UNIT 25 JAPANESE I % @ ~ L I S M

UPTO THE SECOND WORLD

WAR
\

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Imperialism : Definitions and Debates
The Framework of Japanese Expansion
25.3.1 TheInitialPhase
25.3.2 Japan's Formal Empire
25.3.3 Colonial Administration
25.3.4 Economic Relations with the Colonies
Ideologies of Expansion
Colonial Policy : Assumptions and Premises
Japan Expansionist Policy since 1931
25.6.1 Establishment of Mnnrbnkuo
25.6.2 Continued Aggression in China
25.6.3 Japan Joins the Axis Powers
25.6.4 World War-I1
Let u s Sum u p
Key Words
'

Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

After reading this Unit you will be able to know about :

the chief characteristics of Japanese imperialism,
the extent and nature of control Japan exercised over its formal and informal
empire,
how Japan strengthened its hold on China,
the objectives and ideology of pan-Asianism, and
the social and political groups behind Japanese expansion.

25.1 INTRODUCTION
The transformation of Japan in the middle of the nineteenth century was
accompanied by the building up of a network of relations with other countries. Japan
had been relatively isolated from the rest of the world and had followed a policy of
"closed country" (sakoku). However, as we have seen earlier (Unit- 18 Block 5 ) this
did not mean that Tokugawa Japan had no dealings with other cpuntries. Tokugawa
Japan had cut off relations with the Western nations but continued to maintain
diplomatic relations with Korea and sought to establish a basis of equ'ality with
China. This experience enabled the Japanese to come to terms with the Western
powers when they f o r d Japan to enter into diplomatic relations and open itself to
foreign trade.

The pattern of Japan's relations with the world was conditioned by the context of
Western imperialism which generated a sense of crisis. This fear of subjugation
enabled the Japanese oligarchy to mouldthe nation as well as provided it with a
rationale for expanding its borders in the interests of security or to capture markets
and ensure a supply of raw materials which were crucial for its development. The
reasons for Japan's expansion have been explained in a variety of ways. Some
scholars have attributed it to the persistence of feudal militarist values, others have
argued that it was because of a lack of capital and the only way Japan could
accumulate the resources necessary for development. Yet others have seen political
and nationalist strivings &hind Japan's expansionist policies. This Unit deals with the
expansionist policies of Japan. Starting with a discussion on the theory of imperialism
40 it goes on to analyse why prld how Japan became an imperialist power. The
imperialist policies adopted by Japan and the impact they had on colonies is another ~ a ~ a n e Imperialism
se mpto
Second Workl War
aspect dealt with in the Unit.

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25.2 IMPERIALISM : DEFINITIONS AND DEBATES

The nature of imperialism has been examined by many scholars and it would be
useful to indicate very briefly some of these arguments before considering the
position of Japan. The most influential argument on the reasons for imperialist
expansion was advanced by J. Hobson in 1902. He argued that countries such as
Great Britain had an excess manufacturing capacity and the surplus capital which
could not be invested -7the country was forced to seek new areas. This need of
bankers and financiers was behind the political policies to expand control and
establish an empire. V. Lenin further elaborated this argument and showed that
imperialism was a product of monopoly capitalism when surplus capital could not be
absorbed by the dorrlestic market and capitalists sought higher profits in colonies or
spheres of influence which were politically protected markets.

These arguments have been debated and modified. The 1953 article of Gallagher and
Robinson, "The Imperialism of Free Trade" put forward three stages of
development. In the first stage of mercantilist imperialism the home country used its
political authority to secure economic benefits from colonies. The third stage was the
same as identified by Hobson but the second was the imperialism of free trade where
the security to trade was of the greatest importance and Great Britain, which best
represented this stage, was willing to limit its formal empire. That is why in China
and Latin America protectorates and spheres of influence could be established. It was
during this period that the greatest expansion of the empire took place.

Joseph Schumpeter and other scholars have focused on factors other than economic
to explain the reasons for expansion and imperialism. Carlton Hayes has argued that
nations expand because they desire to increase their national prestige. Schumpeter
argued that capitalism was a rational economic system and therefore, expansion had
nothing to do with capitalism but rather represented pre-capitalist forces. Expansion
was supported by a militarist, landowning aristocracy and therefore showed that
capitalism was still undeveloped. Schumpeter was of course arguing with the example
of Germany in mind.

The case of Japanese expansion has been examined by scholars from different
perspectives. The most influential early Marxist work was by [Link] and E. Yohan
who argued that Japan first expanded her territories after 1894 because of the
samurai desire to establish control on the Chinese mainland and fight "white
imperialism". Japan lacked the strength to push a course of independent expansion
and therefore, entered into an unequal alliance with Great Britain. Till the
Russo-Japanese war Japan was attempting "primitive capitalist accumulation" to
increase her economic power and her expansion was not the product of "finance
capitalism". After the Russo-Japanese war Japan became more of a capitalist society
but the social basis of her expansionist policies continued to be the alliance of the
military and the rising bourgeoisie under the Emperor. This alliance was forged with
the Meiji Restoration which was an incomplete bourgeois revolution. The persistence
of feudal relations, particularly in agriculture, acted as a constraint on the domestic
economy, where the purchasing power was low, forcing industry to seek markets
outside. Japanese imperialism was thus primarily concerned with trade and raw
materials rather than with the export of capital.

Japanese historians within the Marxist tradition have largely followed this analysis.
Scholars like lnoue Kiyoshi have stressed that the Meiji government was "absolutist",
that is no single class was able to dominate the political order and therefore, an
alliance of the bureaucracy, the landowners and the rising bourgeoisie exercised
control over the masses by using the Emperor System ideology. This structure of
domination within the country was also responsible for extending this domination
outside. The Russo-Japanese war marked a crucial turning point when Japan entered
a modem capitalist stage. From that point Japan was not merely reacting to Western
pressure but had emerged as a partner of the other imperialist powers. The
cost World War-I Japan Russo-Japanese war was fought by Japtm'$ktially in the interests of the Western
powers for it opened up Asia to further exploitation. The expansionist policies were
supported by the military and enabled it to increase its influence. The business houses
or zaibatsu benefited from this but not always. As W.G. Beasely writes that by this
argument "Japanese imperialism becomes the illegitimate child of Western
'
imperialism, with international rivalry as midwife."

Marius Jansen has argued that in the nineteenth century imperialism was the social
norm and not something to be criticized. The Japanese accepted the Darwinist ideas
that a constant [Link] survival was an inevitable process and Japan must strive
to expand her borders to ensure her survival. Akira Iriye has identified a number of
factors at work behind this. He argues that economic and military compulsions were
inextricably Linked in the early phase of Japanese imperialism. After World War-I
Japanese industry competed with Western firms and economic reasons became .
important factors in Japan's expansion. However, the international framework was
accepted and it was only in 1929-30, with the disruption in trade and economy, that
Japan rejected the idea of co-operating with the Western powers. Japan began to fear
that it would be excluded from markets and sources of raw materials and it would
have no area for its surplus population. This fear pushed Japan to build a
Co-prosperity Sphere which inevitably led her to war.

The Co-prosperity Sphere was studied by F.C. Jones and he argued that its formation
was caused as much by imperialist policies as by the desire for Asian solidarity. The
military which had seemed to be losing its importance in formulating policy in the
1920s asserted itself and it was helped by the prevalence of feudal attitudes as well as
an institvtional framework which allowed the military to function without a check by
the Diet. The social turmoil caused by industrialization, particularly in the rural areas
was also crucial in generating discontent and a desire for a "Showa restoration".
These desires enabled the young officers and patriotic societies to extend and deepen
their influence to push Japan towards expansion and war.

,253 THE FRAMEWORK OF JAPANESE EXPANSION

The roots of Japan's expansitmist policies have been traced by some scholars to the
sixteenth century when Hideyoshi tried to conquer Korea but it would be realistic to
consider modern Japan's search for wealth and security to appreciate the creation of
its formal and informal empire. The process of transformation under Western
pressure enabled the Meiji oligarchy to argue for a policy based on "rich country
strong army" (fukoku Kyohei). This was the paramount objective and other
demands were either suppressed or neglected. In particular, political democracy was
seen as a threat to,social order and with the objective of containing dissent a highly
restrictive parliamentary system was erected. The real pillars of the political order
were the military and bureaucracy which functioned. under the Emperor and bere
largely insulated from political pressure. The education system was used to inculcate
and spread ideas which woultt work in random with this institutional structure (See
Unit 23). Above all loyalty to the nation and Emperor and obedience to the Meiji
political structure were stressed. Political patriotic societies to extend and deepen
interests and therefore were considered divisive by the militarists and
ultra-nationalists.

The threat of Western imperialism had also created and reinforced an "Asian
consciousness". This stream of thought represented the ideas of people from diverse
backgrounds but broadly they argued that the only way Japan could defend itself
from Western depredation was to unite with Asian countries which were part of a
common cultural tradition. This alliance meant that Japan must help to modernize
and develop these countries.

25.3.1 The Initial Phase

The initial thrust for Japanese expansion was allied with the'people's Rights
Movement which was demanding a democratic political structure in Japan. %me of
its advocates and supporters had begun to support the demands of Korean
42 nationalists and others-were in favour of the demand to invade Korea. The seikan
ron or the debate on whether to invade Korea was motivated by many factors. An . Japanese In~perialismupto
Secalnd World War
important reason advanced for supporting the invasion was that it would give jobs to
unemployed samurai who had been deprived of their traditional monopoly over
military functions with the universal conscription law. However, equally important
was the perception that Japan had the right to help Korea to enter the modern world
Japan would d o this as an ally. This position gradually deteriorated to Japan acting as
a leader and finally a colonizer. The process by which these pan-Asian ideas were
transformed from dreams of Asian solidarity to the reality of Japanese domination is
hotly debated but Japanese scholars would agree that till the 1900s pan-Asian ideas
were non-expansionist but subsequently they became an ideology to justify the
demands of groups like the military to expand Japan's territorial holdings in the
interests of wealth and security

25.3.2 ~ a ~ i nFormal
's Empire
The formal Japanese empire included Taiwan, Korea, Sakhalin, the Kwantung
Territory and the Pacific Islands. Taiwan was the first colony acquired by the
Japanese in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese war. Taiwan provided Japan not only with
the expenence to manage colonies but was also an important source of sugar and
rice. Taiwan was highly profitable and the colony became financially self-sufficient
within five years of its annexation. Karafuto, acquired in 1905, after the
Russo-Japanese war was populated mostly by Japanese and the native Ainu, with the
Koreans forming a small and declining part of the population. The administration
was more closely integrated with the Japanese administration. Military rule ended in
1907 and in 1943 it became part of Japan proper.

Korea was the most important colony (gaichi) and was annexed in 1910 by a treaty
which promised equal treatment for the Koreans. The Koreans, who had been subject
to Japanese pressure and presence, possessed a strong and vibrant cultural tradition.
They adamantly resisted Japanese attempts to integrate them into Japan. Thus on the
one hancl, there were large number of Koreans employed in the civil and police
administration and on the other there was a strong movement for independence.

The Kwantung territory on the Liaotung Peninsula was first ceded to Japan in 1895
but because of the Triple Intervention it reverted to China and subsequently it was
Ieqsed by the Chinese to Russia. After the Russian defeat in 1905 Japan acquired the
territory as well as control over the South Manchurian Railway. This was leased
territory but, because the Japanese had the r~ghtto administer the territory around
the South Manchurian Railway as well, the Kwantung army of Japan used this to
extend its control into Manchuria and by 1934 the Japanese Governor-General of '

Kwantung was also appointed as the Ambassador to the Japanese puppet state of
Manchukuo.

Japan also acquired control over a large number of tiny islands in Micronesia. The
islands had been controlled by Spain and then Germany purchased them. After
World War-I they were taken by the Japanese navy. The League of Nations termed
them as C-class territories and allowed the Japanese to administer them. Japan
withdrew from the League in 1933 but retained control over these islands. The native
population was ruled by its chiefs and the Japanese administration functioned over
them.

25.3.3 Colonial Administration

The colonial administration differed in detail from colony to colony with the officials
in Korea enjoying the highest status. The Governor-General of Korea (sotoku) was
either a general or an admiral and till 1919 reported directly to the Emperor and
after that to the Prime Minister. All other colonial governors reported to cabinet
level colonial officers. After 1919 all governors were civilians. This was in accordance
with the growing importance of democratic ideas in Japan and because of this there
was a separation of "civil" and "military" functions. However, Korea continued to be
the exception and military officers continued to be appointed as governors there.

In Japan colonial affairs were handled from 1895-1929 by a bureau attached to the
Prime Ministers office or to the Home Ministry. In 1929 a Ministq of Colonial
Affairs was created so that there could be some uniformtry in the administration of
Post World War-I Japan the colonies. However, the colonial governors retained considerable powers. When
Manchukuo was created in 1934 a special bureau to handle its affairs was also
established in the prime minister's office and this bureau also looked after the
Kwantung territory.

In November 1942 the Greater East Asia Ministry was establihed to replace both
the Manchurian Bureau and the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. This Ministry looked
after the Kwantung Territory, Manchukuo, the Pacific Islands and other occupied
territories. The Home Ministry was responsible for Korea, Taiwan and Karafuto. The
other ministries were allowed to involve themselves in their respective areas in the
colonies as well so that these areas could be more closely integrated with Japan
proper.

25.3.4 Economic Relations with the Colonies

The foreign trade of Japan has been dealt with in Units 20 and 24. Here it may be
pertinent to indicate the Japanese colonial trade as this will point to the importance
the colonies had for Japan. Manchuria was not really a colony and Korea till 1910
was also not a colony but Manchurian trade is shown separately from Chinese trade
in Japanese records after 1907. Taiwan, Korea and Kwantung-Manchuria between
1910-1914 provided from one-seventh to a quarter of Japan's imports. Manchuria
exported soyabeans and W e t , Korea rice and Taiwan rice and sugar. In turp they
absorbed Japauese cotton textiles and consumer goods. These areas played a key role
in providing cheap food for Japan's urban population.

In the field of foreign investmen\ Japan's position reflected the changing character of
its economy. The Anglo-Japan4 alliance enabled Japan to borrow overseas to
invest in railway development in china and Korea. However till 1914 Japan's
economy was not in a position to invest in any large way in China. Even when
political participation in bank consortiurns in China put it in a &ition to play a role
it could not invest much. Thus by 1914, as a member of the bank consortium it had
advanced only 1.8 per cent of the total loans:

The South Manchurian Railway (Mantetsu) is a good example of how the Japanese
government guaranteed investment so that banks could channel funds from abroad to
build up the railways. The railways, which formed 55 per cent of Japanese
investments in China in 1914, had a turnover of 81 million yen. In the rest of China
the financial houses individually canied out invektment projects with government
backing. Sometimes they collaborated as was the case in 1908 when Mitsui,
Mitsubishi and Okwa formed an affiliate called the Taiping Company for overseas
arms sales. The Hanyehping Coal and Iron Company was also a major area of
Japanese investment and Japan was a source of credit and loans in return for which
coal and iron was supplied at fixed prices. Hanyehping supplied 60 per cent of the
iron ore and pig iron to Yawata, the biggest steel producer in Japan. In other areas
Japanese capital played a small role compared to Western capital and most of it was
in commerce and small industry rather than in finance.

In the period from 1914-1930 Japan had greater capital to invest and its lending to
the Chinese government increased. Companies such as Mitsui arid Okura established
large projects and there was an expansion of cotton textile manufacture. Japanese
investment was now comparable to that of other Western countries aiid consequently
rivalries also increased. Japan's interests were conditioned by this character of their
economic interests as well as by the fact that by 1930 there were2,70,000 Japanese -
residents in China.

Check Your Progress 1

i. Write a note on Japan's formal empire. Answer in about 15 lines.
Japanese Imperialism upto
Seco~ndWorld War
Post World War-I Japan expansionist policy which was supported by many leaders within the government
as well.
Kokuryakai (Black Dragon Society), formed in 1901 by Uchida Ryohei, was
another ultra-nationalist society. It propagated the liberation of Asian countries
from European rule under Japanese leadership. Internally it emphasised on
strengthening morality and traditions.

Among the post World War-I societies were ~ o k Suikai

u (Japan National
Essence Society formed in 1919) and Kokuhonsha (National Foundation Society
formed in 1924). One of the main objectives of these societies was to save Japan
from socialism. They had many military officers as members. As mentioned earlier
(Unit 23) Kita Ikki and Okawa Shumei had formed the Yuzonsha which espoused
military expansion abroad and military takeover at home.

Kita Ikki (1883-1937) an early socialist later became the inspiration for many
patriotic army officers to attempt a "Showa restoration" and bring about direct
Imperial rule. In 1919 he wrote a book entitled An Outlioe Plan for the
Reconstruction of Japan. This book presented plans related to external relations as
well as internal policies. Kita argued for Japan to lead Asia against Britain and
Russia, who between them dominated a large part of the globe. Japan, after
reforbing itself, could take the leadership in a federation of m a add other Asian
countries, including India. Kita Ikki's domestic reforms were based on developing an
industriakd Japan but one in which the power of rich capitalists would be
controlled. He also advocated a military coup d'etat to achieve the true objectives of
Meiji Restoration.

There were other expansionists who had a more agrarian vision of Japan and wpo
drew their inspiration from Japan's agrarian past. Both trends were increasingly
critical of the corruption of party politics and the economic problems faced
particularly in rural Japan. By the beginning of the 1930s there was a prevailing
mood against the Diet, the bureaucracy and business leaders and a demand that the
system be overhauled. Just as the Meiji Restoration had given Japan a new direction
and a revolutionary [Link] transformation, the expansionists felt that now
Japan needed a "Showa restoration" to meet the demanding times.

Konoe Fumimaro, who in 1938 proclaimed the New Order and one time Prime
Minister had by 1918 become disillusioned with the Western nations and was
advocating that Japan seek to change an unequal situation where she was denied
equal access. He wrote that Japan would be "forced to destroy the status quo for the
sake of self-preservation". In the army patriotic societies also debated these questions
and planned ways to change the situation..The main groups were known as the
Imperial Way faction (Kodo ha) and the Control faction (Tosei ha) (See Unit 23).

The Imperial Way faction was led by Araki Sadao and stressed the importance of the
Emperor, cooperation with China and war against kussia. Cooperation, of course*
meant under Japan's direction. The Imperial Way argued within the framework of
pan-Asian doctrines. The Control faction; which had Nagata Tetsuzan and Tojo
Hideki and came to dominate after 1936 argued that Japan needed to be m o b i e d
for the coming war. This would mean gearing up the economy and the people and
expanded its territories to be able to meet the challenge. Ishiwara Kanji played a
crucial role in the formulation of its plans and ideas.

Ishiwara Kanji argued that Japan must prepare to fight a series of wars against
Russia, then Britain and then the United States. Japan would be the champion of
Asia. To be able to carryout this role effectively just unity was hot enough but Japan
-
..
must be totally geared for the war. He said that political, economic and social policies
should be fully integrated for the defence of Japan and for him the army was the
prime mover of nafional licy.
 Jppanese Imperiqlism upto
25.5 COLONIAL POLICY : ASSUMPTIONS AND Set ond World War
PREMISES
Japanese colonial p o l i j was grounded in assumptions which had points of similarity
as well as differences with European colonial ideas. Japan did not start with a fully
articulated view of what approach should be adopted for its colonies. These views,
in fact, developed over time. One assumption whicb they shared with European views
was that different people had different capabilities and these were inherent qualities.
European powers controlled very different dultural regions and hence such views
developed to justify their rule. The Japanese to6 saw their colonization process as a
mission in which they would civilize their neighbours who were not as developed.
This national, conservative and paternalist view was widely accepted and propounded
by intellectuals and administrators like Nitobe Inazo and Goto Shimpei.

However, Japan's colonial empire extended over people who shared cultural and
racial affinities and this was particularly so with Taiwan and Korea. T h v there grew
a view that these regions would be assimilated (doh) into the home country, Japan.
The assirnilationist view iaw these countries as sharing a common cultural heritage
specifically composed of Confucian values. The mythical link between the Japanese
people and the Imperial family was also extended to include other people who thus
became "imperial peoples". Such ideas were often vague and ambiguous and
therefore could be used to justify a range of positions. At their best they promoted
policies which sought to integrate the colonized closely to Japan by the extension of
laws and institutions. Japanese policy tried to Japanize the people and forced them to
learn Japanese and live and dress like Japanese. The liberal face of Japanese colonial
policy was represented by Hara Takeshi who as Prime Minister advocated
assimilation through education and the spread of civil liberties. He said that most
Koreans did not desire independence but wanted equality with the Japanese.

However, in the 1930s this very gradual assimilation was transformed into a strict
policy which sought to regiment the people under Japanese authority. The stress was
on the obligations that these people owed to Japan. Even the language reflected t&s
for Japan and its possessions were classed into an "inner territory" and an "outer
territory". National identities had little meaning within this classification and Japan
asserted its rights as a master race over a subject people.

25.6 JAPAN: EXPANSIONIST POLICY SINCE 1931

In Unit 23 we have seen how the militarists took over the government in Japan. Since
the beginning of the 1930s and till the end of the Second World War the militarists
played a predominant role in the decision-making process of the country. The
military was convinced that the "soft" China policy pursued by the government was
to endanger Japan's economic interest in the country. Japan incr&gly felt 'that the
Western powers effort was to "contain" Japan's progress in China and not to
co-operate with it. In fact Japan was disillusioned with the-United S t & 3 which
adopted the 1924 Exclusion Act and the high tariff policy after, the Great
Depression. Britain also opposed Japan's "special interests" in China. It was clear to
the Japanese leaders that more could be gained by consolidating and expanding its
position on the mainland than by cooperating with the Western powers.

The environment of discontent at home resulting from both economic and political
crisis, it was felt, could be soothened by offering them expectatiqns of prosperity
through foreign expansion. Here we will discuss briefly certain aspects of Japan's
expansionist policies since 1931.

25.6.1 Establishment of Manchukuo

Japan's economic interests in China particularly in Manchuria were growing and
Japan's Kwantung army stationed here to protect ~ap&eseinterests and railroads felt
that pursuance of an aggressive policy was essential to obtain a guarantee for Japan's .
special position in Manchuria. This view was shared by other sections as well and the
difference wastone of approach onlj
post World war-I Japan On 18 September 1931, officers of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria overran
Southern Manchuria. The pretext for this action was provided by an explosion near
Mukden which slightly damaged the Japanese railway. The Kwantung army had been
trying to look out for or, even create such an "opportunity" since a long time but
were disuaded by the government in Tokyo. Manchuria was made 'independent' of
China and a puppet government was installed and Pu Yi the last of China's former
Manchu emperors was made head of the new state now called Manchukuo. The
Japanese government was faced with a fait accompli and ultimately the cabinet had
to approve the establishment of the puppet government in Manchuria.

25.6.2 Continued Aggression in China

Japan which came under severe criticism for its activities in Manchuria from the
world community withdrew from the League of Nations. This act symbolized Japan's
parting of ways from the Western countries.

However, the Western powers did not come to the support of China against Japan's
advancement. Japan after quick victory in Manchuria in 1933 resumed her
operations in the northern provinces of China and Jehol was soon added to
Manchukuo.

Japan continued with its advances in China on a small scale and in intervals. It also
intervened in the politics of the provinces especially those in the north and supported
those political movements which might be willing to accept "autonomy" under the
patronage of Japan.

The Chinese opposition to Japanese ekpansion ip theit country increased and was
further strengthened when Chiang Kai Shek reached an agreement with the
communists in 1936 to join hands against Japan.

Japanese military leaders were convinced that to have a total domination of China, a
large scale conflict was inevitable. The army was also dominated by men who
believed in the Japanese expansionism on the mainland. Besides it had become
necessary to ease the political tensions at home which was possible to some extent if
the Japanese army made remarkable gains in China which was expected of them by
the public.

On 7 July, 1937, fighting broke out between Chinese and Japanese troops at Marco
Polo bridge and shortly this inciaent turned into a major war between the two
countries. By August Peking and Tientsin were occupied. Hostilities spread further
and Japanese captured Chiang Kai Shek's capital Nanking, in December 1937. The
Japanese army indulged in full scale murder, loot and rape and about 12,000 Chinese
civilians were killed.

By 1938 Japan had captured Hankow (after Nanking, Chiang had moved his capital
to Hankow) and Canton. After the fall of Hankow Chiang again moved his capital to
Chungking.

Japan controlled several of the major cities and railway; by 1938 but still its political
control was not well consolidated. Japanese continued to face tough resistance from
the Chinese guerrillas. Economically, maintaining its gains in China and fighting the
guerrillas put a great strain on Japin.

Gradually, Japan was caught in the vortex of international events leading it to

ultra-nationalism at home, world isolation and war with the United States.

25.6.3 Japan Joins the Gxis Powers

In 1939 war broke out in Europe. With the fall of France and Netherlands in 1940
Japan was convinced that the Axis powers (Germany and Italy) were sure to win the
war. In 1940 Japan entered into a Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy declaring
its opposition to the other Western powers. In 1941 Japan signed a nori-aggression
pact with the Soviet Union. Japan, now certain of the security of its northern
frontiers in China, could freely move southyard towards in French, Dutch and
English colonies.
The US was highly agitated with Japan's expansionist policies. In 1940 the Japan-US Japanese Imperialism upto
&?condWorld War
trade treaty was allowed to expire. After the Tripartite Pact was concluded, and
Japan moved into South Indo-China in 1941 US, Britain and Holland placed a total
embargo on exports to Japan. Japan suffered a severe setback for oil and rubber
supplies were to be affected by this step. US had also [estricted the sale of strategic
goods to Japan whereas Japan's war industry was heavily dependant on the import
of iron and oil.

For the rnilitary it was necessary to overcome the barriers placed by the Western
powers. Talks were held between the US and Japan in 1941 but there was a deadlock
since boih the sides were determined not to compromise. The US demanded that
Japan wdhdraw not only from Indo-China but also from China. Japiin was
determiried that the US lift its oil embargo, reccjgnize Japanese hegemony in the Far
East ancl refrain from extending support to Chiang Ki Shck.

Japanest: military officers were convinced that ultimately a war with the US was
inevitab e and that planning in this direction had to be made. It was in anticipation of
war that Tojo Hideki was made Premier in October 1941. Foq Japan war was more
preferable than withdrawing from Chiria. It was nolv a question of not only
demons:rating that Japan was a power to reckor~with but it was also an economic
necessity.

By this [Link] Japan had also drawn up a plan of turning the whole area into a Greater
East Asia Co-pr~speritysphere, which include Soath and South East Asia. After
joining I he AXISpowers Japan was in high spirits to carry an its plans.

25.6.5 World War-II

One last effort, however, was made to avoid war. Japan in return for halting its
advanwment elsewhere proposed that the US withdraw from China and grant
extensive economic concessions to Japan. US rejected the proposal and on
1 Dece~nber1941 the Japanese imperial conference of civilian and services leaders
decided to declare war on the US. On 7 December 1941 Japan made a surprise
attack on Pearl Harbour and was victoz-ious. Japan olierran the Philippines, and
captured Hong Kong, Singapore and Indonesia. Japanese troops landed in Burma
and occupied it and were also preparing to t&e over India. By mid 1942 the region
from Rangoon to the mid-Pacific and from Tim'or to the Mongolian steppe was
under Japanese control. It is not possible to give all the details of the war.

The Pacific war lasted till 1945 and Japan suffered untold losses in terms of material,
men and money. The US after Pearl Harbour was determined to crush Japan. Soon
Japanese victories were turned into defeats.

In J a n ary
~ 1943 the allied leaders met at Casablanca and agreed to further
strengt len their efforts in the war against Japan. Soon Japan lost several strategic
islands in the Gilbert and Marshall islands. The Allies directed two massive
[Link] towards Japan. One captured Saipail in the Marianas in June 1943, and
Jima in March 1945. The other captured Philippines in February 1945. From here
the twc) commands were able to act in unison and their target was Okinawa which
they won in June 1945.

The k'lied forces now had landed on the very footsteps of Japan and were within
the bombing range. Since late 1944 ,Wed forces constantly bombed Japanese cities
killing thousands alld thousands of civilians and destroying property.

On 26 July 1945 the Polsdam Declaration was issued to Japan calling for its
unconciitional surrender, to be followed by its military occupation, demilitarization
and 10:~sof temtory. On 6 and 9 August atom bombs were dropped at Hiroshima
and Niigasaki. Japan accepted defeat and surrendered on 15 August 1945.

[Link] Progress 2
1. Explain in about 15 lines the various idecilogies of expansion.
.............................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
Post world War-I Japan

2. Elaborate on the "assimilationist view" of colonial policy . Answer in about 10

lines.

3. Write a note on the establishment of Manchukuo. Answer in about five lines.

.............................................................................................................................................

25.7 LET US SUM UP

Japanese imperialism arose in a period of Western expansion and rivalry. Japan was
faced with the dual task of establishing a basis of equality with the Western nations
by dismantling the unequal treaty system and at the same time expanding her control
and hegemony. Japanese leaders were aware of the danger that the Western nations
posed and they in turn believed that it was imperative to control the resources and
markets of the Chinese mainland to ensure Japan's well being. Japanese interest in
China brought it inta conflict with Britain and the United States but Japan had also
developed trade and social links with these two countries. At times the interests of
Russia and Japan seemed to be similiar but they also conflicted. Japanese policy
makers differed at times on the thrust of their policy but initially Japan joined the
Anglo-Japanese alliance and the Open Door policy but after 1905 it took measures
to carve out an i n d e ~ n d e n sphere
t of influence in Manchuria. This was justified on
[Link] of the security of Korea and the annexation of Korea had, in part, been 3 a p e e e [Link] upto
justified by the security needs of Japan. Japan then went on to extend and increase Second World War
her privilege in China. On the other hand there were ideologues who argued that
China and Japan needed to cooperate to fig\t the incursions of the West and for this
Japan needed the resources and the markets of China.

Japanese imperialism thus was not based on a single motive but comprised at least
two elements:
i) There wits the formal empire of colonies fr6m which Japan derived food
resources and strategic benefits.
ii) Japan wils a member of an international system which gave it treaty rights and
privileges in China. These privileges expanded with the growth of the Japanese
economy and its political power and these advantages were important for Japan's
growth and development-both politically and economically.

With the collapse of trade in the 1929 depression this order was seriously disrupted
and Japan set about to protect her interests. This, it was perceived,required not only
guarding strategic interests but protecting markets and areas which supplied raw
materials and resources. This need to carve out an area led ultimately to the
formation of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. In this sphere Japan,
~orea,-Manchukuo,North China and Taiwan would form the inner industrial belt
while south-east Asia and the Pacific islands and the rest of China would serve to
supply resources. Japanese imperialism created an area of influence for Japan.

The Japanese because of the element of anti-Westernism were able to utilize and
inadvertently help anti-colonial movements in Asia and were responsible, in part, for
the Dutch, British and French being driven out of this region. In China, Japanese
actions strengthened the hands of the Chinese Communist Party. At the end of the
war Taiwan 'and Manchukuo reverted to China whlle Korea was divided by the war
in 1950. The Japanese "civilizing mission" proved to be short lived and unsuccessful.
The legacy of bitterness which still exists in these countries is ample testimony to this
fact. Yet it may also be noted that both Taiwan and South Korea which were part of
Japan's colonial empire are today successful industrialized countries and Manchuria a
centre of heavy industry in China.

25.8 KEY WORDS

Asian Consciousness : l"ne ideology that argued that the only way Japan could
defend its country and cu!ture from Western depredation was to unite with Asian
countries which formed pu-t of a common cultural tradition.
Bank ConsorOilcms : Associations of several banks.
Co-prosperity Sphere :Aterm used by Japan to link the economic interests of Asian
countries against WeAtern powers. However this was used by Japan to further its own
interests.
Microaesia : Islands in Pacific sea.
Showa Restoqtion : In 1926 Showa became the Emperor of Japan. The
ultra-nationalists and young military officers, in order to get their ideas approved and
restored talked of Showa Restoration.

25.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. The formal Japanese empire included Taiwan, Korea Sakhaliu Kwantung
Territory and the Pa&c Islands. Expand your answer to include all these
territories. !See Sub-sec. 25.3.2
Post World War-1 Japan 2. Colonial administration varied from..colony to colony of which Korea enjoyed
the highest status. Your answer should also inlcude role of bureau attached to
the Home Ministry. See Sub-sec. 25.3.3
3. See Sub-sec. 25.3.4

Check Your Progress 2

1. Base your answer on Sec. 25.4
2. Base your answer on Sec. 25.5
3. Consult Sub-sec. 25.6.1
ron or the debate on whether to invade Korea was motivated by many factors. An . Japanese In~perialismupto
Secalnd World War
important reason advanced for supporting the invasion was that it would give jobs to
unemployed samurai who had been deprived of their traditional monopoly over
military functions with the universal conscription law. However, equally important
was the perception that Japan had the right to help Korea to enter the modern world
Japan would d o this as an ally. This position gradually deteriorated to Japan acting as
a leader and finally a colonizer. The process by which these pan-Asian ideas were
transformed from dreams of Asian solidarity to the reality of Japanese domination is
hotly debated but Japanese scholars would agree that till the 1900s pan-Asian ideas
were non-expansionist but subsequently they became an ideology to justify the
demands of groups like the military to expand Japan's territorial holdings in the
interests of wealth and security

25.3.2 ~ a ~ i nFormal
's Empire
The formal Japanese empire included Taiwan, Korea, Sakhalin, the Kwantung
Territory and the Pacific Islands. Taiwan was the first colony acquired by the
Japanese in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese war. Taiwan provided Japan not only with
the expenence to manage colonies but was also an important source of sugar and
rice. Taiwan was highly profitable and the colony became financially self-sufficient
within five years of its annexation. Karafuto, acquired in 1905, after the
Russo-Japanese war was populated mostly by Japanese and the native Ainu, with the
Koreans forming a small and declining part of the population. The administration
was more closely integrated with the Japanese administration. Military rule ended in
1907 and in 1943 it became part of Japan proper.

Korea was the most important colony (gaichi) and was annexed in 1910 by a treaty
which promised equal treatment for the Koreans. The Koreans, who had been subject
to Japanese pressure and presence, possessed a strong and vibrant cultural tradition.
They adamantly resisted Japanese attempts to integrate them into Japan. Thus on the
one hancl, there were large number of Koreans employed in the civil and police
administration and on the other there was a strong movement for independence.

The Kwantung territory on the Liaotung Peninsula was first ceded to Japan in 1895
but because of the Triple Intervention it reverted to China and subsequently it was
Ieqsed by the Chinese to Russia. After the Russian defeat in 1905 Japan acquired the
territory as well as control over the South Manchurian Railway. This was leased
territory but, because the Japanese had the r~ghtto administer the territory around
the South Manchurian Railway as well, the Kwantung army of Japan used this to
extend its control into Manchuria and by 1934 the Japanese Governor-General of '

Kwantung was also appointed as the Ambassador to the Japanese puppet state of
Manchukuo.

Japan also acquired control over a large number of tiny islands in Micronesia. The
islands had been controlled by Spain and then Germany purchased them. After
World War-I they were taken by the Japanese navy. The League of Nations termed
them as C-class territories and allowed the Japanese to administer them. Japan
withdrew from the League in 1933 but retained control over these islands. The native
population was ruled by its chiefs and the Japanese administration functioned over
them.

25.3.3 Colonial Administration

The colonial administration differed in detail from colony to colony with the officials
in Korea enjoying the highest status. The Governor-General of Korea (sotoku) was
either a general or an admiral and till 1919 reported directly to the Emperor and
after that to the Prime Minister. All other colonial governors reported to cabinet
level colonial officers. After 1919 all governors were civilians. This was in accordance
with the growing importance of democratic ideas in Japan and because of this there
was a separation of "civil" and "military" functions. However, Korea continued to be
the exception and military officers continued to be appointed as governors there.

In Japan colonial affairs were handled from 1895-1929 by a bureau attached to the
Prime Ministers office or to the Home Ministry. In 1929 a Ministq of Colonial
Affairs was created so that there could be some uniformtry in the administration of
Post World War-I Japan the colonies. However, the colonial governors retained considerable powers. When
Manchukuo was created in 1934 a special bureau to handle its affairs was also
established in the prime minister's office and this bureau also looked after the
Kwantung territory.

In November 1942 the Greater East Asia Ministry was establihed to replace both
the Manchurian Bureau and the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. This Ministry looked
after the Kwantung Territory, Manchukuo, the Pacific Islands and other occupied
territories. The Home Ministry was responsible for Korea, Taiwan and Karafuto. The
other ministries were allowed to involve themselves in their respective areas in the
colonies as well so that these areas could be more closely integrated with Japan
proper.

25.3.4 Economic Relations with the Colonies

The foreign trade of Japan has been dealt with in Units 20 and 24. Here it may be
pertinent to indicate the Japanese colonial trade as this will point to the importance
the colonies had for Japan. Manchuria was not really a colony and Korea till 1910
was also not a colony but Manchurian trade is shown separately from Chinese trade
in Japanese records after 1907. Taiwan, Korea and Kwantung-Manchuria between
1910-1914 provided from one-seventh to a quarter of Japan's imports. Manchuria
exported soyabeans and W e t , Korea rice and Taiwan rice and sugar. In turp they
absorbed Japauese cotton textiles and consumer goods. These areas played a key role
in providing cheap food for Japan's urban population.

In the field of foreign investmen\ Japan's position reflected the changing character of
its economy. The Anglo-Japan4 alliance enabled Japan to borrow overseas to
invest in railway development in china and Korea. However till 1914 Japan's
economy was not in a position to invest in any large way in China. Even when
political participation in bank consortiurns in China put it in a &ition to play a role
it could not invest much. Thus by 1914, as a member of the bank consortium it had
advanced only 1.8 per cent of the total loans:

The South Manchurian Railway (Mantetsu) is a good example of how the Japanese
government guaranteed investment so that banks could channel funds from abroad to
build up the railways. The railways, which formed 55 per cent of Japanese
investments in China in 1914, had a turnover of 81 million yen. In the rest of China
the financial houses individually canied out invektment projects with government
backing. Sometimes they collaborated as was the case in 1908 when Mitsui,
Mitsubishi and Okwa formed an affiliate called the Taiping Company for overseas
arms sales. The Hanyehping Coal and Iron Company was also a major area of
Japanese investment and Japan was a source of credit and loans in return for which
coal and iron was supplied at fixed prices. Hanyehping supplied 60 per cent of the
iron ore and pig iron to Yawata, the biggest steel producer in Japan. In other areas
Japanese capital played a small role compared to Western capital and most of it was
in commerce and small industry rather than in finance.

In the period from 1914-1930 Japan had greater capital to invest and its lending to
the Chinese government increased. Companies such as Mitsui arid Okura established
large projects and there was an expansion of cotton textile manufacture. Japanese
investment was now comparable to that of other Western countries aiid consequently
rivalries also increased. Japan's interests were conditioned by this character of their
economic interests as well as by the fact that by 1930 there were2,70,000 Japanese -
residents in China.

Check Your Progress 1

i. Write a note on Japan's formal empire. Answer in about 15 lines.
Japanese Imperialism upto
Seco~ndWorld War
Post World War-I Japan expansionist policy which was supported by many leaders within the government
as well.
Kokuryakai (Black Dragon Society), formed in 1901 by Uchida Ryohei, was
another ultra-nationalist society. It propagated the liberation of Asian countries
from European rule under Japanese leadership. Internally it emphasised on
strengthening morality and traditions.

Among the post World War-I societies were ~ o k Suikai

u (Japan National
Essence Society formed in 1919) and Kokuhonsha (National Foundation Society
formed in 1924). One of the main objectives of these societies was to save Japan
from socialism. They had many military officers as members. As mentioned earlier
(Unit 23) Kita Ikki and Okawa Shumei had formed the Yuzonsha which espoused
military expansion abroad and military takeover at home.

Kita Ikki (1883-1937) an early socialist later became the inspiration for many
patriotic army officers to attempt a "Showa restoration" and bring about direct
Imperial rule. In 1919 he wrote a book entitled An Outlioe Plan for the
Reconstruction of Japan. This book presented plans related to external relations as
well as internal policies. Kita argued for Japan to lead Asia against Britain and
Russia, who between them dominated a large part of the globe. Japan, after
reforbing itself, could take the leadership in a federation of m a add other Asian
countries, including India. Kita Ikki's domestic reforms were based on developing an
industriakd Japan but one in which the power of rich capitalists would be
controlled. He also advocated a military coup d'etat to achieve the true objectives of
Meiji Restoration.

There were other expansionists who had a more agrarian vision of Japan and wpo
drew their inspiration from Japan's agrarian past. Both trends were increasingly
critical of the corruption of party politics and the economic problems faced
particularly in rural Japan. By the beginning of the 1930s there was a prevailing
mood against the Diet, the bureaucracy and business leaders and a demand that the
system be overhauled. Just as the Meiji Restoration had given Japan a new direction
and a revolutionary [Link] transformation, the expansionists felt that now
Japan needed a "Showa restoration" to meet the demanding times.

Konoe Fumimaro, who in 1938 proclaimed the New Order and one time Prime
Minister had by 1918 become disillusioned with the Western nations and was
advocating that Japan seek to change an unequal situation where she was denied
equal access. He wrote that Japan would be "forced to destroy the status quo for the
sake of self-preservation". In the army patriotic societies also debated these questions
and planned ways to change the situation..The main groups were known as the
Imperial Way faction (Kodo ha) and the Control faction (Tosei ha) (See Unit 23).

The Imperial Way faction was led by Araki Sadao and stressed the importance of the
Emperor, cooperation with China and war against kussia. Cooperation, of course*
meant under Japan's direction. The Imperial Way argued within the framework of
pan-Asian doctrines. The Control faction; which had Nagata Tetsuzan and Tojo
Hideki and came to dominate after 1936 argued that Japan needed to be m o b i e d
for the coming war. This would mean gearing up the economy and the people and
expanded its territories to be able to meet the challenge. Ishiwara Kanji played a
crucial role in the formulation of its plans and ideas.

Ishiwara Kanji argued that Japan must prepare to fight a series of wars against
Russia, then Britain and then the United States. Japan would be the champion of
Asia. To be able to carryout this role effectively just unity was hot enough but Japan
-
..
must be totally geared for the war. He said that political, economic and social policies
should be fully integrated for the defence of Japan and for him the army was the
prime mover of nafional licy.
 Jppanese Imperiqlism upto
25.5 COLONIAL POLICY : ASSUMPTIONS AND Set ond World War
PREMISES
Japanese colonial p o l i j was grounded in assumptions which had points of similarity
as well as differences with European colonial ideas. Japan did not start with a fully
articulated view of what approach should be adopted for its colonies. These views,
in fact, developed over time. One assumption whicb they shared with European views
was that different people had different capabilities and these were inherent qualities.
European powers controlled very different dultural regions and hence such views
developed to justify their rule. The Japanese to6 saw their colonization process as a
mission in which they would civilize their neighbours who were not as developed.
This national, conservative and paternalist view was widely accepted and propounded
by intellectuals and administrators like Nitobe Inazo and Goto Shimpei.

However, Japan's colonial empire extended over people who shared cultural and
racial affinities and this was particularly so with Taiwan and Korea. T h v there grew
a view that these regions would be assimilated (doh) into the home country, Japan.
The assirnilationist view iaw these countries as sharing a common cultural heritage
specifically composed of Confucian values. The mythical link between the Japanese
people and the Imperial family was also extended to include other people who thus
became "imperial peoples". Such ideas were often vague and ambiguous and
therefore could be used to justify a range of positions. At their best they promoted
policies which sought to integrate the colonized closely to Japan by the extension of
laws and institutions. Japanese policy tried to Japanize the people and forced them to
learn Japanese and live and dress like Japanese. The liberal face of Japanese colonial
policy was represented by Hara Takeshi who as Prime Minister advocated
assimilation through education and the spread of civil liberties. He said that most
Koreans did not desire independence but wanted equality with the Japanese.

However, in the 1930s this very gradual assimilation was transformed into a strict
policy which sought to regiment the people under Japanese authority. The stress was
on the obligations that these people owed to Japan. Even the language reflected t&s
for Japan and its possessions were classed into an "inner territory" and an "outer
territory". National identities had little meaning within this classification and Japan
asserted its rights as a master race over a subject people.

25.6 JAPAN: EXPANSIONIST POLICY SINCE 1931

In Unit 23 we have seen how the militarists took over the government in Japan. Since
the beginning of the 1930s and till the end of the Second World War the militarists
played a predominant role in the decision-making process of the country. The
military was convinced that the "soft" China policy pursued by the government was
to endanger Japan's economic interest in the country. Japan incr&gly felt 'that the
Western powers effort was to "contain" Japan's progress in China and not to
co-operate with it. In fact Japan was disillusioned with the-United S t & 3 which
adopted the 1924 Exclusion Act and the high tariff policy after, the Great
Depression. Britain also opposed Japan's "special interests" in China. It was clear to
the Japanese leaders that more could be gained by consolidating and expanding its
position on the mainland than by cooperating with the Western powers.

The environment of discontent at home resulting from both economic and political
crisis, it was felt, could be soothened by offering them expectatiqns of prosperity
through foreign expansion. Here we will discuss briefly certain aspects of Japan's
expansionist policies since 1931.

25.6.1 Establishment of Manchukuo

Japan's economic interests in China particularly in Manchuria were growing and
Japan's Kwantung army stationed here to protect ~ap&eseinterests and railroads felt
that pursuance of an aggressive policy was essential to obtain a guarantee for Japan's .
special position in Manchuria. This view was shared by other sections as well and the
difference wastone of approach onlj
post World war-I Japan On 18 September 1931, officers of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria overran
Southern Manchuria. The pretext for this action was provided by an explosion near
Mukden which slightly damaged the Japanese railway. The Kwantung army had been
trying to look out for or, even create such an "opportunity" since a long time but
were disuaded by the government in Tokyo. Manchuria was made 'independent' of
China and a puppet government was installed and Pu Yi the last of China's former
Manchu emperors was made head of the new state now called Manchukuo. The
Japanese government was faced with a fait accompli and ultimately the cabinet had
to approve the establishment of the puppet government in Manchuria.

25.6.2 Continued Aggression in China

Japan which came under severe criticism for its activities in Manchuria from the
world community withdrew from the League of Nations. This act symbolized Japan's
parting of ways from the Western countries.

However, the Western powers did not come to the support of China against Japan's
advancement. Japan after quick victory in Manchuria in 1933 resumed her
operations in the northern provinces of China and Jehol was soon added to
Manchukuo.

Japan continued with its advances in China on a small scale and in intervals. It also
intervened in the politics of the provinces especially those in the north and supported
those political movements which might be willing to accept "autonomy" under the
patronage of Japan.

The Chinese opposition to Japanese ekpansion ip theit country increased and was
further strengthened when Chiang Kai Shek reached an agreement with the
communists in 1936 to join hands against Japan.

Japanese military leaders were convinced that to have a total domination of China, a
large scale conflict was inevitable. The army was also dominated by men who
believed in the Japanese expansionism on the mainland. Besides it had become
necessary to ease the political tensions at home which was possible to some extent if
the Japanese army made remarkable gains in China which was expected of them by
the public.

On 7 July, 1937, fighting broke out between Chinese and Japanese troops at Marco
Polo bridge and shortly this inciaent turned into a major war between the two
countries. By August Peking and Tientsin were occupied. Hostilities spread further
and Japanese captured Chiang Kai Shek's capital Nanking, in December 1937. The
Japanese army indulged in full scale murder, loot and rape and about 12,000 Chinese
civilians were killed.

By 1938 Japan had captured Hankow (after Nanking, Chiang had moved his capital
to Hankow) and Canton. After the fall of Hankow Chiang again moved his capital to
Chungking.

Japan controlled several of the major cities and railway; by 1938 but still its political
control was not well consolidated. Japanese continued to face tough resistance from
the Chinese guerrillas. Economically, maintaining its gains in China and fighting the
guerrillas put a great strain on Japin.

Gradually, Japan was caught in the vortex of international events leading it to

ultra-nationalism at home, world isolation and war with the United States.

25.6.3 Japan Joins the Gxis Powers

In 1939 war broke out in Europe. With the fall of France and Netherlands in 1940
Japan was convinced that the Axis powers (Germany and Italy) were sure to win the
war. In 1940 Japan entered into a Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy declaring
its opposition to the other Western powers. In 1941 Japan signed a nori-aggression
pact with the Soviet Union. Japan, now certain of the security of its northern
frontiers in China, could freely move southyard towards in French, Dutch and
English colonies.
The US was highly agitated with Japan's expansionist policies. In 1940 the Japan-US Japanese Imperialism upto
&?condWorld War
trade treaty was allowed to expire. After the Tripartite Pact was concluded, and
Japan moved into South Indo-China in 1941 US, Britain and Holland placed a total
embargo on exports to Japan. Japan suffered a severe setback for oil and rubber
supplies were to be affected by this step. US had also [estricted the sale of strategic
goods to Japan whereas Japan's war industry was heavily dependant on the import
of iron and oil.

For the rnilitary it was necessary to overcome the barriers placed by the Western
powers. Talks were held between the US and Japan in 1941 but there was a deadlock
since boih the sides were determined not to compromise. The US demanded that
Japan wdhdraw not only from Indo-China but also from China. Japiin was
determiried that the US lift its oil embargo, reccjgnize Japanese hegemony in the Far
East ancl refrain from extending support to Chiang Ki Shck.

Japanest: military officers were convinced that ultimately a war with the US was
inevitab e and that planning in this direction had to be made. It was in anticipation of
war that Tojo Hideki was made Premier in October 1941. Foq Japan war was more
preferable than withdrawing from Chiria. It was nolv a question of not only
demons:rating that Japan was a power to reckor~with but it was also an economic
necessity.

By this [Link] Japan had also drawn up a plan of turning the whole area into a Greater
East Asia Co-pr~speritysphere, which include Soath and South East Asia. After
joining I he AXISpowers Japan was in high spirits to carry an its plans.

25.6.5 World War-II

One last effort, however, was made to avoid war. Japan in return for halting its
advanwment elsewhere proposed that the US withdraw from China and grant
extensive economic concessions to Japan. US rejected the proposal and on
1 Dece~nber1941 the Japanese imperial conference of civilian and services leaders
decided to declare war on the US. On 7 December 1941 Japan made a surprise
attack on Pearl Harbour and was victoz-ious. Japan olierran the Philippines, and
captured Hong Kong, Singapore and Indonesia. Japanese troops landed in Burma
and occupied it and were also preparing to t&e over India. By mid 1942 the region
from Rangoon to the mid-Pacific and from Tim'or to the Mongolian steppe was
under Japanese control. It is not possible to give all the details of the war.

The Pacific war lasted till 1945 and Japan suffered untold losses in terms of material,
men and money. The US after Pearl Harbour was determined to crush Japan. Soon
Japanese victories were turned into defeats.

In J a n ary
~ 1943 the allied leaders met at Casablanca and agreed to further
strengt len their efforts in the war against Japan. Soon Japan lost several strategic
islands in the Gilbert and Marshall islands. The Allies directed two massive
[Link] towards Japan. One captured Saipail in the Marianas in June 1943, and
Jima in March 1945. The other captured Philippines in February 1945. From here
the twc) commands were able to act in unison and their target was Okinawa which
they won in June 1945.

The k'lied forces now had landed on the very footsteps of Japan and were within
the bombing range. Since late 1944 ,Wed forces constantly bombed Japanese cities
killing thousands alld thousands of civilians and destroying property.

On 26 July 1945 the Polsdam Declaration was issued to Japan calling for its
unconciitional surrender, to be followed by its military occupation, demilitarization
and 10:~sof temtory. On 6 and 9 August atom bombs were dropped at Hiroshima
and Niigasaki. Japan accepted defeat and surrendered on 15 August 1945.

[Link] Progress 2
1. Explain in about 15 lines the various idecilogies of expansion.
.............................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
Post world War-I Japan

2. Elaborate on the "assimilationist view" of colonial policy . Answer in about 10

lines.

3. Write a note on the establishment of Manchukuo. Answer in about five lines.

.............................................................................................................................................

25.7 LET US SUM UP

Japanese imperialism arose in a period of Western expansion and rivalry. Japan was
faced with the dual task of establishing a basis of equality with the Western nations
by dismantling the unequal treaty system and at the same time expanding her control
and hegemony. Japanese leaders were aware of the danger that the Western nations
posed and they in turn believed that it was imperative to control the resources and
markets of the Chinese mainland to ensure Japan's well being. Japanese interest in
China brought it inta conflict with Britain and the United States but Japan had also
developed trade and social links with these two countries. At times the interests of
Russia and Japan seemed to be similiar but they also conflicted. Japanese policy
makers differed at times on the thrust of their policy but initially Japan joined the
Anglo-Japanese alliance and the Open Door policy but after 1905 it took measures
to carve out an i n d e ~ n d e n sphere
t of influence in Manchuria. This was justified on
[Link] of the security of Korea and the annexation of Korea had, in part, been 3 a p e e e [Link] upto
justified by the security needs of Japan. Japan then went on to extend and increase Second World War
her privilege in China. On the other hand there were ideologues who argued that
China and Japan needed to cooperate to fig\t the incursions of the West and for this
Japan needed the resources and the markets of China.

Japanese imperialism thus was not based on a single motive but comprised at least
two elements:
i) There wits the formal empire of colonies fr6m which Japan derived food
resources and strategic benefits.
ii) Japan wils a member of an international system which gave it treaty rights and
privileges in China. These privileges expanded with the growth of the Japanese
economy and its political power and these advantages were important for Japan's
growth and development-both politically and economically.

With the collapse of trade in the 1929 depression this order was seriously disrupted
and Japan set about to protect her interests. This, it was perceived,required not only
guarding strategic interests but protecting markets and areas which supplied raw
materials and resources. This need to carve out an area led ultimately to the
formation of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. In this sphere Japan,
~orea,-Manchukuo,North China and Taiwan would form the inner industrial belt
while south-east Asia and the Pacific islands and the rest of China would serve to
supply resources. Japanese imperialism created an area of influence for Japan.

The Japanese because of the element of anti-Westernism were able to utilize and
inadvertently help anti-colonial movements in Asia and were responsible, in part, for
the Dutch, British and French being driven out of this region. In China, Japanese
actions strengthened the hands of the Chinese Communist Party. At the end of the
war Taiwan 'and Manchukuo reverted to China whlle Korea was divided by the war
in 1950. The Japanese "civilizing mission" proved to be short lived and unsuccessful.
The legacy of bitterness which still exists in these countries is ample testimony to this
fact. Yet it may also be noted that both Taiwan and South Korea which were part of
Japan's colonial empire are today successful industrialized countries and Manchuria a
centre of heavy industry in China.

25.8 KEY WORDS

Asian Consciousness : l"ne ideology that argued that the only way Japan could
defend its country and cu!ture from Western depredation was to unite with Asian
countries which formed pu-t of a common cultural tradition.
Bank ConsorOilcms : Associations of several banks.
Co-prosperity Sphere :Aterm used by Japan to link the economic interests of Asian
countries against WeAtern powers. However this was used by Japan to further its own
interests.
Microaesia : Islands in Pacific sea.
Showa Restoqtion : In 1926 Showa became the Emperor of Japan. The
ultra-nationalists and young military officers, in order to get their ideas approved and
restored talked of Showa Restoration.

25.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. The formal Japanese empire included Taiwan, Korea Sakhaliu Kwantung
Territory and the Pa&c Islands. Expand your answer to include all these
territories. !See Sub-sec. 25.3.2
Post World War-1 Japan 2. Colonial administration varied from..colony to colony of which Korea enjoyed
the highest status. Your answer should also inlcude role of bureau attached to
the Home Ministry. See Sub-sec. 25.3.3
3. See Sub-sec. 25.3.4

Check Your Progress 2

1. Base your answer on Sec. 25.4
2. Base your answer on Sec. 25.5
3. Consult Sub-sec. 25.6.1