damage crops and
NEGATIVE

 Bergwinds that develop in warm sector is hot and dry livestock impact the economy negative
and can cause veld fires  Bergwinds damage vegetation
 Gale force winds behind cold front results in stormy because of dry warm conditions
conditions over ocean and is a danger to ships  Gale force winds damage crops
 Heavy rain from cold front leads to poor visibility and  Heavy rain cause floods and crops
traffic accidents and livestock are damaged
 Mountain passes may be closed if there is snow
H. STRATEGIES TO MINIMISE THE IMPACT OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES
 Monitoring the development of Mid-Latitude cyclones  Keep livestock in barns to protect them against the cold plant winter crops
 Early warning and communication for people to prepare that can resist cold
 Evacuate low lying areas to protect against floods  People should stay indoors to protect them against the cold, wind and rain

Page 20 of 75
 ACTIVITY 1.1 MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES
1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions
based on the cross-section of the mid-latitude cyclone in FIGURE 1.1. Choose
the answer and write down only the letter (A–D) next to the question numbers
(1.1.1 to 1.1.8), e.g. 1.1.9 D.

[Source: DBE Paper 1 November 2019]

1.1.1 The general direction of movement of the mid-latitude cyclone in the

Southern Hemisphere is … -wards.

A north
B west
C east
D south
1.1.2 Identify cloud A that is associated with the warm front.

A Stratus
B Cumulus
C Nimbostratus
D Cumulonimbus

1.1.3 The area at B is referred to as the …

A warm sector.
B cold sector.
C polar front.
D apex.

1.1.4 The type of cloud at C is …

A stratus.
B cirrus.
C cumulonimbus.
D nimbostratus.

Page 21 of 75
 1.1.5 The gradient at D can be described as …

A steep.
B gentle.
C weak.
D vertical.

1.1.6 The … front is found at D.

A polar.
B cold.
C occlusion.
D warm.

1.1.7 The more active and faster moving front is the … front.

A polar
B cold
C warm
D moisture

1.1.8 The type of rainfall at E is/are …

A light showers.
B frontal rain.
C orographic rain.
D convectional rain.
(8 x 1) (8)

Page 22 of 75
 Activity 1.2: Mid-Latitude Cyclone
1.2 Refer to FIGURE 1.2 which shows a mid-latitude cyclone.

[Source: [Link]
[Link]]

1.2.1 Provide ONE point of evidence visible in FIGURE 1.2 to substantiate

that the mid-latitude cyclone shown is in the mature stage of
development. (1 x 1) (1)

1.2.2 Which hemisphere is depicted in FIGURE 1.2? (1 x 1) (1)

1.2.3 Draw a transverse profile from E to F in FIGURE 1.2 and indicate

the following:

(a) An arrow indicating the direction of movement of the front.

(b) A label for the cloud type depicted.
(c) The area of cold air.
(d) The area of warm air. (4 x 1) (4)

1.2.4 Account for the likelihood (chance) that expected rainfall at location
A in FIGURE 1.2 will be gentle. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2.5 An outdoor music festival is planned at location D in FIGURE 1.2 in

the next 24 hours. Recommend the rescheduling of the event by
providing TWO climatological reasons as to how the music festival
could be affected by the expected changes in weather that may
occur. (2 x 2) (4)

Page 23 of 75
 Activity 1.3: Mid-Latitude Cyclone

1.3 Study FIGURE 1.3 showing mid-latitude cyclones on a synoptic weather

map of southern Africa.

1.3.1 Give the term used to describe the linked mid-latitude cyclones. 1 x 1) (1)

1.3.2 What evidence suggests that mid-latitude cyclone A is the oldest?

(1 x 2) (2)

1.3.3 Why is front D NOT associated with heavy rain? (1 x 2) (2)

1.3.4 What causes the dissipation of mid-latitude cyclones? (1 x 2) (2)

1.3.5 Write a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines explaining the

weather conditions that will be experienced by a tourist visiting Cape
Town with the approach of a cold front. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 24 of 75
 Activity 1.4: Map Work application

1.4 Study the extract of the 3419 AC HERMANUS topographic map and the
simplified map of South Africa showing an approaching mid-latitude cyclone.

Source: Glenn Samaai

PowerPoint presentation

[Source: Extract from 3419 AC HERMANUS]

1.4.1 Predict the direction of movement of the mid-latitude cyclone located

South-west of Hermanus. (1 x 1) (1)

1.4.2 In which general direction will fishermen launch their boats from the
New Harbour? (1 x 1) (1)

1.4.3 Explain how the approaching mid-latitude cyclone will impact the
launching of the fishing boats at Hermanus harbour? (2 x 2) (4)

Page 25 of 75
Page 26 of 75
 A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT

B. CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION

C. CARACTERISTICS INITIAL

DEVELOPMENT
D. STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
1.2 TROPICAL CYCLONE

MATURE

DECAYING

E. SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS

EYE

EYE WALL
F. WEATHER PATTERNS

ACTIVE QUADRANT

G. IMPACT ON HUMAN, ENVIRONMENT, ECONOMY

H. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT IMPACT

Page 27 of 75
 A. Key Concepts: Tropical Cyclones

Term Explanation

Adiabatic Occurs when air descends and compresses, resulting in very little
heating precipitation.

Adiabatic lapse Is the rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes in response
rate to the compression or expansion associated with elevation change, under
the assumption that the process is adiabatic, i.e., no heat exchange
occurs between the given air parcel and its surroundings.

Coriolis force A force caused by the rotation of the earth which results in the
deflection of the winds and ocean currents. Deflection is to the right
in the northern and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Dissipate Is to break up or disappear or weakening

Eye The calm area at the centre of a tropical cyclone

Eyewall The walls of cumulonimbus cloud which surround the eye of a tropical
cyclone.

Latent heat The heat or energy that is absorbed or released during a phase change of
a substance. It could either be from a gas to a liquid or liquid to solid.

Make landfall The term used to describe the arrival of the eye of a tropical cyclone over
the coast.

Storm surge An abnormal rise of water along the coast associated with a low-pressure
system as a tropical cyclone.

Tropical A powerful, rotating storm system, around a low-pressure cell which

Cyclone: develops over a warm ocean between the tropics. the eye moves
over land.

Tropical A tropical cyclone is classified as making a landfall when the centre of the
cyclone landfall storm moves across the coast, in strong tropical cyclones.

Vortex A mass of spinning air that attracts more air to its centre.

Water spout It is a weak tornado that forms at sea in association with the storm clouds
of a tropical cyclone.

Page 28 of 75
 1.2. TROPICAL CYCLONE

A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT SOURCE OF ENERGY

 Between latitudes 30° N  Latent heat released as warm, moist tropical air condenses
and 30°S
 Tropical easterlies
 Not between equator and
5°N and 5°S because
there is 0 Coriolis force

OTHER NAMES
 Hurricane: Golf of Mexico
 Typhoon: Japan and
eastern China
 Tropical cyclones: Africa
and Australia

B. CONDITIONS NESSESARY AND REASONS FOR DEVELOPMENT

 5° N and S of equator - Weak Coriolis force at equator.
 Ocean must be warmer than 26.5 °C – Warm water has a high evaporation rate to feed the LP
system.
 Develop only over the tropical oceans – there is less friction over a smooth surface.
 Hot moist air - creates unstable air that continue to rise.
 Unstable air results in condensation - condensation release latent heat into the atmosphere which
provides more energy.
 Surface air convergence - Air is forced to rise when it converges at a low-pressure system.
 Upper air divergence - More moist air is drawn into the system at the surface as the air diverge in
the upper air.
 Intense low-pressure cell enhanced by the tropical jet stream in the upper air – because of
stronger surface convergence, convection and upper air divergence.
 Needs Coriolis forced to cause spiralling winds - deflection of air results in clockwise circulation in
Southern Hemisphere.

C. CHARACTERISTICS OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

Page 29 of 75
  5° N and S of equator - Weak Coriolis force at equator.
 Ocean must be warmer than 26.5 °C – Warm water has a high evaporation rate to feed
the LP system.
 Develop only over the tropical oceans – there is less friction over a smooth surface.
 Hot moist air - creates unstable air that continue to rise.
 Unstable air results in condensation - condensation release latent heat into the
atmosphere which provides more energy.
 Surface air convergence - Air is forced to rise when it converges at a low-pressure
system.
 Upper air divergence - More moist air is drawn into the system at the surface as the air
diverge in the upper air.
 Intense low-pressure cell enhanced by the tropical jet stream in the upper air – because
of stronger surface convergence, convection and upper air divergence.
 Needs Coriolis forced to cause spiralling winds - deflection of air results in clockwise
circulation in Southern Hemisphere.

Page 30 of 75
 D. DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

INITIAL STAGE DEVELOPMENT STAGE MATURE STAGE DECAYING STAGE

 Convergence of air towards a low  Intensity of storm increases as  Storm reach its maximum  Air cools down when
pressure air continue to coverge and rise intensity entering the temperate
 Creates a vortex in LP centre  Pressure drops to about 950 hPa latitudes
 Air pressure about 1002hPa  Divergence takes place in  Wind speed exceed 180 km/h  Cooler air flows into the
 Wind speed up to 60 km/h upper atmosphere  Fully developed eye cyclone increasing the
 Air pressure drops below  Eye is clear, cloudless due to pressure
990hPa cooler subsiding air  When moving inland,
 Wind speed increases to about  Vortex well developed supply of moisture is cut
120 km/h  Wind speed and up to 600 km in of and surface friction
 Eye forms in centre of LP diameter slows it down
 Huge cumulonumbus clouds  Torrential rain, thunder and
forms around the eye and swirls lighting experienced
to form a vortex

Page 31 of 75
E. SATELLITE IMAGES AND SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS
SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAP SATELLITE IMAGE

EYE THE EYE WALL ACTIVE QUADRANT

Decending air in centre of storm which  The eyewall consists of a ring of tall  Strongest region of Tropical Cyclone
results in: cumulonimbus clouds  When winds rotating around the storm centre
 Period of calm /stable conditions  Thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and coincide with the winds moving the cyclone
 No clouds usually the strongest winds. system
 No wind
 Changes in the structure of the eye and  Forward left-hand quadrant in southern
 Air pressure below 1000hPa
eyewall can cause changes in the wind hemisphere due to the forward motion
 Increase of temperatures because of
speed, which is an indicator of the storm's contributing to the rotation of the storm.
adiabatic heating
 No presipitation
intensity.  This side of the storm tends to have higher
  The eye wall is the strongest part of the storm winds, higher storm surge, seas, and the
 The air located in the eye wall moves faster highest rainfall.
than any other part of the storm and it pulls in  This is not to be confused with the strongest
warmer ocean water to fuel the storm. part of a tropical cyclone which is the eye wall.
Page 32 of 75
 F. ASSOCIATED WEATHER PATTERNS
CROSS-SECTION
TOP VIEW
WEATHER ELEMENTS

1 2 3 4 5
Air Dropping Drops < 950hPa Rises but normalises
pressure still low
Temperatu ±26°C Drops due Rises to ± 28°C ± 26°C normilises
re to cloud due to adiabatic
cover heating
Wind Fast Hurricane Calm in the eye, Hurricane Slow down and
speed strength no wind strength normilises
winds – wind,
Strongest in
the cyclone
Rainfall Light Torrential Clear up, no Torrential Softer rain that
rain rain rain rain clears up

Page 33 of 75
G. IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONES ON HUMANS, ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT

HUMANS ENVIRONMENT ECONOMY

 Torrential rain results in the risk of flooding.  Strong winds cause storm surges which  Airports are closed.
 Strong winds damage and shatter windows and rip off roofs. can cause rapid rise in sea-levels.  Damage harbour facilities.
 Storm surges cause damage to the coastal areas.  Floods and salt water destroy agricultural  Businesses are closed.
 Damage infrastructure. Roads and bridges washed away. crops.  No trading is possible.
 Loss and damage of homes.  Flooding and rise in river levels because of  Costly to repair damages.
 Damaged water pipes result in lack of fresh water. rain can cause mudslides and landslides.  Job losses, unemployment
 Wind and water damage power lines.  Destroy ecosystems and biodiversity.  High medical expenses.
 Deaths and injuries of people and animals because of wind,  Livestock drowns.  Costly insurance claims
floods and storm surges.  Lack of clean water. (business and personal).
 Starvation because of lack of food.  Threatening of food security.  Put a strain on local civic
 Outbreak of deseases e.g. cholera, typhoid etc. Damaged sewerage pipes result in pollution. services.
 Major financial strain on families.  Limit’s export.
 Subsistence farmers lose everything.  Increases imports (food and other
Swell of waves is dangerous for fisherman/humans. commodities).

H. STRATEGIES TO MINIMISE THE IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONES

 Monitoring the development of Tropical cyclones  Keep livestock in barns to protect them against the wind and rain
 Satellite tracking can monitor the development and path  People should stay indoors to protect them against flying debris, wind and
 Advanced weather predictions and warnings rain
 Satellite born censors to collect details e.g. rainfall rates  Upgrade technology in LEDC countries
 Early warning and communication for people to prepare  Good medical care will reduce outbreak of deceases
 Evacuate low lying areas to protect against floods  Good emergency services that is well-equipped
 Ensure that infrastructure is of good quality  Local civic services should be well-prepared to assist

Page 34 of 75
C. Activity 1.5: Tropical cyclones
1.5 Refer to FIGURE 1.5.1 showing a cross-section of a tropical cyclone. Choose
the correct word(s) from those given in brackets to make the statements TRUE.
Write only the word(s) next to the question numbers (1.5.1 to 1.5.7) in the
ANSWER BOOK.

[Source: [Link]

1.5.1 Cloud A is a (cumulus/cumulonimbus) cloud.

1.5.2 The updrafts at B are caused by (convection/advection) currents.

1.5.3 Area C is named the (eye/eye wall).

1.5.4 The atmospheric condition experienced at C is (stable/unstable)

1.5.5 D indicates an area of (divergence/convergence).

1.5.6 E will experience (light rain/thunderstorms).

1.5.7 Ocean F is likely (warm/cold). (7 x (7)

1)

Page 35 of 75
Activity 1.6: Tropical cyclones
1.6 Study the Case Study of Tropical Cyclone Eloise which hits Mozambique.
Tropical Cyclone Eloise made landfall
early morning on 23 January near
Mozambique's city of Beira, causing
widespread damage and flooding on a
long swathe of coastline and impacting an
area still recovering from Cyclone Idai
Neighbouring southern African nations are
also being hit by torrential rainfall and
flooding from Eloise, which weakened to a
tropical storm after landfall. Tropical
[Source: [Link] Cyclone Eloise made landfall at Category
1 strength, with winds of 140 km/h and
gusts up to 160 km/h,
According to Mozambique’s National Institute of Meteorology. Beira received 250 mm
of rain in 24 hours, and other areas that were flooded ahead of Eloise’s landfall also
received additional heavy rains. Eloise impacted Madagascar before crossing the
Mozambican Channel, killing at least one person. RSMC La Réunion warned of heavy rains
in parts of Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, says WMO regional centre La Réunion. The
South African Weather Service issued top-level Red Alerts as floods swept through the
northern part of the country, including the famed Kruger National Park.

Eloise poses a serious threat to the coast of Mozambique, and is dangerous cyclone,
“according to RSMC La Reunion. “High winds, heavy rainfall and dangerous sea
conditions are to be expected. There is a major risk of coastal flooding.
[Source:[Link]

1.6.1 How many tropical cyclones have occurred before tropical cyclone
Eloise in this season? (1 x 1) (1)

1.6.2 Give evidence from the satellite photo that Eloise is a tropical cyclone
in the Southern Hemisphere. (1 x 2) (2)

1.6.3 In what stage of development is this weather system? (1 x 1) (1)

1.6.4 Give a description of the characteristics of the storm in this stage.

(2 x 2) (4)

1.6.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines describe the possible

impact that Eloise will have on Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South
Africa. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 36 of 75
 Activity 1.7: Tropical cyclones
1.7 FIGURE 1.7 is based on a case study of a tropical cyclone that recently affected
Southern Africa.

FIGURE 1.7 Tropical cyclone Idai has quickly

strengthened into an intense tropical
cyclone and has been fluctuating
(changing) in intensity over the past
48 hours. An intense tropical cyclone
is equivalent to a category 3
hurricane.
Idai is slowly moving in a westerly
direction towards Mozambique with
wind speeds exceeding 170 km/h
closer to the eye.
It is expected to reach the coastal
area near Beira, Mozambique's fourth
largest city with 530 000 residents,
[Adapted from [Link].10] before midnight on Thursday.

1.7.1 Refer to the article. With what can you compare this intense tropical
cyclone? (1 x 1) (1)

1.7.2 Name ONE condition that was necessary for the formation of tropical
cyclone Idai. (1 x 1) (1)

1.7.3 Refer to the image and determine the expected wind speed with which
tropical cyclone Idai will reach the coast of Mozambique. (1 x 1) (1)

1.7.4 Why will the wind speed decrease as you move further from the
eyewall? (1 x 2) (2)

1.7.5 Explain how the dangerous semi-circle of tropical cyclone Idai

originated (developed). (1 x 2) (1)

1.7.6 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, suggest the negative

impact that high wind speeds will have on the coastal areas of
Mozambique. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 37 of 75
 Activity 1.8: Tropical cyclones
1.8

Page 38 of 75
 Activity 1.9: Map Work application
1.9 Refer to the satellite image of tropical cyclone Idai and topographic
map of 2732 CD KULENI Greater St. Lucia) below.

Tropical Cyclone Iadi had

devastating impact on the St Lucia
Estuary
Tropical cyclones will affect South Africa
during January and February. Only Tropical
Cyclones moving into the Mozambique
channel influence South Africa’s weather.
Shocking images of devastation were
recorded on 10 March 2019 when a the
bridge over the Mzinene river washed away
by the cyclone, which restricted access
from of KwaMduku to rescue the residence
on the flooded Cloete farm.

1.9.1 From which direction will tropical Cyclone Idai approach the Greater St.

Page 39 of 75
 Lucia area? (1 x 1) (1)

1.9.2 Give evidence from the topographic map that the bridge at C on the
topographic map, was prone to flooding. (2 x 2) (4)

1.9.3 A leisure boat was anchored at Tonn’s Point (A). Explain what caused
it to be blown to point B. (1 x 2) (2)

Page 40 of 75
 A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT

B. CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION

1.3 SUB-TROPICAL ANTICYCLONE

C. CARACTERISTICS
SOUTH ATLANTIC

D. TYPES OF
ANTICYCLONES SOUTH INDIAN

KALAHARI

SUMMER CONDITIONS

WINTER CONDITIONS

E. WEATHER PATTERNS
MOISTURE FRONT

LINE THUNDERSTORMS

F. TRAVELING DISTURBANCES
COASTAL LOW

BERGWINDS

Page 41 of 75
 A. Key concepts: Subtropical Anticyclones and Associated
Weather Conditions

Term Explanation

Adiabatic heating Heating which occurs when the air is compressed.

Anticyclones A large high-pressure cell of stable subsiding air.

Berg wind A local wind that blows down the escarpment from the plateau to the
coast, bringing hot, dry weather.

Coastal low: A localised low-pressure system that brings changeable weather to a

coastal region.

Cut-off low A low-pressure cell which has become completely displaced over
pressure system: the land and moves independently of any air around it.

Inversion layer: A layer of air where temperature increases with increasing altitude.

Kalahari High: A large high-pressure cell over South Africa’s interior; it is responsible for
clear skies and dry conditions in winter.

Line thunderstorm Summer storms that occur when a trough of low pressure develops over
the interior between the thermal low and coastal low.

Moisture front: A boundary over the interior where warm, moist air blowing from the north-
east (Indian Ocean) meets cool, dry air from the south-west (Atlantic
Ocean).

Ridge: An extension of a high-pressure cell when the isobars extend along the
east -west axis. This happens when the south Atlantic high sometimes
extends behind a passing cold front in winter or around the southern tip of
South Africa in summer.

South Atlantic A large high-pressure cell over the Atlantic Ocean; it sometimes pushes
High-Pressure: cold fronts inland.

South Indian High A large high-pressure cell over the Indian Ocean; it is responsible for rain
Pressure: in the eastern half of South Africa.

Sub-tropical High-pressure cells of the general circulation centred at about 30ᵒ North
anticyclones and South.

Thermal low- A thermal low-pressure that develops over the central interior of Southern
pressure: Africa in the summer.

Trough: Occurs between two low pressure cells or an extension of a low-pressure

cell.

Subsiding air Is sinking air.

Page 42 of 75
 1.3 ANTICYCLONES – NOTES/SUMMARIES
1. OCEANS: South Africa is surrounded by the THE 3 MAIN FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOUTH AFRICA’S
ocean and the weather is influenced by ocean WEATHER
currents.
- The warm Mozambique/Agulhas current

CROSS SECTION
over the Indian Ocean. Onshore winds
bringing warm air that has high moisture
content.
- The cold Benguela current over the Atlantic
Ocean flows next to the west coast and
onshore winds bring cold/cool air that has low
moisture content.

2. RELIEF: The interior part of South Africa is a

high–lying plateau; temperatures in South
Africa are generally lower because the higher
the altitude the lower the temperature).

3. South Africa’s LATITUDINAL POSITION in the TOP VIEW

sub-tropics results in the weather being affected
by the subtropical high-pressure cells, called
anticyclones. The anticyclones are:
 South Atlantic Anticyclone
[Source: [Link]]
 South Indian Anticyclone
 Kalahari Anticyclone

Page 43 of 75
 A. AREA OF DEVELOPMENT

CROSS SECTION
 Subtropical high-pressure zone
 30° South of equator
 Dominant pressure belt over South Africa

THREE ANTI-CYCLONES
 South Atlantic anticyclone
 South Indian Anticyclone
 Kalahari Anticyclone

TOP VIEW
B. CONDITIONS NESSESARY FOR
DEVELOPMENT
 Descending air from tropical and mid-latitude cells
 30° North and South of equator

C. CHARACTERISTICS
 Anticlockwise circulation
 Dry descending air results in stable atmospheric conditions and intensifies high
pressure system.
 Adiabatic warming of decending air in the anticyclone
 Clear skies and sunshine
 Responcible for the semi-arid conditions over South Africa
 Winds blow outwards in an anti-clockwise direction in the southern
hemisphere.
 Adiabatic warming of decending air in the anticyclone.
 More prominent in winter over South Africa because of the northward Migration
of the ITCZ.
 Affect climate of South Africa

Page 44 of 75
 D. THREE ANTICYCLONES THAT HAVE AN IMPACT ON SOUTH AFRICA’S CLIMATE
SOUTH ATLANTIC ANTICYCLONE KALAHARI ANTICYCLONE SOUTH INDIAN ANTICYCLONE
Location – Namibian coast. Location - above the central plateau. Location - east coast of South Africa.
 Semi-permanent and semi-stationary. Summer:  Semi-permanent and semi-stationary.
 Changes are seasonal, linked to seasonal  Temperature is warmer above plateau.  Air moves Anticlockwise around system.
shift of ITCZ.  Inversion is formed above the escarpment.  When close to SA – moist winds reach
 Clear, stable weather.  Moist air from the Indian Ocean can flow into the the coast.
 Air moves Anticlockwise around system. interior which results in summer rainfall.  Blow over warm ocean.
 Cool dry air moves into the western and  Warm, moist onshore winds.
southern coasts.  Cooler land could cause precipitation.
 May deflect mid-latitude cyclones away from
the coast in summer.

Winter:
 Temperature is lower.
 Cool dense air sinks onto the interior.
 Sinking air compress and heat adiabatically
which cause lower layers to be warmer than
 When SAHP ridges behind cold front those above.
weather along front will intensifies  Inversion is formed below the escarpment.
 Pressure system rests on escarpment and
prevents warm air from the Indian Ocean to
reach the interior.

Sources:
[Link]
factors-that-influence-weather-in

Page 45 of 75
 E. IMAGES, SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER
PATTERNS
WINTER CONDITIONS SUMMER CONDITIONS
CROSS SECTION

[Source: Ace it, p 54]

PLAN / TOP VIEW

[Source: Focus, Geography Grade 12]

Winter: Summer:
 Anticyclones are in their northerly  Anticyclones are in their southerly
position and allow cold fronts to affect position and prevent the cold fronts
the country. from affecting the country.
 Mid-latitude cyclones move closer to  Kalahari Anticyclone is not present on
ASSOCIATED WEATHER

the Southern Coast. surface but located in upper air.

 Frontal rainfall over South Western  Warm air rises and forms thermal LP
Cape. which are associated with convectional
 Interior is cool, dry and clear because thunderstorms over interior.
of dominance of Kalahari Anticyclone.  Warm, moist air moves in over the
 Inversion layer is formed below the escarpment from north-east to bring
escarpment. clouds and rain into interior.
 Kalahari pressure system rests on  Higher temperatures and humidity over
escarpment and prevents warm air the interior.
from the Indian Ocean to reach the  Moisture front and squall line
interior. thunderstorms develop.
 Berg wind conditions develop.

Page 46 of 75
 F. TRAVELING DISTURBANCES

MOISTURE FRONT AND LINE THUNDERSTORMS

CROSS SECTION
TOP VIEW

[Source: Focus, Geography grade 12]

 Develop when a thermal/heat low pressure cell and a coastal low is located over South
Africa.
CHARACTERISTICS

 Low-pressure trough forms and feeds moist air into the interior.
 Occurs in summer when the low pressure dominates the interior.
 The moisture front develops where the cool dry air from the South West, meets the warm
moist air from the North East.
 The cool air lifts the warm air which cools adiabatically, condenses and forms
cumulonimbus clouds.
 Rain falls to the North East of the moisture front.
 No rain falls to the South West of the moisture front.

NEGATIVE: POSITIVE
 Thunderstorms can cause damage in  Replenish water in dams
IMPACT

summer.  Relief drought in the interior

 Torrential downpour can cause  The heat and the pressure from the
flooding. lightning turns nitrogen and in the air into
 Hail, thunder, and lightning can cause natural fertilizer for soil.
damage to property and crops.
Page 47 of 75
 MOISTURE FRONT AND LINE THUNDERSTORMS
CROSS SECTION
TOP VIEW

[Source: [Link]

 Line thunderstorms develop along the moisture front.

 When a thermal low-pressure cell - and coastal low-pressure cell is located over South
CHARACTERISTICS

Africa.
 Results in a low-pressure trough that feeds warm moist air to the interior from the
northeast.
 It converges with cold, dry air from the southwest.
 Cold air lifts the warm air which cools adiabatically, condenses, and forms tall
cumulonimbus clouds.
 Associated with thunderstorms, heavy rain, and possible hail.
 Can occur at night as it is not caused by heating of the atmosphere but convergence of
two air masses with cold dry, dense air and warm, moist less dense air.

NEGATIVE: POSITIVE
 Thunderstorms can cause damage in  Replenish water in dams
IMPACT

summer.  Relief drought in the interior

 Torrential downpour can cause  The heat and the pressure from the
flooding. lightning turns nitrogen and in the air into
 Hail, thunder, and lightning can cause natural fertilizer for soil.
damage to property and crops.

Page 48 of 75
 DIAGRAM COASTAL LOW-PRESSURE CELLS

[Source: Own sketch]

 Develop during summer and winter in SA.

CHARACTERISTICS

 The air moves in a clockwise direction around the cell.

 These low pressure sytems cause completely different weather on either side of the
pressure cell.
 On the one side of the pressure cell, air will move from the land to the sea and will cause
warmer drier conditions. Also called offshore winds.
 Other side of the pressure cell where the air moves from the sea to the land, moist cloudy
conditions will develop that can lead to rain along the coastline areas. Also called onshore
winds.
 Low Pressure systems moves from west to east along the coastline.

West coast: East coast:

IMPACT

 Onshore winds are cold and dry with  Onshore winds are warm with moisture that
limited moisture. results in coastal rainfall.
 Offshore winds are warm and dry with  Offshore winds are warm and dry with limited
no moisture. moisture.

Page 49 of 75
 BERG WINDS
TOP VIEW CROSS SECTION
DIAGRAMS

[Source: [Link]
859_fdoc.pdf

 Develop during winter.

 Gusty, hot, dry winds.
CHARACTERISTICS

 Berg wind conditions occur ahead of the mid latitude cyclone,

 Air flows from the Kalahari High Pressure cell to the costal low pressure.
 Air subsides from the plateau and down the escarpment (off-shore winds)
 Winds heats at Dry Adiabatic temperature lapse rate and become drier and hotter.
 This causes hot dry uncomfortable conditions which is generally replaced quickly with cold
conditions associated with the cold front.
 It encourages veld fires.

 Can encourages the spread of veld fires.

 Veld fires impact natural environment, humans and animals.
 Farmers may lose houses, equipment and livestock.
 Natural bush and grazing may be lost.
IMPACT

 Animal habitats may be destroyed.

 Dry, warm conditions can cause heat stroke and discomfort.
 People and animals can suffer from dehydration.

Page 50 of 75
 C. Activity 1.10: Sub-tropical Anticyclones
1.10 FIGURE 1.10 shows a coastal low-pressure cell (L), associated with travelling
disturbances.

[Source:
[Link]
prov=WC&metric=true&language=]

1.10. Use the isobars to prove that L is a low pressure.

1

1.10. Where does low pressure L originate?

2

1.10. In which direction does low pressure L travel between Langebaan and Cape
3 Town?

1.10. What type of precipitation is associated with low pressure cell L along the
4 West coast?

1.10. State the air temperature associated with the onshore flow of low-pressure
5 cell L at Langebaan.

1.10. How does air rotate around low-pressure cell L?

6

1.10. With which travelling disturbance is the hot, dry north easterly wind
7 associated? (7 x 1) (7)

Page 51 of 75
Activity 1.11 : Sub-tropical Anticyclones
1.11 Study FIGURE 1.11, based on a diagram showing the influence of the
plateau on the weather and climate of South Africa.

[Source: [Link]
asset/859_fdoc.pdf

1.11.1 Does sketch X or Y indicate a summer condition?

1.11.2 Name the pressure cell A.

1.11.3 Name the ocean over which pressure cell A is located.

1.11.4 Name pressure cell C.

1.11.5 Is pressure cell associated with rising or subsiding air?

1.11.6 Will clear and stable conditions occur in sketch X or sketch Y?

1.11.7 Does a strong or weak subsidence give rise to the position of the inversion
layer in sketch Y?

1.11.8 Must the inversion layer be above or below the plateau for rain to occur over
the interior? (8 x 1) (8)

Page 52 of 75
Activity 1.12 : Sub-tropical Anticyclones
1.12 Study FIGURE 1.12, a tweet from SA Weather warning of severe
thunderstorms in the Malalane region.

[Source:IEB; 2020]

1.12.1 Name the main weather system responsible for the development of
line thunderstorms over South Africa. (1)

1.12.2 Name ONE other hazard not mentioned in the tweet. (1)

1.12.3 Using a diagram, explain how line thunderstorms develop over the
interior of South Africa. (5 x 1) (5)

1.12.4 Why are line thunderstorms generally associated with summer?

(1 x 2) (2)

1.12.5 Explain why there is a thicker band of clouds to the east of the
moisture front (line thunderstorms). (2)

1.12.6 Explain why the weather conditions associated with line

thunderstorms are more severe than isolated (normal) thunderstorms. (4)
(2 x 2)

Page 53 of 75
Activity 1.13 : Sub-tropical Anticyclones
1.13 Study FIGURE 1.13, Anticyclones over South Africa

[Source: DBE; Feb – March 2016]

1.13.1 Name anticyclones A, B, and C. (3 x 1) (3)

1.13.2 Anticyclones are associated with stable weather conditions over the
interior of South Africa, particularly during winter. Draw a labelled
sketch to illustrate the influence of the interior anticyclone on South
Africa's weather. (4 x 1) (4)

1.13.3 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, explain the influence of

the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) on the changing position of
the three anticyclones, relative to South Africa. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 54 of 75
 1.14 FIGURE 1.14 is a synoptic weather map.

1.14.1 Name anticyclone A. (1 x 1) (1)

1.14.2 What evidence indicates that A is an anticyclone? (1 x 2) (2)

1.14.3 Why is anticyclone A generally associated with fog along the west coast of (2)
South Africa? (1 x 2)

1.14.4 Why do anticyclones A and B migrate (move) northwards during winter in (4)
South Africa? (2 x 2)

1.14.5 How will the movement of mid-latitude cyclone C be influenced by anticyclone (2)
B? (1 x 2)

1.14.6 Explain how anticyclone B influences rainfall conditions along the east coast of (4)
South Africa in winter. (2 x 2)

Page 55 of 75
Page 56 of 75
 Activity 1.15 : Map Work application
1.15 Study the extract of the 3318 CD CAPE TOWN topographic map and the synoptic
weather map showing a coastal low

[Source: [Link]]

1.15.1 In which direction will a coastal low, located north of Cape Town,
move? (1 x (1)
1)

1.15.2 Give evidence that a coastal low has not yet moved along Cape Town
(1 x 2) (2)

1.15.3 Describe the weather that will be experienced at Green Point after the
coastal low has moved along the coast. (2 x 2) (4)

Page 57 of 75
 A. ASPECT

B. ANABATIC AND KATABATIC WINDS

C. INVERSION LAYER
1.4 VALLEY CLIMATE

D. FROST POCKET

E. RADIATION FOG

F. IMPACT ON HUMANS SETTLEMENTS

AND FARMING

Page 58 of 75
A. KEY CONCEPTS: VALLEY CLIMATE

Term Explanation

Anabatic A local wind which blows up the length of the valley during the
wind day, because of rising of warm air.

Downslope A local wind which blows down the sides of a valley during the
wind night.

Frost pocket An area of cold air reaching a dew point temperature below
freezing at the bottom of the valley. May occur on clear, calm
winter evenings.

Katabatic wind A local wind which blows down the slope of a valley during the
night, because of cold subsiding air.

Microclimate The climate of a small area that is different to the climate of its
surroundings. Three factors contribute to valley microclimate.

Radiation fog Fog that forms at night under clear, calm conditions. Fog
caused by condensation in air that has cooled to dew point
temperature as a result of the loss of heat though terrestrial
radiation.

Shadow zone The part of the valley or slope that does not receive any
sunlight.

Slope Aspect Refers to the direction to which a slope faces.

Temperature An increase of temperature with altitude rather than the usual

inversion decrease.

Thermal belt Warm layer of air midway up a valley with cold air below as a
result of inversion of temperature.

Upslope wind A local wind which blows up the sides of a valley during the
day.

Page 59 of 75
 1.4 VALLEY CLIMATES – NOTES/SUMMARIES
Microclimate: The climate of a small area that is different to the climate of its surroundings. Three factors contribute to valley microclimate
A SLOPE ASPECT: Orientation of the slope
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
CROSS SECTION

[Source: Adapted from [Link]

IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE SLOPE ASPECT
North facing slopes: South facing slopes:  Orientation of the slope
ASSOCIATED WEATHER

 Impact change during winter

 North-facing slopes are hot, sunny and dry.  South-facing slopes are cool,
 Receive more direct Sun’s rays. shady and retain moisture. and summer because of
 Smaller surface area heated thus warmer.  Soils are cooler on the south-  migration of pressure
systems
 Soils are warmer as they are in the sunny zone. facing slopes as they are in
the shadow zone.  angle of incomming sun
 Farmers have to select a slope which is best suited for
certain types of crops.  Area in shadow zone on the
 Warmer part of valley is called the thermal belt. south facing slope are heated
 The effect of aspect is greater in the winter and in places only by reflection.
further from the equator.
 Humans tend to build their houses on north-facing slopes because they are warmer.
IMPACT

 Crops that require less moisture and more sunlight will grow on the north facing slopes.
 South facing slopes too cold for humans to build settlements.
 Trees and shade loving plants such as ferns will grow on the south facing slopes.

Page 60 of 75
 B. ANABATIC AND KATABATIC WINDS

ANABATIC WINDS AND KATABATIC WINDS

CROSS SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS

 The air above the slopes warms, becomes lighter and rises  The air above the slopes becomes cold and dense and
the slopes of the valley sinks down the valley sides/slopes.
 This is a warm wind which blows up a steep slope or  This is a wind that carries high density air from a higher
mountain side, driven by heating of the slope through elevation down a slope under the force of gravity.
insolation.  Occurs at night when the slopes cool due to terrestrial
 Occur during the day when the slopes warm due to radiation.
insolation.

Page 61 of 75
  Rising air remove any pollution in the valley to higher  Descending air is cold and capture the pollution on the
IMPAC
altitudes valley floor which can result in the development of smog
T

C. INVERSIONS D. FROST POCKETS E. RADIATION FOG

DIAGRAM

 Occurs during calm, cold and clear  Low-lying area e.g. a valley bottom  On cold, clear cloudless nights when
winter’s night. where frosts occur more frequently terrestrial radiation occurs rapidly
 When cold air drains down the valley  The ground become cool at night
than in the surrounding area.
slopes and collects at the bottom of the  The air above the ground also cools
CHARACTERISTICS

valley  This is normally after a dry, clear and  When this air is below due point
 Warm air is displaced upwards to form cold night temperature, it causes water vapour to
an inversion layer in the mid-valley  Cold air drains down neighbouring condense around the dust and other
 It is a layer of warm air trapped between slopes particles in the atmosphere to create
two layers of cold air radiation fog.
 If dew point temperature is below
 Layer is called the thermal belt  In the morning the sun’s rays heat the
 Can lead to the formation of acid rain freezing point, it condenses to ice surface
which corrode buildings and damage crystals  The warm air rises and evaporates
crops  Forming frost pockets where the cold  Combined with pollution in the
air collects. atmosphere it forms smog
ENVIRONMENT HUMAN

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  Traps pollutants, this will differ depending on the activity in  Effect farmers if frost sensitive crops are grown on the valley floor
F. MPACT
the area e.g. industries result in more pollutants being  Damages vegetation and crops
trapped.  Could plant frost resistant crops.
 Acid rain occurs  Frost pocket can cause people to settle mid-slope in the thermal belt
 Damages fauna and flora  Smog results in poor visibility and is a health hazard
 Decreases visibility  Can cause traffic accidents
 Effects people health e.g. respiratory illnesses.

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Activity 1.16: Valley climate
1.1 Give ONE term for each of the following descriptions by choosing a term from the list
6 below. Write only the term next to the question numbers (1.16.1 to 1.16.7) in the
ANSWER BOOK, e.g. 1.16.8 climate.
radiation fog; katabatic; temperature inversion; anabatic; smog; thermal belt; frost;
aspect

1.16.1 Zone where warm air mass is trapped between colder air masses

1.16.2 A mixture of smoke and fog

1.16.3 The direction in which the slope faces in relation to insolation

1.16.4 Forms when calm conditions and clear skies occur in a valley

1.16.5 Forms on the valley floor when the air temperature is below freezing point

1.16.6 Type of wind that results from air sinking down the valley slope at night

1.16.7 Type of wind that results from air moving up the valley slope during the day
(7 x 1) (7)

Activity 1.17: Valley Climate

1.1 Study FIGURE 1.17 showing a diagram on valley climates.
7

[Source: Examiners photo IEB paper of 2011]

1.17.1 Is the slope wind at A an anabatic or a katabatic wind? (1 x 1) (1)

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 1.17.2 B above the valley floor is a thermal belt. Give a reason for this statement.
(1 x 1) (1)

1.17.3 What is the term used to describe an increase in the temperature as the
height increases in the valley? (1 x 1) (1)

1.17.4 Explain why slope wind A will be more intense in winter. (2 x 2) (4)

1.17.5 Account for the low temperature that is likely to be experienced on the valley
floor during winter and how farmers have to adapt their farming techniques
(methods) due to the temperature change on the valley floor. (4 x 2) (8)

Activity 1.18 : Valley Climate

1.18 Study FIGURE 1.18 showing slope winds.

[Source :Adapted from [Link]]

1.18.1 Name slope wind A. (1 x 1) (1)

1.18.2 State ONE factor that is responsible for the movement of slope wind A, as
shown in FIGURE 1.18. (1 x 1) (1)

1.18.3 What impact do the uneven slopes have on the air moving downslope?
(1 x 2) (2)

1.18.4 Explain why a temperature inversion occurs in a valley at night. (2 x 2) (4)

1.18.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, discuss how slope wind A can
have both a positive and negative influence on vegetation growth on the
valley floor. (8)
(4 x 2)

Page 65 of 75
Activity 1.19 : MAP APPLICATION
Study the extract from the 3322CD& 3422AB GEORGE Topographical map.

1.19 The bottom of the valley at area M on the topographic map experiences frost in
the early hours of the morning during winter.

1.19.1 Name the local/tertiary wind that is responsible for the formation of frost.
(1 x 1) (1)

1.19.2 Explain how the wind named in QUESTION 9.4.1 causes frost.
(2 x 2) (4)

1.19.3 Give evidence from the topographic map how the farmers adapted their
farming products to accommodate the frost in the valley?
(1 x 2) (2)

Page 66 of 75
 A. RURAL VS URBAN

B. URBAN HEAT ISLAND

1.5 URBAN CLIMATE

C. POLLUTION DOOME

D. STRATEGIES TO PREVENT THE EFFECT

Page 67 of 75
A. Key Concepts
Term Description

Acid rain A form of precipitation that is acidic due to water droplets dissolving
gaseous pollution molecules.

Albedo The amount of incoming solar radiation (insolation) that is reflected

by the Earth’s surface.

Condensation Particles of dust, smoke or salt that water vapour sticks to and on
nuclei which it condenses. Also called hygroscopic nuclei.

Hygroscopic Small solid particles in the atmosphere on which water vapour

nuclei condenses to form tiny water droplets – these water droplets merge
to form rain drops which result in cloud formation.

Isotherms A line on a map connecting points having of equal temperature.

Plume Smoke, dust, fire, or water is a large quantity of it that rises into the
air in a column.

Pollutants The dome- shaped concentration of polluted air above the centre of a
city or industrial area.

Pollution dome A mass of polluted air temporarily trapped over a city or industrial
area.

Smog A thick, ground level fog caused when water droplets become
polluted with chemicals and gasses found in the atmosphere due to
pollution. (A mixture of smoke and fog).

Urban climate Climatic conditions specific to large urban areas.

Urban heat The temperature over the city is warmer that the surrounding rural
island area.

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 1.5 URBAN CLIMATE
A. RURAL VS URBAN CLIMATE
URBAN CLIMATE VS RURAL CLIMATE
CROSS SECTION

[Source: [Link]
TEMPERATURE
 Warmer due to lack of vegetation and transpiration.  Cooler due to fewer artificial
 More artificial heating, air conditioning, vehicle surfaces and more
emission. vegetation cover.
 More artificial surfaces, tar, concrete that absorbs heat.
 More dust and pollution prevent heat from escaping.
POLLUTION
 More pollution and dust due to industrial activities,  Less pollution and dust
combustion processes and traffic. particles.
CLOUD COVER
 More clouds form as there are more dust and  Fewer clouds because of
pollution particles in the atmosphere. less hygroscopic nuclei.
PRECIPITATION
CLIMATE CONDITIONS

 More rain and hail due to more hygroscopic nuclei  Less rain and hail because
in the atmosphere and strong updrafts of air. lower temperature and
 Warmer temperature causes more evaporations. less condensation.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
 Lower evaporation and relative humidity due to  Higher relative humidity
lack of vegetation cover and natural resources. due to water retention in
 Less surface water to evaporate. soil and vegetation.
 Warmer air can hold more moisture.
WIND SPEED
 Wind speed is less as buildings creates friction  Wind speed is higher.
and acts as windbreaks.  Turbulence is less due to
 Greater turbulence because wind is channeled open space.
between buildings.
FOG AND VISIBILITY
 More fog and poorer visibility due to more  Less fog resulting in better
hygroscopic nuclei and condensation nuclei. visibility.
 Fog is a problem in winter when temperature
inversion trap pollutants close to Earth’s surface.
AIR PRESSURE
 Lower because of warmer temperature.  Higher because of cooler
temperature.

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B. URBAN HEAT ISLANDS

Urban heat island: The temperature over the city is warmer that the surrounding
rural area
CROSS SECTION

[Source: [Link]

Isotherms: A line on a map connecting points having of equal temperature.

TOP / PLAN VIEW

[Source: [Link]
165241/

Page 70 of 75
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DAY AND NIGHT IN URBAN HEAT ISLANDS

DAY NIGHT
DIAGRAM

[Source: Via Afrika, Geography, p97]

 Heating cause the air to expand and  It is cooler so the air becomes denser and
rise so the heat island grows vertically. sinks.
CHARACTERISTICS

 The inversion layer is elevated  Less heat results in decrease in

vertically. turbulence.
 Because of vertically growth the heat is  Vertical dimension decreases.
less concentrated.  The inversion layer is closer to the surface.
 It may take a mushroom shape.  The heat island is more dome shaped and
 It conforms to the shape of built-up pollutants are more concentrated.
areas.  The dome is denser and shallower.
 Pollution is dispersed over a greater  The trapped heat is more concentrated
area. over CBD area.

CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND AND IMPACT ON THE

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS
CAUSES IMPACT

ENVIRONMENT HUMANS

 Artificial surfaces in urban  Surfaces absorb heat  Increase in

areas: glass, concrete, stone, during the day and discomfort.
brick, tarmac, iron absorbs more radiate heat into the  Exacerbated heat
heat. environment at night. stress and deaths
 Increased surface area that can  Glass radiates heat back during heat waves.
absorb heat – roof and sides of into the atmosphere.  Reduce visibility
buildings.  Increase of urban smog because of smog.
 Production of artificial heat: due to higher  Increased costs
 Combustion of factories temperature. because of greater
produce heat.  Increase in the water and energy
 Air-conditioning units’ release evaporation rate. use.
warm air.  Creates a pollution dome.
 Emissions by vehicles release
heat and pollution.

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 C. POLLUTION DOMES
Pollution dome: When dust, soot and chemical emissions are trapped in the warm
air of a heat island the dome becomes a pollution dome
CROSS SECTION

[Source: UrbanHeat Island Formation, Tozam, Bulut Karaca, 2018]

Pollutants act as hygroscopic nuclei and attract water vapour to them, and fog
develop.
Smog: A thick, ground level fog caused when water droplets become polluted with
chemicals and gasses found in the atmosphere due to pollution.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DAY AND NIGHT IN A POLLUTION DOME

DAY NIGHT
DIAGRAM

[Sour
ce:[Link]]:

 Convection of warm air in the centre of the  Cooler air at night results in pollution
city cause a low-pressure cell to form. dome developing closer to the
 Warm air rises vertically and cool down and surface.
CHACTERISTICS

diverges in the upper air to spread outward  This results in the pollution being
to the rural areas. dense and cannot escape the city.
 Air circulating in the dome spread the  Pollution is more concentrated
pollution vertically and it is more disperse. because of the inversion layer closer
 Pollution is carried away by upper air to the earth and pollution cannot
divergence. escape the dome.
 Cooler air flows into the low-pressure cell
from surrounded rural area.

Page 72 of 75
 CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT OF POLLUTION DOMES AND THE IMPACT ON THE
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS
CAUSES EFFECTS

ENVIRONMENT HUMANS

 Emissions by vehicle  Increase of cloud cover  Smog cause health

exhausts – carbon and precipitation. problems e.g. lung
monoxide and nitrogen  Acid rain develop which infections, asthmatic
oxide. kill trees and erodes attacks.
 Burning of fossil fuels – bricks and stone.  Smog reduces visibility and
carbon dioxide and Sulphur  Old paint peeling off accidents.
oxide. buildings.  Lead poisoning may result
 The pattern of air circulation  Contributes to global in petrol fumes.
and high levels of air warming and climate
pollution in the city. change.

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE URBAN HEAT ISLANDS AND POLLUTION DOMES

 Make surfaces lighter colour to be more reflective and less absorbent.

 Greening of cities by planting trees in gardens, onto pavements and in parks.
 Trees increase transpiration which decrease air temperature.
 Trees absorbs carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
 Trees reduce energy costs as it has a natural cooling effect.
 Plant roof gardens to absorb the heat and pollution.
 Invest in energy saving strategies e.g. solar panels and grass roofs.
 Develop sustainable public transport.
 Implement building restrictions on height and materials used in building projects.
 Do not use glass or reflective substances as building materials.
 Controlling the amount of pollution released from factories.

Page 73 of 75
 C. Activity 1.20 : Urban climate
1.20 Refer to FIGURE 1.20 on city climates. Choose the correct word(s) from
those given in brackets. Write only the word(s) next to the question
number (1.20.1–1.20.8) in the ANSWER BOOK.

1.20.1 The sketch shows a (day/night) situation.

1.20.2 The inversion layer is found at a (higher/lower) altitude during the

night.

1.20.3 The inversion layer (increases/decreases) pollution concentration over

the city during the night.

1.20.4 The heating of the city at B is the result of (multiple reflections of

heat/terrestrial radiation).

1.20.5 The channelling of wind between tall buildings (increases/decreases)

the wind speed.

1.20.6 Temperature (increases/decreases) from B to C.

1.20.7 The influence of evapotranspiration on cooling the air will be

(less/more) at B compared to C.

1.20.8 Area B is associated with (more/less) cloud coverage compared to

area C. (8 x 1) (8)

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 Activity 1.21: Urban climate

1.21 Study the sketch and warning below.

[Source: [Link]

“Alert – Due to higher temperatures, air quality is poor. Remain indoors

and turn on the very aircon that uses the electricity, that’s created by the
burning of fossil fuel that contributes to both the higher temperatures
and poor air quality”
[Source: [Link]

1.21.1 Define the concept ‘heat island’. (1 x 2) (2)

1.21.2 Describe how a heat island is formed. (1 x 2) (2)

1.21.3 Name the part of the urban area (A) that records the highest day-time
temperatures. (1 x 1) (1)

1.21.4 Describe two ways in which city planners are designing urban centres
to reduce the urban heat island effect. (2 x 2) (4)

1.21.5 In paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines discuss how strategies

which can be implemented to reduce the heat island effect in urban
areas. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 75 of 75
 Activity 1.22: Urban climate

1.22 Refer to FIGURE 1.22 showing a pollution dome over a South African
city.

[Source: [Link]

1.22.1 What is a pollution dome? (1 x 2) (2)

1.22.2 Why is a pollution dome associated with an urban area? (1 x 2) (2)

1.22.3 Explain why the pollution dome is more concentrated at night. (2 x 2) (4)

1.22.4 Write a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines explaining how

pollution domes increase the maintenance costs of the built
environment for people living in the city. (4 x 2) (8)

Page 76 of 75
 Activity 1.23: Map Work application
1.23 EXTACT FROM THE 2926 BB THANCHU NORTH MAP

[Source: P2 May /June 2019]

1.23.1 Does the mapped area receive annual rainfall or seasonal rainfall?
(1 x 1) (1)

1.23.2 Give ONE reason evident on the topographic map. (1 x 2) (2)

1.23.3 The built-up nature of the suburb, Ratlou, Z on the topographic map,
has resulted in fairly high temperatures.
(a) Identify TWO factors evident in the mapped area that could
reduce the temperature in Ratlou. (2 x 1) (2)

(b) Explain how ONE of these factors mentioned in QUESTION

5.5.1 reduces the temperature in Ratlou. (1 x 2) (2)

Page 77 of 75