Human Skeletal System

Introduction
• The skeletal system serves many important
functions in the human body.
• It provides the framework of the human body.
• Without skeletal system we would look very
different indeed.
• Human skeleton has 206 bones.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• COMPOSED OF:
-Bones
-Cartilage
-Joints
-Ligaments
➢The human skeleton is composed of bone

➢Bones and other connective tissues, such

as cartilage and ligaments form the
skeletal system.
 Functions of Skeletal System
• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors the
soft organs of the body.

• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and spinal

cord.

• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore the

bones are used as levers.

• STORAGE: Minerals (Calcium and Phosphorus) and lipids are

stored within bone material.

• BLOOD CELL FORMATION: The bone marrow is responsible

for blood cell production.
 Bone Markings
• Bone Surface is not smooth

• Bone markings which reveal where,

-muscles, tendons, and ligaments attached

-nerves and blood vessels pass

Bone marking may be:

1-projections or processes or

2-depressions or cavities
 Structure
• Compact bone
– Outer layer of bone, very hard and dense.
– Organized in structural units called Haversian systems.
– Matrix is composed of Ca salts (Ca carbonate and Ca
phosphate)
– Osteocytes – living bone cells that live in matrix.
• Porous (Spongy) bone
– Located in the ends of long bones.
– Many spaces that are filled with red bone marrow which
produces bone cells.
 Structure
• Spongy bone (cont’d)
– Trabeculae – needle-like threads of spongy
bone that surround the spaces. Add
strength to this portion of the bone.
• Cartilage
– Matrix is a firm gel with chondrocytes
suspended in the matrix.
 Classification of Bones

• Long bones
• Typically longer than wide

• Have a shaft with heads at both ends

• Contain mostly compact bone

• Examples: Femur, humerus

 Classification of Bones

• Short bones
• Generally cube-shape

• Contain mostly spongy bone

• Examples: Carpals, tarsals

 Classification of Bones

• Flat bones
• Thin and flattened

• Usually curved

• Thin layers of compact bone around a layer

of spongy bone

• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

 Classification of Bones

• Irregular bones
• Irregular shape

• Do not fit into other bone classification

categories

• Example: Vertebrae and hip

Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of
compact bone

• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly
of spongy bone
 Structures of a Long Bone
• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the
diaphysis
• Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
• Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells with
nutrients
 Structures of a Long Bone

• Articular cartilage
• Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses

• Made of hyaline
cartilage

• Decreases friction
at joint surfaces
 Structures of a Long Bone
• Medullary cavity
• Cavity of the shaft

• Contains yellow
marrow (mostly
fat) in adults

• Contains red
marrow (for blood
cell formation) in
infants
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
• Osteon (Haversian System)
• A unit of bone
• Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
• Lacunae
• Cavities containing
bone cells
(osteocytes)
• Arranged in
concentric rings
• Lamellae
• Rings around the
central canal
• Sites of lacunae
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Canaliculi
• Tiny canals
• Radiate from the
central canal to
lacunae
• Form a transport
system
Changes in the Human Skeleton
• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
hyaline cartilage

• During development, much of this cartilage

is replaced by bone

• Cartilage remains in isolated areas

• Bridge of the nose

• Parts of ribs

• Joints
 Bone Growth

• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of

long bone during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed

• Older cartilage becomes ossified

• Cartilage is broken down

• Bone replaces cartilage

 Bone Growth

• Bones are remodeled and lengthened

until growth stops
• Bones change shape by gravity &muscle
pull

• Bones grow in width through periostium

Long Bone Formation and
Growth
 Types of Bone Cells
• Osteocytes

• Mature bone cells

• Osteoblasts

• Bone-forming cells

• Osteoclasts

• Bone-destroying cells

• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of

calcium
• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
 Fractures

➢Closed fracture (simple): skin is intact

➢Open fracture (compound): skin is open
• Fracture reduction :
1-closed reduction ,no surgery is needed
2-open reduction ,surgery is needed
 Repair of fracture

• Healing time for simple fracture is 6-8

weeks (longer in elderly people)
• It occurs in FOUR major events
• 1-hematoma formation
• 2-fibrocartilage callus formation
• 3-bony callus formation
• 4-bone remodelling
 Axial and Appendicular Divisions = 206
➢Axial = 80 bones ➢Appendicular = 126

▪ Skull ▪ Upper limbs = 64

▪ Vertebrae Pectoral girdle

▪ Ribs and Sternum Arms and Hands

▪ Auditory ossicles ▪ Lower limbs = 62

▪ Hyoid Pelvic girdle

Legs and Feet
The Skull and Associated
Bones
 Sutures
• Sutures – Immovable joints that join skull
bones together
• Form boundaries between skull bones
• Four sutures:
– Coronal – between parietal and frontal
– Sagittal– between parietal bones
– Lambdoid – between the parietal and occipital
– Squamous – between the parietal and temporal
✓Fontanels – usually ossify by 2 years of age
Sutures and Fontanels
 The Adult Skull
•skull = 22 bones

•cranium = 8 bones: frontal, occipital, 2 temporals, 2 parietals,

sphenoid and ethmoid

•facial bones = 14 bones: nasals, maxillae, zygomatics, mandible,

lacrimals, palatines, inferior nasal conchae, vomer.
Bones of the Cranium
Frontal View
 Frontal

Frontal View
Parietal

Frontal View
Temporal

Frontal View
 Nasal

Frontal View
Vomer

Frontal View
 Zygoma

Frontal View
Maxilla

Frontal View
 Mandible

Frontal View
 Frontal
Parietal

Temporal Nasal
Vomer Zygoma
Maxilla

Mandible

Frontal View
 Facial Bones=14

Nasal (2) Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2)

Mandible (1) Lacrimal (2) Palatine (2)
Inferior nasal conchae (2) Vomer (1)
The Vertebral Column=26
 Adult Vertebral Column

• 26 vertebrae
– 24 individual vertebrae
– Sacrum
– Coccyx
• Seven cervical vertebrae
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae
• Five lumbar vertebrae
• Sacrum and coccyx are
• Fused together.
Typical Vertebrae

• Body
– weight bearing
• Vertebral arch
– pedicles
– laminae
• Vertebral foramen
• Seven processes
– 2 transverse
– 1 spinous
– 4 articular
Cervical Vertebrae=7 (C1-C7)

• Smaller bodies
• Larger spinal canal
• 1st and 2nd cervical
vertebrae are unique
– atlas & axis
 Thoracic Vertebrae=12
(T1-T12)

• All articulate with ribs

• Have heart-shaped
bodies
• Each side of the body
bears demifacets for
articulation with ribs
 Lumbar Vertebrae=5
• Bodies are thick
and strong
• Allows flexion and
extension –
rotation prevented
 Sacrum (S1 – S5)
• Forms the posterior wall of pelvis
• Formed from 5 fused vertebrae
• Superior surface articulates with L5
• Inferiorly articulates with coccyx
Sacrum
 Coccyx
• Is the “tailbone”
• Formed from 3 – 5 fused vertebrae
• Offers only slight support to pelvic organs
 Bony Thorax
• Forms the framework of the chest
• Components of the bony thorax
– Thoracic vertebrae – posteriorly
– Ribs – laterally
– Sternum and costal cartilage – anteriorly
• Protects thoracic organs
• Supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs
• Provides attachment sites for muscles
The Bony Thorax
 Sternum
• Formed from three parts :
– Manubrium – superior part
• Articulates with medial end of clavicles
– Body – bulk of sternum
• Sides are articulate for costal cartilage of ribs 2–
7
– Xiphoid process – inferior end of sternum
• Ossifies around age 40
 Ribs
• All ribs attach to vertebral column
posteriorly
– True ribs - superior seven pairs of ribs
• Attach to sternum by costal cartilage
– False ribs – inferior five pairs of ribs
,attach indirectly to the sternum

– floating ribs ribs 11–12 are short and

free anteriorly.
The Appendicular Skeleton=126
• Allows us to move and manipulate
objects
• Includes all bones other than axial
skeleton, it includes:
– the limbs (upper & lower limbs)
– the supportive girdles (pectoral &pelvic
girdles)
 The Pectoral Girdle
• Also called the shoulder girdle
• Connects the arms to the body
• Positions the shoulders
• Provides a base for arm movement
• Consists of,
- 2 Clavicles
- 2 Scapulae
The Pectoral Girdle

Figure 8–2a
The Clavicles

Figure 8–2b, c
 The Clavicles
• Also called collarbones
• Long, S-shaped bones
• Originate at the manubrium (sternal end)
• Articulate with the scapulae (acromial
end)
 The Scapulae
• Also called shoulder blades
• Broad, flat and triangular
• Articulate with arms and collarbone
 The Upper Limbs
• Arms, forearms, wrists, and hands
Note: arm (brachium) = 1 bone, the humerus
 The Humerus
• Also called the arm
• The long, upper armbone
• Articulates with the pectoral girdle
 The Forearm
• Also called the antebrachium
• Consists of 2 long bones:
–ulna (medial)
–radius (lateral)
The Wrist

Figure 8–6
 The Wrist
–8 carpal bones:
• 4 proximal carpal bones
• 4 distal carpal bones
• allow wrist to bend and twist
 Metacarpal Bones
• The 5 long bones of the hand
• Numbered I–V from lateral (thumb)
to medial
• Articulate with proximal phalanges
 Phalanges of the Hands

• Thumb:
–2 phalanges (proximal, distal)
• Fingers:
–3 phalanges (proximal, middle,
distal)
The Wrist and Hand
 The Pelvis

• Consists of 2 ossa coxae, the sacrum,

and the coccyx
• Stabilized by ligaments of pelvic
girdle, sacrum, and lumbar vertebrae
The Pelvic Girdle
 The OSSA COXAE
• Also called hipbones
• Strong to bear body weight &stress of
movement
• Each is made up of 3 fused bones:
– ilium (articulates with sacrum)
– ischium
– pubis
 The Acetabulum (vinegar cup)
• Also called the hip socket
• Is the meeting point of the ilium,
ischium, and pubis
• Articulates with head of the femur (Hip
joint))
The Acetabulum
The Pelvis
Divisions of the Pelvis

Figure 8–9
 Comparing the Male and Female
Pelvis
• Female pelvis:
–smoother
–lighter
–less prominent muscle and ligament
attachments
Comparing the Male and Female
Pelvis
 Pelvis Modifications for
Childbearing
• Enlarged pelvic outlet
• Broad pubic angle (> 100°)
• Less curvature of sacrum and coccyx
• Wide, circular pelvic inlet
• Broad, low pelvis
• Ilia project laterally, not upwards
 The Lower Limbs
• Functions:
– weight bearing
– motion

Note: leg = lower leg; thigh = upper leg

 Bones of the Lower Limbs
• Femur (thigh)
• Patella (kneecap)
• Tibia and fibula (leg)
• Tarsals (ankle)
• Metatarsals (foot)
• Phalanges (toes)
The Femur (longest, heaviest )

Figure 8–11
 The Patella
• Also called the kneecap
• Formed within tendon of quadriceps femoris
The Tibia and Fibula

Figure 8–13
 The Tibia
• Also called the shinbone
• Supports body weight
• Larger than fibula
• Medial to fibula

The Fibula
• Attaches muscles of feet and toes
• Smaller than tibia
• Lateral to tibia
 Bones of the Ankle (Tarsals)
• Talus:
• Calcaneus (heel bone):
– transfers weight to ground
– attaches Achilles tendon
The Ankle

• Also called the tarsus:

– consists of 7 tarsal
bones

Figure 8–14a
 Feet: Metatarsal Bones
• 5 long bones of foot
• Numbered I–V, medial to lateral
• Articulate with toes
 Toes: Phalanges
• Phalanges:
– bones of the toes
• Hallux:
– big toe, 2 phalanges (distal, proximal)
• Other 4 toes:
– 3 phalanges
(distal, medial, proximal)
 Feet: Arches
• Arches transfer weight from 1 part of the foot to
another

Figure 8–14b
 Arches of the Foot
• Bones are arranged to form THREE strong arches, 2
longitudinal (medial & lateral)&
1 transverse
• Ligaments & tendons help to hold the bones firmly in
the arched position but still allow a certain amount
of spriginess
• Week arches are referred to as flat foot
Articulations (Joints)
 Function
• Holds bones together
• Allows bones to move
• All bones articulate with at least one other
bone except the hyoid.
 Classification of joints

• Functional classification: focuses on the

amount of movement (synarthrosis,
amphiarthrosis and diarthrosis)
• Structural classification:based on whether
Fibrous, Cartilage or a joint cavity separates
the bony regions at the joint.
• As a general rule, fibrous joints are immovable
and synovial joints are freely movable .
Types of Joints