CHAPTER 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION

 Globally Agriculture provides a livelihood for more people than any other industry.
 Livestock provide over half of the value of global agricultural output and one third in
developing countries.
 Livestock production contributes about 35 percent to the agricultural Gross Domestic
Product in SSA, if non-food products and services were added; this share would even be
higher. Yet it also has the world’s lowest per capita consumption levels for livestock by
products.
 The movement of people from rural areas to urban centers will increase the demand for food
of animal origin. In the year 2025 it is projected that the demand for meat and milk exceed
19 and 43 million tones, respectively. This level of production will require a 4% annual rate
of increase of livestock productivity compared with the estimated current rate of 2.5%.
 Therefore Livestock production system is a pattern of production practices to utilize animal
resources and its products to enhance food self sufficiency with friendly relation to the
environment.
 Livestock production provides goods and services by using a large variety of animals.
 Livestock production practice also has to increase socio-economic benefits for the producers
and render environmental justice to the humanity.
 Livestock production involves many necessary practices such as rearing of young ones,
feeding and fattening, controlling diseases, taking care of hygiene of the stock, harvesting
and marketing.
 There are rapid changes in the animal husbandry practices to meet the increasing global
demands. The primary factor for change is the limitations of space and restrictions on land
use. With technological development and change there is a shift towards intensive
production.
 The global economic growth, increases in average income and increases in human
populations has fueled the increased global demands for high-value food products.

1.2. Terminology Used in Livestock Production

Livestock: Any domestic animal produced or kept primarily for farm, ranch, or market purposes,
including beef and dairy cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, and horses.

Ruminants: Animals having a stomach with four compartments. Their digestive process is more
complex, therefore, than that of animals having a true stomach. Some commonly known
ruminants are cattle, sheep and goats; an example of a true stomach animal is the pig.

Bovine is a term relating to cattle.

Caprine is a term relating to goats.

Ovine is a term relating to sheep.

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Calf: Young one of cattle or buffalo below the age of six months is called calf.

Heifer: The younger female of cattle above age of six months to first calving.

Cow: The adult female of cattle from the date of first calving is called cow.

Bull: It is unsaturated of, cattle used for breeding or covering the cows.

Bullock: It is the castrated male of cattle used for work.

Conception: The successful union of male and female gametes & implantation of zygote is
known as conception.
Gestation: It is the condition of female when developing foetus in present in the uterus.

Gestation period: The period from the date of service (actual conception) to the date of
parturition is termed as parturition period or pregnancy period. This period varies according to
species of animals e.g. is cows 279-283 days, in buffalo 310 days, sheep 148-152 days, goat 150-
152 days.
Parturition: The act of giving birth to young one is called parturition.

Lactation period: The period after parturition in which the animal produces milk.

Dry period: The period after lactation in which the animal does not produce milk.

Calving interval: The period between two successive calving is calving interval.
Buller: Cow always in estrus condition.
Teaser: A vasectomized (castrated) bull used to detect the heat or estrus of female (cow).
Herd: It is a group of cattle.
Flock: It is the group of sheep, goat or poultry birds.
Steer: The male cattle that is castrated when he is still a calf or before the development of sexual
maturity is called steer.
Veal: The meat of calf below the age of 3 months.
Beef: The meat of- cattle past calf stage
Mutton: The meat of sheep & goat.

Chevon: The meat of goat

Cattle domesticated mammals of the genus Bos.

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Calf is a young bovine. This term is used from the time of birth up until about 6 to 10 months of
age when the animal is weaned.

Cow is a female bovine that has had a calf. (This term may also be used for other species)

Heifer is a female bovine that has not had a calf.

Steer is a castrated male bovine or can be a future ox that is less than 4 years old.

Ox is castrated bull that has been trained to work and is at least 4 years of age.

Goat the domesticated form of capra hircus.

1.3. Functions of livestock

Functions of livestock (cattle) production are
 Output function
-Food products
-Non-food products

 input function
-manure
- Work
 Asset and security function
 Social and cultural function
Livestock generally provide different services and products for human beings
Generally they are
Sources of food
 Livestock are important as producers of meat, milk and eggs, which are parts of the food chain
and, which provide high value protein food.
 They have long played a key role in supplying calories and protein for human food in virtually
all parts of the world, both directly (in the form of animal products), and indirectly (from the
contribution of manure and draught power to crop production and generation of income to
enable purchase of food.
 In developed countries, about 60% of the dietary protein supply is derived from animal
products compared to only 22% in developing countries. In the developing countries where
diets are composed of only a small number of staple foods, animal products are of great
importance in preventing malnutrition, as they are concentrated sources of essential amino
acids, available in only limited quantities in the protein of staple vegetable foods.

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Source of Power
 Hundreds of millions of people in the Highland Production System depend upon animal
power for cultivation, planting, weeding, threshing and transportation.
 Draft animals provide the power for the cultivation of 50% of the world-cultivated land and
the hauling of 25% carts.
 More than 240 million cattle and 60 million buffalo are kept as work animals. In Ethiopia,
Source of Organic fertilizer
 Livestock play a significant role in maintaining soil fertility in the Production System.
 When spread on cropland, animal manure increase soil organic matter, and improves soil
texture.
 For the vast majority of smallholders in the highlands, nutrient recycling through manure,
compensate for lack of access to chemical fertilizer, and helps to maintain the variability and
environmental sustainability of production.
Source of Income and Living bank
 In Ethiopia, livestock contribute about 30-35% of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP)
and more than 85% of farm cash income.
 The livestock sub sector also contributes about 13-16% of total GDP. The share of livestock in
total exports averaged 16%.
Source of Foreign currency
The role of livestock in foreign currency earnings is substantial in Ethiopia, a country, which
have very limited export items.

 In Ethiopia, a country with huge, yet untapped livestock potential, livestock are only second to
coffee (the major export crop) in foreign currency earning. Foreign currency earning generated
from livestock, are used to import different goods and services for the development of the
country.

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 CHAPTER 2
DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION
2.1. Terminology

Butter: Butter is produced by churning the fat from milk or cream until it solidifies.
The butter mass is washed and sometimes salted to improve keeping qualities.

Butterfat: Also known as milkfat, this is the fatty portion of milk. Milk and cream are often sold
according to the amount of butterfat they contain. In the United States, there are federal
standards for butterfat content of dairy products.

Colostrum: The first milk given by a dairy cow following birth that is rich in fat and protein and
has immunity elements. Colostrum is given to newborn calves in the first 24 hours of life.
Dairy farm: is a farm that produces milk and milk products
Dairying /dairy farming: is the business of a dairy farm
Dairy cattle: cattle that is raised primarily to produce milk
Dairy man – male working in dairy farm
Dairy maid – female working in dairy
Forage: Cow feed that is high in fiber and low in digestible nutrients. Examples include whole
plants of corn, small grains (such as oats, barley, or wheat), legumes and grasses.
Mastitis: An inflammation of a dairy cow’s milk ducts while she is lactating. Mastitis is usually
caused by bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics.

Milking Machines: Machinery used by dairy farmers to extract milk from cows. Electronic
milking machines use a pulsating vacuum that simulates the effect of a suckling calf. The
machines do not cause any harm or discomfort to the cows and they keep the milk safe from
external contamination.

Milking Parlor: A specialized area on the dairy farm where the milking process is performed.
Cows are brought into the parlor two or three times a day. Parlors come in many types and
names, including flat barn, herringbone, parallel, swing, walk-through and rotary.

2.2. Origin and domestication of cattle

Cattle where the first mammal that were domesticated next to caprinae. The center of origination
(domestication) of cattle is in the western Asia occur some 8000- 9000 years ago. Domesticated
cattle belong to the family Bovidae, which includes ruminants with hollow horns, and members
of this family possess one or more enlargements along the oesophagus for food and chew their
cuds. Example: - true buffalo, cattle etc.

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The oldest cattle type (domesticated 8000 years ago) to be associated with man is the Hamitic
type in Mesopotamia
 The long horned Hamitic animal was
 a creature of average to large stature
 lacking a hump,
 endowed with developed horn, and
 sometimes very large in length and girth
In the same region of Mesopotamia about 2000 years later,
A new type of animal appeared in this area much reduced stature, with smaller horns similar
to those of Jersey, Holstein or Baoule cows nowadays.
Appearing about 6000 years ago,
This type of animal spread rapidly across three continents, where they coexist and sometimes
replaced the Hamitic

 Finally, 4000 years ago,

 the Zebu appeared in a region corresponding to present day Afghanistan
 Nowadays, the majority of indigenous tropical breeds of cattle are humped.
 There were no native cattle in tropical America, Australia or the Pacific.
 All cattle there today are the progeny of cattle introduced by European settlers

Today’s species and breeds

 There are two cattle groups, Bos taurus and Bos indicus
 Bos taurus includes
the temperate breeds
 Bos indicus- indigenous humped Zebu breeds

The following outline shows the basic position of the domesticated cow in the zoological
scheme:
Kingdom - Animialia (animals collectively)
Phylum- Chordata (one of approximately 21 phyla of the animal kingdom in which there is
either a backbone [in the vertebrate] or the rudiments of a backbone [in the chorda]
Class – Mammalia (mammals or warm- blooded, hairy animals that produce their young live and
suckle them for a variable period on a secretion from the mammary glands.
Order - Artiodactyla (even - toed, hoofed mammals )
Family - bovidae (ruminants having polycotyledonary placenta hollow, non - decidous, up -
branched horns ; and nearly universal presence of a gall bladder).

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Genus - Bos (ruminant quadrupeds, including wild and domestic cattle, distinguished by a stout
body and hollow arrived horns standing but out laterally from the skull)
Species - Bos taurus and Bos indicus (Bos taurus includes the ancestors of the European cattle
of USA while Bos indicus is represented by the humped cattle ( Zebu ) of India and Africa and
the Brahman breed of America.
Table 1. Biological hierarchy of some Farm Animals

Commo Kingdo Phlum Class Order Family Genus Species

n name m
Cattle Animalia Chordata Mammalian Artiodactyla Bovidae Bos Tarus and
indicus
Sheep Animalia Chordata Mammalian Artiodactyla Bovidae Ovis Aries
Goat Animalia Chordata Mammalian Artiodactyla Bovidae Capra Hircus

2.3. Dairy cattle breed

Breed: Breed is a group of animals having a common origin and possessing certain well fixed
and distinctive characteristics not common to other members of the same Species
The distinctive/unique characteristics that the animals differ from one another include:
 Body conformation
 Fitness characteristic
 Production characteristic and so on.
-Based on the above characteristic breeds can be classified into two.
Local breed (Bos indicus)—Zebu breeds or Tropical breeds; Humped.
Exotic breed (Bos Taurus) —humpless

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 Table 2. Comparative evaluation of indigenous and exotic breeds

Character Local breeds Exotic breed

-have much narrower -Have large body size
1. Body conformation body -No hump
-have long legs and
well developed hump.
-can exist under poor Can’t exist under
quality feed poor quality feed
-low feed intake -high feed intake
[Link] characteristics -better able to retain -less able to retain
-slow to reach sexual -fast to reach sexual
maturity maturity
[Link] characteristics -long calving interval -short calving interval
-slow growth rate -fast growth rate
-short lactation period -long lactation period
-low milk yield -high milk yield
Dairy type: Cattle of this type are usually not large, and are of somewhat lean build or are
characterized by a lean, angular form and a well-developed mammary system.
Characteristics of the dairy type
 The head is small of refined appearance lean, clean cut and exhibits many small folds of
the skin
 The front and rump are moderately broad and the ribs are set obliquely back wards
 The skin is thin, firm and elastic, with poorly developed subcutaneous connective tissue,
and it is covered with silky hair
 The udder is usually well developed and other characters indicative of a high milking
capacity are also prominent
 The constitution (general physical structure condition) is all together very dry
 These types of animals are outstanding milk producers. They are of little value,
however, as fat stock, since the meat is of poor quality, the carcass dressing percentage
is small and growth is slow leading to late maturity.
 They are primarily adapted to convert efficiently feed in to maximum of high quality
milk .
 Representatives include:- Holstein Friesian, Guernecy, Jersey
Characteristics of dual purpose type
- Dual purpose type have characteristics intermediate between those of dairy and beef
types in conformation and also in the production of both meat and milk.
-are medium seized or large Example: Simmental

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Characteristics of multipurpose type
- Multi-purpose type exhibit not only the properties typical of dual purpose cattle, but also
some of the features characteristics of working cattle ( strong, bones ,sound constitution,
quiet temperament )

2.4.1. Indigenous Ethiopian breed

There are many local cattle types/breeds in the country, which vary in size and colour. However,
all are grouped into Bos indicus. It is a well-known fact that Bos indicus is adapted to tropical
environment through natural selection. No interference has been made by man except few
attempts tried in few research sites. They are not well characterised. Thus, they are called with
references to the place where they dominate. Example: Horro (dominating western part of the
country around Horro in Wollega), Boran (Dominating southern part of the country around
Borena), Fogera (Northern part of the country around Fogera). In general, indigenous cattle are
multipurpose in their function. i.e. meat, milk and draft. Indigenous cattle of Ethiopia can be
classified in to 3 main classes
I Zebu Class
Arsi breed
Barka breed
Borana breed
II Sanga class
Danakil breeds (Adal, Raya, Kereyu, and Afar)
Raya-Azebu
Abigar (Nilotic)
III zenga/Zebu (intermediate)
Horro breed
Fogera breed

1. Barka type
- Classified as Abyssinian short horns -Coat colour is variable, but black pied is
common
-Habitat is medium to high altitude - multipurpose type: milk, meat an d draft
-Originated in west part of Eritrea, but -considered to be good milk cattle
abundant in Tigray and Gonder - produce about 647 litre milk per lactation

2. Arsi type
- dominate the highlands of central region of Arsi and Bale - small in body size
- selected Arsi produce upto 500-kg per lactation - butter fat percentage = 5.4 - 5.8 %
3. Fogera
- found in the North western part of the country around Fogera
- produce about 281 kg of milk / lactation
- butter fat percentage = 5.8 %
4. Boran
- is a famous Ethiopian breed -colour is normally white or grey but also red
- originated from Borena awraja, Southern or pied animals occur
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 part of the country - milk yield is 440 kg /lactation
- today is also found in Somalia and Kenya - butter fat percentage is 6.0 %

5. Horro breed
Horro breed is a Zenga type of cattle, i.e. an intermediate breed type between the Sanga and the
Zebu
Zenga breeds are often found in areas between the typical Zebu areas in northern Africa and
Sanga areas in the south.
The Horro cattle are found in the western parts of Ethiopia, mainly in the Eastern Wollega and
Western Shoa Zones of the Oromia Region.

Horro cattle are mainly used for milk and meat production and for draught purpose
- selected Horro produce up to 543 litre/lactation
- are medium sized
- mainly raised for meat and draft power
6. Sheko breed
The Sheko breed classifiesd as a humpless Shorthorn and is the only known breed of taurine
type in eastern Africa
The breed is found in the Bench-Maji zone of Southern Region in the south-western parts of
Ethiopia
Sheko cattle are ma inly used for meat production and work.

2.4.2. Exotic dairy breed

Dairy type
1. Ayrshire
Origin - Native to Scotland
Colour - Red and white usually irregular shaped red patches on a white background
Distinctive characteristics
- Horns are widespread and tend to curve upward and outward. However, there are
Some naturally polled Ayrshire.
- Udders are especially symmetrical and well attached to the body.
- the breed is noted for its style and animation, good feet and legs, and grazing ability
- average cow weight varies between 450 and 550 kg
- average milk yield is estimated to be 4370 kg; with milk fat content of 4 %
- relatively adaptable to adverse conditions

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2. Guernsey
Origin -Islands of Guernsey
Colour - Fawn with white markings clearly defined preferably a clear muzzle
Distinctive characteristics:
- Good length of head - Horns include forward
- Refined and medium in length - Taper toward the tips
- Golden yellow skin pigmentation - Calves are relatively small at birth
- Similar to Jersey but slightly larger cows weigh 450- 500 kg
- Milk yield in original environment varies between 4000- 5000 kg
- Is the result of crossings between Jersey and Breton cattle
- milk fat is 5%

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3. Holstein - Friesian
Origin - Netherlands and northern Germany
Colour - Black and white or red and white
Distinctive characteristics:
- have broad muzzle
- open nostrils
- large angular animal
- developed exclusively for milk through selection and intensive feeding
- the breed is large animal, therefore, can be used for beef
- average milk yield = 6500 - 7500 kg with butter fat content of 3.5%
- are adapted to high level of management
- do not respond to adverse environmental conditions

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4. Jersey
Origin - Island of Jersey (Great Britain)
Colour - vary greatly in colour but the principal colour usually being some shade of
fawn yellowish or grey with or without whit markings
Distinctive characteristics
- forehead is broad and moderately dished with large, bright eyes
- well known for their well shaped udders, stronger udder attachments and ease of calving
- are angular refined
- small breed with an extremely refined skeletal structure and lean constitution
- average milk yield in original environment is about 4536kg
- butter fat content of milk is very high , about 5.5%
- good pasture animals in harsh environments

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5. Milking short- horn
Origin - England
Colour - Red, white or any combination of red and white
Distinctive characteristics
- fine horns that are rather short
- good milk production ( 6000 Lt per year)

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 Dual type

Brown Swiss
Origin - Switzerland
Colour - Solid brown
Distinctive characteristics
-nose and tongue are black
- a characteristics light coloured band around the muzzle
- medium length horns
- calm and un excitable
- average milk production is 5488 kg with butter fat % of 4.1

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2.5. Dairy Cattle Production System

2.5.1. Dairy Production Systems in Tropics and Sub-Tropics

Africa accounts for just over 2% of the world milk production. The principal exporters of milk
products are the European community, New Zealand and the USA. The high guaranteed prices
and advances in technology led to the rapid growth of milk output in many countries over the
past two decades.
Opportunities for dairying in tropics and sub-tropics are largely determined by:
1. agro - ecological zones
2. livestock production system and
3. tsetse challenges
Accordingly, five agro-ecological zones and five dairy production systems may be distinguished
in tropics and sub-tropics. The classification for agro- ecological zones, however, is based on the
number of plant growing days and temperature
Thus, the following dairy production systems are recognized in tropics and sub-tropics.
1. Pastoralism ( nomadic and transhumant )

- livestock owners who exploit natural grass lands mainly in the arid areas

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- pastoralists are with their herds always and move continually looking for fresh grazing areas.
The main source of food for pastoralists is milk
- the herd is dominated with unimproved Zebu animals
- milk production is of subsistent type
2. Agro-pastoralism
 agro-pastoralists are sedentary farmers who grow food crops and also keep livestock.
 their livestock graze on common land, fallow lands and cropland after the harvest.
 livestock are used for drought savings and milk production.
 shifting cultivation is a common practice.
 the herd is dominated with unimproved Zebu animals
 milk production is of subsistent type
3. Mixed farming
- food or cash crop cultivation is the main agricultural activity .
- farm size is normally small 1-5 ha, with a moderate to high cropping intensity.
- maintenance of soil fertility is one of the main problems of livestock
- livestock are kept for drought valorisation of crop residues, improving soil fertility and
providing additional food or income from milk or meat
- the herd is dominated with unimproved Zebu animals
- milk production is of subsistent type
4. Intensive dairy farming
 in this system, farmers use part or all of their land to grow fodder crops for their dairy cattle.
 they may also purchase concentrates.
 farmers may also use land for food crops or cash crops.
 the dairy animals do not provide draught, but their manure is used as fertiliser on crops
 milk is the main source of farm income
 it is mainly undertaken by small farmers using family labour, but commercial farmers using
hired labour and parastatals also practice this system on a lager scale .
 the herd is dominated with improved/crossbred dairy cattle
 the production system is market oriented and milk production is for sale (surplus production)
5. Peri-urban dairying
 this system occurs around cities, where demand for milk is high.
 the main source of feed are agro-industrial by- products (e.g.:- brewery waste and oilseed
cakes ), cultivated fodder crops and crop residues
 milk is often sold directly to consumers in the city and is the main source of income for the
farmers .
 the herd is dominated with improved crossbred and high-grade dairy cattle

Factors affecting milk yield and composition

Broadly classified into genetic and physiological and environmental factors
Ambient temperature
The effect of ambient temperature on milk yield is dependent upon the breed. Holsteins and the
other larger breeds are more tolerant to lower temperatures, whereas the smaller breeds
particularly the Jersey are much more tolerant to high temperatures. The optimum temperature
for the Holstein cow is about 10 °C. Milk production declines when environmental temperature

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exceeds 27 °C. The reduction in milk yield is largely due to drop in feed intake. High
temperature affect high producing cows more than low producers and it is particularly harmful
during the peak of lactation.

Feed and water supply

Any restriction in feed or water supply will result in a drop in milk production. The most
dramatic effect is brought about by shortage of water as the cow has no means of storing water.
Withholding access to water or insufficient supply of water for few hours will result in a rapid
drop in milk yield.

Of all milk components, milk fat is the most influenced by dietary manipulations. Most of
changes in milk composition are due to dietary changes. Underfeeding dairy cows reduces
lactose % and increases fat %.
Feeding imbalance rations (e.g. low energy: protein ratio) may reduce milk fat and protein
percentages.

Dry period
Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next calving. This rest period is
necessary to maximize milk production in subsequent lactation. Milk yield is usually reduced
when the dry period is less than 40-60 days (25-40% less milk). Dry period longer than 60 days
in length does not result in a significant increase in milk production.
Long dry periods decrease the average annual production of the cow by extending the calving
interval beyond the normal 13-14 month interval and causing a decrease in the lifetime
production of the dairy cow.

Lactation number
Milk production increases with lactation number and is maximized in the fourth or the fifth
lactation. This is a result of the increasing development and size of the udder and the increasing
body size over that of the first lactation animal. The expected mature yield (mature equivalent) of
a cow calving at two years of age can be estimated by multiplying yield of first lactation by 1.3.
Interval between milking
 The fat content of milk varies considerably between the morning and evening milking
because there is usually a much shorter interval between the morning and evening
milking than between the evening and morning milking
 If cows were milked at 12-hour intervals the variation in fat content between milking
would be negligible, but this is not practicable on most farms
 Normally, SNF content varies little even if the intervals between millking vary
Milking frequency
Cows are usually milked twice daily. Milking a twice a day yields at least 40% more milk than
once a day. Increasing milking frequency to 3 x day increases milk yield by up to
20% (range 5-20%). The increase is usually highest for first lactation cow and declines as the
cow gets older. The most likely reasons for increased milk production as frequency of milking
increases are
 less intramammary pressure generated with frequent milking,
 increased stimulation of hormone activity favorable of milk production and

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  less negative feedback on the secretory cells due to the accumulation of milk
components.
The practice has been implemented to increase milk yield and utilize facilities more
efficiently. However, the practice is still being debated. There are several problems
associated with 3 x per day milking.
Diseases
Infection of the udder (mastitis) greatly influences milk composition. Concentrations of fat,
solids-not-fat, lactose, casein, b-lactogolbulin and a-lactalbumin are lowered and concentrations
blood serum albumin, sodium, and chloride are increased. In severe mastitis, the casein content
may be below the normal limit of 78% of total protein and the chloride content may rise above
the normal maximum level of 0.12%.Mastitis is also responsible for differences observed in milk
composition from different quarters of the udder.
Change in Milk Composition during Milking
Milk fat % increases continuously during the milking process. First drawn milk may contain only
1-2% fat, whereas, at the end of milking, fat % may be 5-10%. This is because of the tendency of
the fat globules to cluster and be trapped in the alveoli. Thus after incomplete milking, milk fat
content will be lower than normal. Residual milk (milk remains in the udder after milking) may
contain up to 20% fat.
Breed and individual cow
• Milk composition varies considerably among breeds of dairy cattle:
 Jersey and Guernsey breeds give milk of higher fat and protein content than Shorthorns
and Friesians
 Zebu cows can give milk containing up to 7% fat
Variability among cows within a breed
 The potential fat content of milk from an individual cow is determined genetically, as are
protein and lactose levels
 Thus, selective breeding can be used to upgrade milk quality
 Heredity also determines the potential milk production of the animal
 However, environment and various physiological factors greatly influence the amount
and composition of milk that is actually produced
 Herd recording of total milk yields and fat and SNF percentages will indicate the most
productive cows, and replacement stock should be bred from these.

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2.6. Feeding of Dairy cattle

2.6.1. Terminology
Nutrition – is a science that deals with feed and its contents or
The series of processes by which an animal takes in and assimilates feed components for
promoting maintenance, growth, reproduction, milk, work and/or production.
Nutrients – is any chemical compounds in the diets that that is required for productive, growth,
lactation maintenance of live and the others
Food/feed is edible material that provide nutrients
Diet – is a mixture of feed stuffs used to supply nutrients to the animals
Ration - is a 24-hour or daily allowance or allocation of feed or mixture of feed ingredients
Feed stuffs - is bulky of feed or any material included in a diet or ration because of its nutritional
properties
Concentrate- is universally prepared ration that contain necessary nutrients
Forage or Roughage - is plant material that high in crude fiber that used as feed of
livestock /plant material that used either in the form of grazing or browsing as feed of animals
2.6.2. Feeding goals

The feeding program has considerable influence on the success and profitability of the dairy farm
business. Success of dairy nutrition involves securing the necessary feed resources ( forages and
concentrates ), combining and delivering these feeds in such a manner that will promote
desirable growth of herd replacements and production of large quantities of milk of acceptable
composition by cows in the lactating herd .
Feed expenses account for over 50% of the expense of producing milk on the average in dairy
farm. Deficiencies in total nutrient intake or intake of specific nutrients or lack of a balanced
ration will result in less than optimum production. At higher levels of milk production, total feed
costs increase, but income over feed costs decreases and feed costs per kg of milk increase.
Therefore the feeding program should provide each animal with a ration that
1. Meets the animal’s nutrient requirements: the ration must provide adequate amounts of each
nutrient required for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and production at maximum or most
economical levels.
2. Palatable: ingredients of the ration must be in a form and condition that are appealing to
the cow.
3. Economical: in most cases, the ration must maximize the use of high quality home- grown
forage and, in some cases, grains. Necessary supplements should be purchased to provide
needed nutrients on a least cost per unit of nutrient basis.
4. Conducive to the health of the animal and production of milk of normal composition.

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2.6.3. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle
Nutrient requirement of diary animal depends on age, lactation period, pregnancy, environment,
etc
Dairy cattle require nutrients for:

 maintenance
 growth if immature
 reproduction ( when pregnant )
 milk production

Nutrient requirements for maintenance: can be defined as nutrients needed to maintain the
animal body at equilibrium, that is, neither gaining nor losing weight, not pregnant, nor not
producing milk. These requirements are in proportion to body weight of the animal.
Nutrient requirement for growth: immature animals need additional nutrients for growth, until
they reach five to six years of age. For lactating animals, maintenance requirements are increased
by 20% for first lactation animals and 10% for second lactation animals and growth .
Requirements for non-lactating animals are in proportion to rate of growth and body weight .
Nutrient requirement for pregnancy: pregnant animals need additional nutrients for growth of
the foetus. The quantity of nutrients needed is small until the last two months of gestation , when
most foetal growth occurs .
Nutrient requirement for lactation: lactating cows also require additional nutrients for
production of milk. The amount of energy required by dairy cattle for lactation is proportionate
to amount and composition (%fat) of the milk.

2.6.4. Feed Resources for Dairy Cattle

Dairy cattle rations are composed of forages, concentrates and by- products (may resemble either
forage or concentrates).

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Forages are feeds that include the entire plant such as pasture, green chopped feeds, silage, and
hay. It contains a relatively high percentage of fibre and relatively low percentage of energy
compared to concentrates. Forages are primary constituents of most dairy rations for
physiological and economic reasons. It comprises 40 to 70% of lactating cow rations and 90 to
100% of dry cow and bred heifer rations. Dairy cattle must consume adequate quantities of
fibre , usually supplied by forages, to ensure proper rumen function. Consumption of rations too
low in fibre may result in decreased digestibility of the ration owing to changes in rumen
microbial population and in the epithelial surface and function of the rumen. Prolonged feeding
of a low fibre ration will result in a serious impairment of health of the animal.
Concentrates are fed to provide the nutrients required for the cow to produce more nearly to her
genetic ability for milk production. As the proportion of concentrates in the ration increases,
forage consumption is reduced 0.55 to 1.76 kg for each additional round of concentrate
Dairy cattle consume and utilize a wide variety of crops as forage, including grasses, legumes,
and other crops. The objective of the forage program on a dairy farm is to utilize available land
resources, to provide an adequate supply of uniformly high-quality forage at the lowest cost per
unit of nutrients, which when balanced with other feeds will give the lowest total feed cost per
unit of milk produced.
The three basic forage alternatives available to most dairy farmers are:
1. Pasture or green grass
2. Silage
3. Hay
Various combinations of these three basic alternatives are practical on many dairy farms.
Discussions as to which forages to grow and feed depend on the following .

 Climate conditions:- rainfall , length of growing season, temperature

 Land resources:- amount of land, topography, soil type
 Labour resources: - for harvesting, transporting etc
 Feed storage resources :- amount and type of silo/hay shed
 Harvesting and feeding equipment :- Availability and cost
 Supplemental feeds :- availability , cost ( used to mix with forage )

2.6.5. Budgeting Forage Needs and Storage Capacity

Errors in estimating forage needs and storage capacity needed are quite common and can be very
costly, as it is usually more expensive to build additional storage facilities, especially additional
silos than it would have been to build larger ones initially . Unanticipated shortages of forage,
which can necessitate costly purchases and/or adversely affect production because of diet
changes, can severely affect profitability. Proper calculations of forage storage needs and
facilitates can usually avoid these problems.
The factors that determine the forage storage capacity needed are the following.
1. Size of cows
2. Dry Matter Intake (DMI) from forage

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 3. Level of production
4. Storage losses and wastage
5. Number of cows
6. Number of replacements
It is best to budget forage storage needs on a DM basis as it is relatively easy to convert from
DM to the actual moisture level of the stored material. There are assumptions of an average of
2/3 of the total intake from forage; the total forage DM needs 2 - 3% of body weight /day. The
allowance for storage losses and wastage is 10-20%. Suppose we have 100 cows with mean body
weight of 599 kg and 80-replacement stock, the total forage utilisation would be calculated as
follows.

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Solution
Forage DM needs for each cow = 2.0 % of body weight
Allowance for storage losses and wastage = 25.0 %
Thus, intake and storage wastage loss = 2 X 25% = 2.5 % of body weight
599 kg x 2.5 % = 15.0 kg/day for each cow
80 replacement heifers are assumed to consume half of cows = 15/2 kg (7.5) kg/day
Annual requirement, therefore,
100 X 15 X 365 = 547, 500 kg forage need for 100 cows/year
80 X 7.5 X 365 = 219, 000 kg forage need for 80 heifers /year
Annual total need = 766, 500 kg forage for the total herd
If we assume that feed DM is 90%, then annual forage need in terms of DM is:
766, 500 X 90/100 = 6898500kg
689850kg DM (6898.5 tons)
Out of the total DM need, if we assume that 83% of it was from silage and 17% from hay then
what would be the present from silage and hay on DM basis?

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Reproduction in Dairy Cattle

Reproduction is giving birth to offspring. The survival of species largely depends on its ability
to replace its own kind.
The birth of a young one involves a process which consists of series of events that terminates
when a young is born.
Reproduction determines several aspects of dairy cattle and an understanding of the
reproductive process is crucial in reproductive management.
A high rate of reproductive efficiency is the most important pre-requisite for at least three
reasons:
 Perpetuation of species
 Production of meat, milk and hides
 Replacement of breeding stock
There are three ways in which reproduction can take place on the farm:
1 The bull is with the rest of the animals. If the bull and cows are fertile and if the male and
female animals are together in one group, there are little problems with reproduction. No one can
detect heat as well as the bull himself.
2 The bull is in the neighborhood but not directly with the animals, and can reach the females.
3 There is no bull in the surrounding area, but there is a good working Artificial Insemination
(AI) programme , and semen is not too expensive. Be sure the inseminator can reach your farm
within 6 - 12 hours.
Artificial Insemination
Artificial insemination is the process of collecting sperm cells from a bull and manually
introducing them into the reproductive tract of a cow or heifer. In commercial application, this
also involves extending one collection of semen into several doses and freezing it in liquid
nitrogen to be stored indefinitely and/or shipped.
The earliest recorded use of AI was as long ago as 1780 in Italy when a bitch was induced to
produce pups by this method. It was not until around 1900 that serious attempts were made to
develop the technique in farm animals. The work was carried out by Ivanov and colleagues in
Russia, and by 1930 they had achieved success with cattle and sheep. Within the next ten years
AI was in commercial use for cattle in the USA and the UK.
The advantages of artificial insemination
Artificial insemination (AI) has many advantages to offer the dairy farmer, but problems of
oestrus detection limit the value of AI in beef herds. Some of the most important advantages of
AI, as opposed to natural service, are

 genetic gain
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  cost effectiveness
 disease control
 safety
 flexibility
 fertility management.
Genetic gain
This is probably the major advantage of AI and, together with disease control, was one of the
main reasons for its development. The technique enables superior genes to be spread widely
amongst the cattle population. Individual farmers have access to genetic material from bulls that
can be carefully tested, following selection from a large population of available stock. The costs
of such a selection and testing programme, which would be prohibitive to an individual, can thus
be shared between the users of the AI service.
Cost effectiveness
Even if a herdsperson is not interested in the potential gains from using genetically superior
stock available through AI, he/she may still find that the economic advantages make the use of
the service worthwhile. A bull can be expensive to buy or rear, and there is always the risk of the
bull proving unsatisfactory and having to be disposed of prematurely. Furthermore, it may not be
discovered that a bull is infertile or subfertile until he has been with a group of cows for some
months.
Disease control
If a bull is infected with a venereal disease not only may this render him infertile, but also he
may infect any cow that he serves. Trichomoniasis and campylobacteriosis, for example, can be
spread in this way. Other diseases, such as brucellosis, while not strictly venereal, can still be
spread by means of physical contact between the bull and the cows he serves. If a bull is shared
Safety
Some people feel that the safety aspect of keeping a bull was one of the major stimuli to the
setting up of AI services. Any bull is potentially dangerous, but this varies to some extent
between breeds. A Hereford bull, for instance, is much less liable to be aggressive than a Friesian
or a Holstein.
However quiet a bull may appear, there is always the possibility that he will become aggressive.
In many cases this factor alone will tip the balance in favour of using AI.
Flexibility
A herd manager may not wish all calves to be sired by bulls with the same characteristics, or
even of the same breed. He or she may wish to breed the best milkers to a good dairy bull, and to
use a beef bull on low-yielding or problem cows and on maiden heifers of dubious potential.

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When breeding his or her best cows in the hope of obtaining good replacements the herd
manager may use bulls with certain characteristics that complement those of the particular cow.
Fertility management
By using AI, the time of each insemination can be controlled and recorded. By knowing the time
of a successful insemination, the time to dry-off, for example, can be predicted. With natural
service, this is usually only possible through the practice of hand mating, which is very labour
intensive.
Semen collection
There are many method of semen collection from a bull or male animals. The most widely used
is artificial vagina. An artificial vagina is made from hard plastic tubes about 40cm long and
fitted with rubber lining which is sealed at the end of water – tight jacket. A rubber cone with
glass tube at on the smaller end is fitted at other end of the hard rubber house. Hot water is put
inside the water jacket through the valve thus raising the temperature of the inside of rubber to
about 60oc Vaseline jelly is applied in the inner lining to lubricate it. Water helps to provide the
right sensation for the bulls, some of which have very precise preferences in this regard.

Figure1: AV
Then after three people are required to collect semen,
 one to handle the teaser animal,
 one to control the bull and
 one to collect the semen.
A steer is most commonly used as a teaser and mount animal. Female teasers are not
recommended because of the potential risk of intromission and spreading of venereal disease. .
The back and rear quarters of the teaser are washed with a disinfectant every collection day
microbial contamination of the semen being collected.

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False mounting to arouse bull An erect penis indicates arousal

Collector ready with AV Collector diverting penis to the AV

Semen evaluation
Once semen has been collected it is maintained at a temperature of 30–35°Cnuntil it has been
evaluated and is ready for further processing.
An initial assessment of the quality of the semen can be made immediately after collection and
the assessments are for the following parameter

Parameter Normal Values

Ejaculate volume 5 ml (range 1-15 ml)

Sperm concentration 1200 million/ml (range 300-2500 million/ml)

Total sperm per ejaculate Typically 4-5 billion

Progressive motility Greater than 30%

Morphology Greater than 70% normal

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Freezing, storage and distribution of semen
Almost all of the semen used in AI in developed countries is frozen to preserve it during storage
and distribution. This is most successfully achieved if the semen is stored in liquid nitrogen at a
temperature of -196°C. Before freezing the semen is diluted in a suitable extender. This contains
ingredients appropriate to its functions, which are:
 dilution
 protection against cold shock
 cryoprotection
 energy source
 buffering
 maintenance of osmotic pressure
 Inhibition of bacteria

2.6.6. reproduction parameters

[Link]. Calving interval

The calving interval is the time between the births of two calves by the same mother. The
pregnancy of 9 months and 9 days (40 weeks) is included in this time. The calving interval
expresses the economic importance of reproduction
Many people think that a shorter calving interval will give a lower milk production. In general
they are right. The total milk production per lactation is somewhat lower with a shorter calving
interval. The milk production per lactation means all the milk given in one calving interval. A
cow with a shorter calving interval has more lactation in the same amount of years.

A calving interval of 1 to 1½ years is ideal, but difficult to achieve if there is no bull around and
if the group of animals is very small. In a small herd there is little interaction between animals
which makes it difficult to detect heat. Many cattle herds have a calving interval of 3 years or
more.

[Link]. Age at first calving (heifers)

Age at 1st calving is the age at which heifer gives 1 st calf. As long as a (future) cow is not
producing, it costs money because it needs feed and care. For that reason heifers should calve as
early as possible

The age at first calving is influenced by:

 good calf rearing,

 good feeding after the rearing period,

 parasite control,

 the breed (Zebu or Taurus vs Bos Taurus )

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First service of heifers can take place when the animals have reached about 65% of mature body
weight. Age and condition are also important. With good feeding and good management, calving
interval will be shortened.
[Link]. Puberty
Puberty is defined in heifers as the time when they first ovulate and show an estrus or heat
period. The process involves sensitivity to hormones and receptors in the brain (specifically the
hypothalamus) and the ovaries in females. Puberty occurs when heifers reach about 65-67% of
their mature weight.
Different animals reach puberty age at different stages. However, this mainly depends on -

 genotype
 season of year when pubertal age is attained
 growth or nutritional intake
 social cues
 treatment with exogenous hormones

Estimates of age at puberty in Bos indicus cattle in the tropics and subtropics range between 16
and 40 months while in Bos tourus is between 11 and 13 months. Bos indicus cattle reach
puberty later than Bos taurus x Bos indicus crossbreeds or purebred taurine cattle
[Link]. Age at first Heat
Heat is the period during which a cow can be served successfully by a bull or inseminated
artificially, if the latter is available. In optimal situations heat occurs regularly, approximately
every 3 weeks.

Heat detection
A bull will always notice a cow in heat and will serve her if there are no boundaries between the
bull and cow.
The heat period lasts on 6-12 hours. The most important part of the heat period is called the
standing heat period. This is when the cow stands still when she is mounted by herd mates or a
bull. Many cows have heat signs that are difficult to notice for humans.

The heat signs that humans can see are:

 The animal becomes restless

 sometimes separating itself from the rest of the herd
 walking along fences to seek a bull
 The animal tries to mount other animals
 sniffs them and is sniffed at by others
 The animal bellows in order to attract a bull (the Zebu does not do this).
 Signs that the animal has been mounted by others, such as mud on its flanks, bare patches
of skin on the hook or the pin bone, ruffled hair on the back etc.
 The lips of the vulva turn red and are somewhat swollen
 There is a discharge of clear, thin mucus hanging from the vulva or adhering to the tail

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[Link]. Estrus cycle

The estrus cycle (also called ovarian cycle) is defined as the period from the beginning of one
heat to the beginning of the next. With the cow this period lasts on average 21 days.
At the beginning of this cycle the cow is unusually active and she is then sexually receptive; the
cow is said to be ‘in oestrus’ or, more commonly, ‘in heat’

Pregnancy and parturition

Pregnancy is the day between the first days of conception to the birth of the calf. The duration of
gestation is different for different animals for example horse has 48 weeks (11 months), cow 40
weeks (9 months and 9 days) and sheep/goat 21 weeks (140 to 150 days).

Pregnancy detection

A variety of different methods has been, and is still, used to detect the presence or absence of
pregnancy in the cow. Some of these are
Absence to return to heat
The first sign that pregnant cow might show is absence of heat. However, this is no guarantee
because heats may have passed unnoticed and eventually pregnant cows may mount other cows
Regression of the CL at about 21 days, as determined by transrectal palpation, provides a
method of anticipating that the cow is probably pregnant. It is seldom used as a practical
procedure and there are reasons for the CL persisting in the absence of pregnancy.
Mammary/ udder change
Mammary changes during pregnancy are best observed in primigravida. The teats of the pregnant
heifer begin to enlarge about the fourth month, and with a little experience it is an easy matter to
distinguish them from those of the non-pregnant or early pregnant animal. From the sixth month
the mammary glands become more firm to the touch and their enlargement can be seen.
Hypertrophy is progressive and is particularly marked during the terminal month. As parturition
approaches, the glands become grossly enlarged and oedematous and the teats take on a waxy,
tumefied appearance. The abdominal wall, particularly in the region of the umbilicus, may also
become swollen by oedema. In the dry milk cow, mammary enlargement occurs during the last
14 or so days of pregnancy. After the fourth month a honey-like secretion may be withdrawn
from the teats of pregnant heifers.

Movement of the foetus

After the sixth month a milker, who puts his/her head against the right flank during milking, may
noticethe foetus moving
Progesterone concentration in plasma and milk:
Since the CL persists as a result of the pregnancy, if a blood sample is taken at about
21 days after the previous oestrus, progesterone levels remain elevated. If the cow is not
pregnant and is close to or at oestrus then the progesterone levels will be low.
Progesterone is very soluble in milk fat there were higher concentrations per unit volume in milk
than in the blood or plasma. But it may result provide false negative and false positive results.
The reasons for false negative results are:
 Mistaken identity of the animal either on the farm or in the laboratory.

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  milk storage problems due to excessive heat or ultraviolet light
 low progesterone production by the CL.
 inadequate mixing of milk so that a low fat sample is obtained.
The reasons for false positive results are:
 cows with shorter than average inter oestrus intervals, i.e. 18 days.
When milk samples are taken 24 days after service or artificial insemination, if the cow is not
pregnant she will already be in the early luteal phase of the next cycle.
 embryonic death, if it occurs after the day when the milk was collected.
 luteal cysts which produce progesterone.
 incorrect timing of insemination. Thus if a milk sample is taken 24 days after the cow
was incorrectly inseminated in early or mid-dioestrus, and the intervening oestrus has not
been observed, then she will be in the subsequent dioestrus with a functional
 CL and elevated milk progesterone concentrations.
 pathological prolongation of the life span of the CL such as persistent CL.
Calving or Parturition

Parturition is giving birth to the young calf. The calf can be expected 9 months and 9 days (40
weeks) after servicing takes place. Once the date of expected calving gets closer, the cow needs a
comfortable place, where she can lie down easily and which is clean.
Sign of parturition or calving are
- restless usually seeks seclusion,
- lies down and gets up frequently,
- attempts to urinate often and
- then starts with the actual labour of delivering

Parturition can be divided into three stages:

1. This is the opening of the cervix , the water bags come through the birth canal. This may
take 2 to 6 hours.

2. In the second stage the actual delivery of the calf occurs. First the front legs come out,
then the head, and after that the whole body comes out. Once the front legs are out the
calf must be out within an hour. Otherwise the calf might suffocate.

3. The third stage is expulsion of placenta (afterbirth), which normally follows the calf
almost immediately, however, it may take long hours and if it not out within 12 hours,
you should contact a veterinarian

2.7. Dairy and Dairy product Marketing

The survival of individual or collective dairy processors highly depends on how successfully
they can win consumer confidence in their products. This mainly governed by knowledge and
skills in marketing techniques.

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2.7.1. What is marketing?

Marketing may be defined as "the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of
goods and services from the producer to the consumer". This implies that there are several
categories of key players in the marketing chain each with its own vested interests. Consumers
want to get what they need at the lowest price possible. Producers on the other hand are
interested in getting the highest possible return for their milk. Between them, there are market
intermediaries or middlemen who perform various marketing functions such as transportation or
retailing. Their interest is to make the highest profit possible from their particular business
operation.

2.7.2. Marketing Information System and Research

Information is required at all levels in the marketing channel. Before you decided to process and
market any dairy product, it is important to know the potential market for each particular
product. This is important to enable the processor to know which types and when, where and
how much of each product to manufacture and market. It is very crucial because unless goods
can be supplied in the right form, place and times, consumers may not be able to buy. This then
requires securing and utilizing market information.

Marketing information should address the following:

 Area to be covered
 Price information (Price variations, price for premium quality discount price etc.)
 Number and type of consumers (market segmentation)
 Current and future product supply levels
 Type and number of competitors

In the absence of comprehensive marketing information system such as is the case in many
developing countries it may be necessary for each individual processor or through their
organization to organize the gathering and dissemination of such information. Short market
survey and/or Consumer studies are useful tool for gathering such information.

2.7.3. Marketing and Pricing of Milk and Milk Products

 The price of a product in the market is an important factor influencing consumer demand.
Hence to be marketable, a dairy product must be competitively priced. This implies that
the costs involved in raw material procurement, processing, packaging, storage,
marketing and distribution must be kept as low as possible. Generally the price of a dairy
product will involve the following costs:
 Cost of raw milk
 Cost of raw milk collection and transportation
 Cost of processing
 Cost of packaging
 Cost of marketing and distribution
 Taxes and tariffs

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  Profit margins at each stage of the marketing channel (Collection, Processing and
marketing margins)

In order to arrive at a realistic costing of a product, all those elements involved at each stage
must be carefully calculated on a unit basis. This is known as Cost Accounting. The table below
shows some of the essential cost elements:

Table 3. Some activities of market function and cost elements in marketing milk & milk
products

Market function Cost element

1. Raw milk procurement Cost of raw milk; labour; materials etc.; collection
margin
2. Transportation Transport cost; labour; materials and equipment;
transport margin
3. Processing Raw materials; machinery and equipment; labour;
packaging; energy; taxes; marketing and distribution;
processing margin
4. Marketing and distribution Transport; labour; materials; rent; retail margin

The cost can be broadly categorised as fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs include things
like depreciation of equipment and buildings while variable cost includes direct expenses such as
raw material; marketing expenses; overhead costs [labour and personnel expenses].

It is important that all the cost elements are included in the calculation of the market value of the
product. Overpricing can lead to un competitiveness of the product while under pricing can cause
financial loss and eventual collapse of the business.

2.8. Management of dairy cattle

2.8.1. Site selection

Before establishing a dairy herd, one has to select appropriate and favourable site for dairying.

The site should be:

 located in areas/place where there is adequate health service

 located in areas where feed is available at a cheaper price
 located in areas where near to a good market outlet
 located in areas where near to power line ( electric power source )
 located in areas where near to a highway weather road
 located in areas where there is permanent clean water
 located in areas where environmental temperature is favourable.
 the farm should be constructed on the gentle slope for drainage purpose

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The type of housing to be constructed depends upon the environmental temperature of an area. If
the area/site is in the highland agro- ecological set-up possessing low ambient temperature, the
type of house that suit to such environs should be closed type. However, open type is
recommended for the areas possessing high environmental temperature.

2.8.2. Dairy Cattle Selection

Certain physical characteristics are set indicating whether the animal is high milk producer or
not. These characteristics are used to judge the production potential of the animals. Thus, the
only method, other than pedigree, available to evaluate the great bulk of dairy animals is by what
is commonly known as judging. Thus dairy cows can be judged based on

1. General appearance
2. Dairy character
3. Body capacity
4. Mammary system
2.8.3. Health
Health is the state of wellbeing of an animal in which all body parts are functioning normally or
condition of an animal that enables it to attain acceptable level of production within the farming
system in which it is maintained.
The term "healthy" certainly does not imply that the animal is free from all disease agents. An
animal may be infected by a potentially pathogenic agent but be unaffected by it and remain in
good health for an indefinite period.
Ex: - a cow is carrying bacteria of contagious abortion.
Reasons for the maintenance of health
 Increasing the efficiency of production
 Security against epidemic disease
 Improvement in human health
 Improvement in animal welfare

Purchased animals are common sources of exposure to new pathogens the risk of contamination
from source reduced by requiring a vaccination history prior to purchase.

The cattle should be quarantined for 30 days and vaccinated of all diseases prior to introduction
to the herd. Peoples and equipments are the most common carriers of pathogens between
production units. Thus producers must address 4 primary goals of animal health mgmt. these are

 Minimization of the use of antibiotics and in proper treatments -In appropriate use of
antibiotics results antibiotic resistant strain of bacteria
 Minimize pathogen load to the animals
 Maximizing the immune function of the animals
 Minimizing potential for disease transmission

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Disease:- it can be defined as any condition in which there is a deviation from health or normal
functioning of any or all the tissue and organs of the animal body.

- In general, it is any departure from the state of health.

- Disease are usually categorized as

1) Infectious disease: - those caused by bacteria, virus, and protozoa.

- They involve the invasion of the host by another organism.

2) Non-infectious: - include disorders caused by factors other than organisms.

Not all disease problems in domestic animal are due to the presence of organisms.
According to our definition of disease, any defect in the body or body part qualifies as a
disease. This would include such mechanical or physical problems as wound or broken
bones.
Example;
 Mechanical problems- such as wound and broken leg
 Digestive disturbances- such as Bloat
 Nutritional deficiencies and imbalances - such as rickets and night blindness
 Poisoning due to toxic plants or chemicals such as pesticide
 Genetic and metabolic disorders
 Dystocia

3) Parasitic disease: - caused due to internal and external parasites

Some Economically important diseases of dairy cattle

1. Infectious diseases

Brucellosis

It is contagious bacterial diseases of animal characterized by abortion and inflammation of male

reproductive organs.

It is zoonotic diseases

It caused by brucella abortus

It transmitted by ingestion of bacteria, ingestion of contaminated feed and water, licking of

contaminated genital organ, intrauterine, in milk etc

Clinical signs

 Abortion in late pregnancy 7months later for cattle and4 month for shoat
 Enlargement of testicles

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  Hygroma
 Temporary or permanent in fertility
 Loss of libido

Diagnosis –clinical signs and lab examination

Treatment –not economically viable
Control and prevention
 isolate aborted animals
 -cleaning and disinfecting
 -herd testing
 -milk pusturization of milk

Bovaine mastitis

It is bacterial diseases that characterized by inflammation of mammary gland with change in the
udder and milk.

Symptoms

Change in udder Change in milk

 Pain - change in color

 Swelling -presences of clots and pus
 Redness }progress to nodule hardening my form abscess may form scab and
 Hotness } prevent milk passing
Diagnosis – clinical signs
Bacterial isolation- Californian mastitis test, RMT
Rx- intra mammary infusion of antibiotics
Prevention and control - Cleaning and proper mgmt
-Cleaning milk machine regularly
- Disinfection of teat before and after milking

- Proper milker hygiene

2. None infectious diseases

Dystocia

Dystocia is the term used to describe difficult birth. There has been an awareness of dystocia
and its impact on cattle health for thousands of years.

In both beef and dairy cattle production, dystocia most commonly occurs in heifers. Common
estimates of dystocia in British breed beef heifers fall in the range of 10% to 40% with an
average of approximately 20%. Dystocia is also reported to be the primary cause of calf loss in
two-year-old beef heifers. In contrast, in older breeders dystocia is generally insignificant with
estimates ranging from 0.8% to 3%.

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General causes of dystocia are

 Calf too big to fit through the pelvis of the heifer

 Calf coming out backwards or abnormal position
 Ineffective labour (weak labour)

These three causes of dystocia are reported to account for 30-70%, 20-45% and 10-20% of
dystocia in beef heifers respectively.

The Management of Dystocia

There have been many general suggestions for reducing the impact of dystocia. Ideas include:
changing to a breed with lower dystocia prevalence, increasing surveillance of heifers during
calving, not calving until after the heifer is older than two years of age, manipulating nutrition at
different stages of heifer development and manipulating calf birth weight by careful bull
selection.

Milk fever

Milk fever (hypocalcaemia) has been reported in tropical countries. This occurs in high yielding
dairy cows one or two days before or after calving. The first sign is loss of appetite and a slight
drop in temperature. Affected cows quickly become uncoordinated, fall over and, at an attempt
to rise, stay seated often with the head resting on the shoulder. If untreated the cow becomes
comatose within one day of the first signs. The rumen stops functioning and bloat may be a
complication and the final cause of death. The risk of milk fever increases with age; it is rare in
calving heifers and uncommon in cows calving for the second time

Diets low in dry matter, e.g. lush new grass, or paradoxically high in calcium predispose to milk
fever. Low magnesium in the diet also predisposes to milk fever as this reduces absorption of
calcium form the intestine and cases of milk fever are often complicated by hypomagnesaemia.

Milk fever can be treated by slow intravenous infusion of 600-800 ml of 20% calcium
borogluconate. Magnesium is often included in the treatment.

Ketosis (acetonaemia)

This occurs in high yielding cows within a few weeks of calving, usually in housed cows fed
conserved fodder. It may also be caused by transport over a long distance because of low level of
glucose level in blood. The first main clinical signs are a reduction in appetite and slowing down
of ruination. Over several days there is loss of body condition and slight drop in milk yield
followed by a sudden drop in appetite and milk yield. Acetonaemia in cattle can be treated by
intravenous infusion of 500 ml of 40% glucose, plus twice daily oral dosing of 150 ml of
propylene glycol (a glucose precursor) for 4 days.

For prevention, care should be taken to provide an adequate ration of easily digestible
carbohydrate.

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Grass tetany (hypomagnesaemia)

This occurs most commonly in high yielding dairy cows around peak lactation that are grazing
lush grass, and in calves reared predominantly on a diet of milk. Magnesium is lost from the
body in milk, urine and faeces but unfortunately, unlike calcium, body reserves are not readily
available to correct temporary increases in demand. Thus immediate metabolic needs must be
provided by adequate levels in the diet at all times and if diets are low in magnesium, reduction
in blood levels to below normal occurs.

Permanent pastures with perennial grasses, clover and other broad leafed plants should normally
have adequate magnesium, whereas young fast-growing grass such as the Italian rye grasses,
may be low in magnesium.

2.9. Major Constraints in Dairy Production

Ethiopia has great potential for increased livestock production, both for local use and for export.

However, expansion was constrained by inadequate nutrition, disease, a lack of support services
such as extension services, insufficient data with which to plan improved services, and
inadequate information on how to improve animal breeding, marketing, and processing.

1. Technical constraints

Genotype

The genotype of Ethiopian cattle has evolved largely as a result of natural selection, influenced
by environmental factors. This has made the stock better conditioned to withstand feed and water
shortages, disease challenges and harsh climates.

How ever Indigenous animals are generally poor in their productive and reproductive traits. The
reason behind the low production and productivity of indigenous animals is that they have been
subjected to little or no artificial selection for productivity.

Feed and nutrition supply

For livestock producers inability to feed animals adequately throughout the year is the most
widespread technical constraint. In drier regions, the quantity of forages is often insufficient for
the number of livestock carried, dry season feed supply is the paramount problem. In wetter
regions, feed supplied is usually ample, but forages are poor in quality, that is their protein and
energy content is low.

Animal disease

Ethiopia, having the largest livestock population in Africa and being the nearest country to the
Middle East market have got the least export market share.
This is mainly because of:
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  Inadequate disease control for internal and external parasites
 lack of resource to maintain vaccination programs for major diseases
 inadequate health care
The major animal diseases that limit production, productivity and export of animal products are:-

 Contagious diseases
 parasitic and viral disease
 Tick - transmitted and ticks associated diseases
 Infectious and non-infectious diseases

Management
 Poor management like missing of heat detection
 Shortage of skilled man power
 Lack of information and knowledge about the available recommendations on improved
technologies
 Poor handling of animals and their products
2. Socio-economic and institutional factors
A. Government policies
- Government policies which do not allow incentives for the animal producers
- Government policies which do not control domestic market from uncontrolled
importation of animal products
- land tenure policies which do not guaranty security of land tenure, studies have shown
that security of land tenure can lead to more investment in livestock
B. Access to credit facilities
- In Ethiopia, credit facilities are not widely available
- Whenever they are available to farmers, the farmers are encouraged to adopt new
technologies

C. Market and infrastructure

- Lack of market information
- Poor market route (roads, communication, linkage)
- Lack of quality standards, farmers are not encouraged to produce quality product

Chapter 3. Beef cattle production

Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production. The meat of cattle is known as beef. Beef cattle
production is a strong animal industry throughout the world. Since beef cattle can graze forages

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in the open range and pasturelands, they serve a unique role in providing high quality protein for
human consumption from byproducts and forage sources that humans and non-ruminant animals
do not consume. Considerable land in the world that will not support intensive crop production,
can often times sustain grasses and forages that conserve the land, and produce feeds that cattle
can utilize. Beef cattle were bred and selected primarily of the production of meat. Beef breeds
carry considerable muscle especially around the loins and hindquarters, where it has greatest
monetary value .Substantial bones and large frames are needed to carry this. The conversion of
forage in the diet to meat is an important for beef cattle.
Terminologies
Beef: refers meat obtained from aged cattle
Beef cattle: Refers for cattle primarily kept for beef
Carcass: It is the whole body of bovine, pigs, sheep, goats, horse, donkey or mule that has been
slaughtered after bleeding, evisceration and removal of the head, tail and udder with the
exception of pig, removal of the skin.
Dressing: the removal of the head, hide or skin viscera, genital organs, urinary bladder and feet
up to the carpal and tarsal joints and udders of the lactating animals.
Fattening: It is a feeding practice aiming at accumulation of fat in beef cattle during its finishing
stage.
Feedlot: It is a large-scale facility for intensive feeding of ruminants for fattening prior to
slaughtering.
Lairage: It is a holding ground of animals within 24 hours before slaughter.
Veal: Meat of very young (three month age) cattle or meat from calf
Beef cattle population and distribution
There are over 1.1 billion cattle, in the world, many of which are used for work or milk
production with beef production only a side issue of their major intended usefulness. All dairy
cattle are beef cattle but not all beef cattle are dairy cattle. Most of the cattle produced strictly
for beef are bound in North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. The distribution of
the world cattle population is such that the leading beef producing countries are not necessarily
the highest beef consumers per capital. In fact, 70% of the World cattle population is accounted
for by only 20 countries. Cattle population however, appears to be increasing more rapidly in the
topics than elsewhere.
The reasons for the tremendous population variation include –
1. Religious and other customary beliefs which prevent the eating of the flesh of cattle e.g. India
produces 2 times as any other country. It is however illegal to eat any of the cattle and the
slaughter of buffalo is restricted. In most parts of Africa, Cattle are slaughtered for ceremonial
reasons;
2. Some countries have a large geographical area with a little ratio of number of population with
number of cattle e.g. China. In this situation, the per capital beef consumption is low and
limited.

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3. Some countries have small geographical area with a high ratio of cattle number to number of
people e.g. Finland. Thus they export some of the animals.
4. Some countries import considerable amount of beef they eat e.g. Switzerland.
5. Apart from geographical and religious factors, climate is an important factor in the distribution
and production of cattle as it has direct and indirect effects on the animal.
Breed of beef cattle
Over 800 breeds of cattle are recognized worldwide, some which were bred by humans for
specialized uses. The following breeds are some of those primarily used for their flesh, in the
production of beef
Breeds of tropics and temperate zones
Brangus breed
They are black polled early maturing cattle producing high quality beef with an even deposition
of fat in the muscle. The bone is small and fine and there is a high proportion of meat in the
carcass. This is the newest of the great beef breeds about hundred years old. It was selected in
northeast Scotland to thrive (gain weight) on a simple diet. The high carcass quality is passed on
to crossed progeny. This quality is closely associated with early maturity, which means a
compact, light boned frame, giving smaller joints, thickly covered with well-marbled muscle at
18 months of age. It has a high killing out percentage when killed at the right age before 2 and
1/2 years of age. The animals are black and hornless both of which are dominant characteristics.
They have small heads, which gives easy calving. They are used for specialized beef production
by crossing with beef type dams and also for producing beef from dairy herd crossings.

Brahman
Brahman cattle were developed in the United States in the early 1900s from four different Indian
cattle breeds and some British-bred cattle. The Brahman has a distinct large hump over the top of
the shoulder and neck, and a loose flap of skin (dewlap ) hanging from the neck. Their ears are

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large and floppy. Bulls weigh 1,600 to 2,200 pounds (800 to 1,100 kg) and cows weigh 1,000 to
1,400 pounds (500 to 700 kg). At birth, calves weigh 60 to 65 pounds (30 to 33 kg). Brahmans
have a greater ability to withstand heat than European cattle. They have more sweat glands, and
also an oily skin , thought to help repel pest insects along with a smooth coat. They are also more
resistant to parasites and disease.

Drought master
The Drought master is a tropical breed of beef cattle developed in North Queensland by several
cattlemen from crossing Brahman and British breed cattle, principally the Beef Shorthorn during
the early 1900’s. The breed was conceived in response to the need in then Australian Tropics for
a breed of cattle which had good tick resistance and would be able to utilise the environment and
the pastures in the most efficient manner to give higher weight gains and fertility.
Droughtmasters are medium to large with good walking and foraging abilities coupled with
lower nutritional requirements to give them the ability to retain condition and keep breeding,
irrespective of the prevailing conditions.
Their short coat is generally red in colour, although variations from golden honey to dark red can
occur. The red pigmentation in Droughtmasters helps protect the cattle from cancer eye, sunburnt
udders and photosensitization. The cattle may be polled or horned, ut the vast majority are polled
and exhibit only a moderate hump. They have medium to large ears and an extended dewlap.

Bos taurus
Simmentals breed

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This breed originated from Swithzerland but it is now popular in other parts of Europe. It is a
dual-purpose breed. It is red in color with white markings on the head, belly, legs and tail switch.
In general Simmental cattle have a large mature size, grow rapidly and lay down fat at a later age
than the smaller breeds. Bulls of these breeds are useful for crossing with cows of the dairy
breeds particularly Ayrishire, Guernsey and jersey. Their early maturing qualities improve the
growth rate of their progeny out of slow maturing cows and the carcasses tend to have a higher
muscle to bone ratio. However, the calves of some of these crosses are large at birth.

Hereford
Hereford cattle, originally from Herefordshire, England, are a widely used breed in temperate
areas for beef production. The Hereford is a well-muscled, hardy breed, and for its foraging
abilities under difficult range conditions. Its attractive, predominantly white face, underline and
other white markings on a red body became a trademark ("white face" or "baldy") among cattle
producers. A polled strain was developed in Canada and the US from mutants.

Limousin

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Limousins, native to the south central part of France, are a genetic source of larger weaning
weights and muscle mass while maintaining relatively low birth weights. Limousins are known
for their muscular build, feed efficiency, ease of management and comparable calving ease to
other breeds. Limousin cattle produce the leaner cuts of beef that have become a staple of the
modern market. Limousin cattle have a golden-brown coloration. Other coloration, such as black,
has been developed through cross-breeding with other breed of cattle. Limousin is valued for its
excellent ratio of lean to fat and bone, are characteristics persisting in crosses.

Charolais
Charolais cattle are a beef breed of cattle (Bos taurus) which originated in Charolais, around
Charolles, in France. They are raised for their meat and are known for their composite qualities
when crossed with other breeds, most notably Angus and Hereford cattle. The breed tends to be
large and well-muscled, with bulls weighing up to 2,500 pounds (1,100 kilograms) and cows up
to 2,000 pounds. The coat is almost pure white. Despite their relatively northerly origin,
Charolais tolerate heat well, and show good weight gains on even mediocre pasturage.

Beef cattle production system

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There are several systems of beef cattle production in the tropics and subtropics varying from
extremely primitive to relatively advance. These are not country specific, but mixed or co-exist
with in the same country. The management of beef cattle is greatly influenced to a large extent
by the people who own them, and the geographical location. Beef production systems are
classified according to breeding, management, feeding practices, Available feed resources,
Available markets and transport Efficiency of production the age at which animals emanating
from a production unit are sold.
Based on this, in recent years several system of beef production has been introduced from the
Temperate. Such systems are broadly classified as:-
 Traditional (extensive) production system
 Pastoralist
 Agro-pastoralist
 Improved fattening system
 Semi-intensive
 Intensive
 Commercial beef cattle production
Extensive systems
This is the easiest and most unspecialized form of beef production. It is the traditional system in
most of the tropics. Beef production in the tropics is here fore based almost entirely on this
system. The animals are produced solely on ranges using grass and herbage usually in areas
where land is cheap and forage can be had for little or nothing or where land, for one reason or
the other, is not used for any other form of profitable agricultural production.
The seasonality of rainfall and forage production invariably results in considerable nutritional
stress on the animal. These restricted periods of forage growth result in abundance of feed
during the rainy season, followed by period of relatively rapid deterioration and long period of
stagnation. In some areas, the climate is so un favorable that the land is infertile and there is
practical starvation. In both cases the period of plenty is too short to allow young stock to
complete sufficient growth to carry them to the condition where they may be profitably sold for
meat. This system includes
 Pastoralist is the term used to describe an economy based predominantly on the herding
of animals such as cattle, goats, sheep and camels.
They characterized by
 Larger herds of cattle are grazed on communal/public land
 Cattle trek over long distances
 Not used improved technology
 70-80% of Africa's cattle population within this system
Agro-pastoralist production system: These systems are part of the continuum pastoral
nomadism and settled agriculture. They include a limited number of migratory shifting
cultivation systems and a much larger number of agro-pastoral or sedentary shifting cultivation
systems. They are often termed crop agriculture with extensive cattle production. The system is
characterized by
 Agro-pastoralists own sizable pieces of land and practice integrated crop–
livestock production

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  Crop residues are utilized when feed is scarce
 Adopt few improved technology
 There are two method of traditional fattening system
 Forage based
 By-product based
 Forage based
 Ideally suited to “cut-& carry” feeding
 is the most efficient way of using forage
 It allows farmers to completely control the use of their forage
 It increases livestock performance through higher forage production and higher
rates of utilization;
 It avoids wastage and spoilage of forage by animals through treading;
 It reduces internal parasite problems, especially in wet areas;
 It avoids damaging the pasture through overgrazing; and
 It helps maintain vegetative cover to control soil erosion
 By-product based
By-product-based fatting is feasible in areas where:-
 It is close to the main sources of agro-industrial by-products (molasses, cereal
milling by-products and oilseed meals);
 Grazing land is almost completely unavailable and crop residues are only
significant roughage source;
 It is close to the largest and highest priced market for finished be animals and lies
on the major trekking route to that market
 Is recommended for areas where oilseed cake is abundant and cheap and can be
used supplement rations based on forage and crop residues.
Improved fattening system
 The production system characterized by high inputs & market oriented
 Farmers adopt improved technology to optimize productivity
 This production includes
 Intensive
 Semi-intensive
 Commercial beef cattle production
 Intensive beef production system
 This is a system that either rear or fatten cattle for their whole life out in the field on
pasture and other forage crops or that manage them at some stage in their life under
confinement, often in specially constructed buildings.
 More expensive beef production
 Emphasis on the production of quality beef that can be sold in highest price
 The economics of intensive production depends upon:
 The type and availability of cattle
 The cost and availability of by-product feeds and/or the cost of intensifying
pasture or fodder crop production
 The cost of suitable infrastructure
 The level of managerial expertise in feedlot or pasture and forage production.
Animal production and mgmt handout Page 47
  The price of beef and whether there is a local or export demand for quality beef.
 The animal disease situation.

 Semi-intensive fattening system

 It includes all cattle reared in the tropics
 The system characterized by;
 The relative small size holdings.
 The use of cattle primarily for work purpose.
 The use of old working cattle and culled milking cows for meat
production.
 The emphasis on the use of agricultural & industrial waste products &
cultivated browse as feeds rather than on pasture and/range
 General features of the system
 Cattle are triple purpose
 Feeding is often haphazard & management is poor
 Farmers do not usually understand the value of pasture/forage.
 Commercial Beef Cattle Production
Commertial beef production can be broadly classified into 3
 Cow – Calf program
 Stocker (grower) program
 Fattening (finishing program)
Cow-calf program/ phase
Most beef calves are born on cow-calf operations. The cow-calf operation involves breeding of
cows with bulls or artificial insemination, conception, gestation, birth of the calf and lactation
periods until weaning of the calf from the cow. Calves remain with their mothers for the first
several months of life on farms or ranches. During this stage, cattle graze in herds on large
pastures within sight of their mothers. As calves reach 6-12 months of age, they are weaned from
their mothers.
After weaning, bull calves are typically castrated. Weaned male calves (steers) may graze until
about one year old (yearlings) and then be sold to a cattle feeder or a stocker/backgrounder who
will prepare the animal for the finishing/feedlot.

Stocker / grower program / phase

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Once beef young stocks have been weaned, rearing is carried out within a system that best suits
the breed/genetic make-up of the animals. From this age, the calves are usually fed on grassland
until they weigh approximately 750 to 800 lbs. live weight when they are called stocker cattle.
On some farms, depending on the availability of feed, weaned calves may be placed directly into
a confinement feedlot for growing and finishing, skipping this grassland phase.

Fattening / Finishing phase

One of the most important stages in beef production is gaining the desired ‘finish’ to the animal -
i.e. the condition of the animal as it is presented at slaughter. Stocker calves are placed in a
confinement feedlot for approximately 90 to 120 days. The animal may gain an additional 400
pounds (180 kg) during its 3-4 months in the feedlot. Typical slaughter ages of beef cattle
depending on diet type, breed and sex.

Feeding of beef cattle

The main objective of any livestock industry is the conversion of feeds, which are either inedible
by man or surplus to his immediate requirement into animal products. Major constituents of feed
for farm animals originate from plants, plant byproducts and animal sources such as fishmeal and
milk. Of recent another source added in to the list is a non-biological source such as urea from
nitrogen. However, most feed for livestock may be classified into two major types’ roughage and
concentrates.
Roughage feeds: Concentrate feeds
 are feeds that are high in fiber and  are feeds that are low in fiber and
low in TDN high in TDN
 contain above 18% CF when dry  contain below 18% CF when dry
 Two types of Concentrate
a) Grain feeds
 corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat
b) Supplement feeds
 include protein feeds, minerals and vitamins
Mineral feeds
 are used to provide the mineral needs of the animal
 are of two types: Macro and Micro Minerals
Vitamin supplements
 are available to provide necessary vitamins in the ration
Byproduct feeds
 From the milling & brewing are used in the feeding include wheat bran, rice bran,
molasses, brewer’s grain, beet pulp, malt sprouts, whey, etc
Generally the feed of animal should contain enough and proper amount of feed components that
is
1. Carbohydrates 4. Minerals
2. Lipids (Fats & Oils) 5. Vitamins
3. Protein 6. Water

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Starting cattle on feed

Cattle producers strive to put cattle on full feed of grain as soon as possible. But can result from
working cattle up to a full feed too quickly. Cattles can be started on ration containing 50% grain
with few problems, however increasing grain intake to full feed (85-90% concentrate) too rapidly
without allowing the rumen time to adjust can cause problems. The proportion of grain in ration
that cattle can accept without going off feed depends on many factors including pen size, feeder
space, weather, diseases, size and age of cattle. Atypical schedule for starting cattle on feed is ass
flows
Table 1 suggested schedule for adjusting cattle on high grain diets
% grain in ration % forage in ration Days feed
50 50 First 5-7days
70 30 Next 3-5 days
80 20 Next 3-5 days
85 15 Next 5-7 days
90 10 Until finished

Nutrient Requirement

The nutrient requirement of the beef cattle will depend on the age, rate of gains expected date of
calving and in the case of cows whether or not they are suckling a calf. The nutritional
requirement of bulls depends upon both the age and the extent to which they are being used for
breeding purposes. Feeds that are intended as finishing feeds must be judged primarily for their
carbohydrate content and total digestibility.
Protein, mineral and vitamin content are also important because the of these nutrients in the feed
determines the amount of other concentrates needed to balance the ration. Mineral and vitamin
concentrates are measured in terms of the essential minerals & vitamins that are present.
Generally, the value of any feed in a ration is determined largely by how well the ration is
balanced.
As a rule whatever kinds/ type of feed resource and its contents beef cattle need the feed for
maintenance, growth, reproduction and lactation

Ration formulation
It is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to
provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production. It
requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the development of nutritionally
adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide the level of production at a
reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any serious digestive
disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
To formulate the ration the following information are needed:
 Feed resources available at hands (locally available feed resources need to be considered)
 Chemical composition of the feeds (this is found by chemical analysis in nutrition
laboratory)
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  Weight, sex, breed, species, age, production status of the animal
 Purpose of animal feeding (finishing, growing, breeding, lactating etc)
 Nutrient requirement of the animal

There are several methods in formulating rations. All of them have the same objectives of
providing the required balanced nutrients at the least possible cost. These are Square Method,
Simultaneous Equation Method, Two-by-two Matrix Method, Trial-and-error Method and Linear
Programming (LP)

Pearson Square Method

This is relatively simple and easy to follow. It satisfies only one nutrient requirement and uses
only two feed ingredients. Another limitation is that the level of nutrient being computed should
be intermediate between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed ingredients being used.

Beef cattle and beef product marketing

The efforts of farmers to produce animals with good carcass and meat quality may be wasted if
they are handled in less than optimal ways before slaughter. The importance of pre-slaughter
handling in affecting quality is therefore increasingly recognized. Getting animals to slaughter
(marketing) involves several stages. Once cattle are considered “finished” they are transported to
packing plants to be slaughtered and processed. Precautions during transportation to minimize
stress and injury to the animals should be taken into considerations. Cattle are carefully loaded
and unloaded into trailers that are specially designed to avoid injury and strain. When cattle
arrive at packing plants, they are moved inside in a quiet and orderly manner. There is little
excess movement or unnecessary noise so cattle are not unduly stressed. Getting animals to
slaughter (marketing) involves several stages. On the farm they may be individually selected,
drafted and sometimes weighed and, in the case of pigs, tattooed to identify them. Groups of
marketable animals may be made up from different rearing pens. Most transport is nowadays by
road vehicles although in the past railways were important. Vehicles are usually specially
designed. Ventilation requirements are very important, particularly when carrying stock at high
ambient temperatures.

Live animal marketing

Animal can be transported by one of four ways, namely, on the hoof, by road, by rail or by air.
Movement on foot: Cattle which are almost continually on the move in search of food should
not be much inconvenienced by moving in one direction for the same distance as they do on their
feeding range each day. Driving cattle to the market would be the most economical way for short
distances, but over long distances there are other problems involved.
Droving may well be the least expensive method when an adequate supply of food and water can
be arranged at suitable points along the route or when a herd can be watered night and morning,
and there during the interval it can move at leisure from one post to another while grazing on the
way. This ideal conditions are seldom found, at least after the herd has joined the main route.
Indigenous cattle can, manage fairly well when water points are located 20-25 km apart.
Shrinkage of 10-15 of live weight would be accepted as normal. If finished cattle of exotic or
cross bred cattle are not to suffer serious live weight shrinkage water should be available at no

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more than 8km intervals and there should be facilities for grazing or for obtaining conserved
forage enrooted.

Rail transport
Over long distances rail transport effects saving on maintenance and handling charges, tolls and
other incidental expenses as well as form shrinkage and deaths. Loss from shrinkage under the
worst conditions of rail transport may be as high as 10 percent, but should normally range
between 3 and 5 percent on a journey of up to 72 hours. Loss from bruising may be considerable.
It has been observed in Kenya that rail transport resulted in down grading of some 7-8 percent of
carcass. Transporting a single sex, polled and indigenous cattle that are provided with bedding
will suffer the least bruising.
Rail way trucks which are to carry livestock should be roofed, provide for free passage of air and
have battened or non-slip floors. Horned cattle should be secured by their horns to the truck side;
they should stand head to tall so that alternate animals face in the opposite direction. The stock
should be watered every 24-27 hours and when practicable, should also be fed at these intervals.

Road transport
Transporting cattle by truck is becoming more popular. The animals make up a backhaul loads
for vehicles that might otherwise return empty to their base, or are sent by truck if their value is
above average. This mode of transportation is expensive, because a 5tone truck can only carry
seven large or nine small oxen, i.e., 2.4 to 2.8 tons, which amounts to 60% of its weight load
capacity. Cattle are likely to be bruised during transit.
Cattle markets in Ethiopia function at three levels consisting of primary, secondary, and terminal
markets. Some also include a nominal forth tier at the farm gate level, which could hardly be
considered to function as a market
Primary markets have been identified as village level markets with a supply of less than
500head of cattle/week where primary producers (farmers and pastoralists) sell small number of
animals to small traders, other farmers (replacement animal,) farmer or pastoralist traders and in
some cases to consumers and local Butchers. Such markets are not fenced, have no scales, and
no feeds and watering facilities. Purchasing is done through, eye ball, negotiations. A good
majority of the livestock markets in Ethiopia belong to this group.
Secondary markets are trader and to some extent butcher dominated markets, with an average
volume of 500-1,000 head per week consisting of finished, breeding and draught stock and
located mainly in regional capitals. A Secondary market serves the local consumers to some
extent but mainly feeds the terminal markets. These markets also supply live animal exporters
and meat processors.
The terminal markets are located in large urban centers consisting of Addis Ababa. Dire
Dawa, Dessie, Adema and the coffee growing regions of Sidama and Gideo. Medium to large-
scale traders and butchers dominate these markets. Average volume of cattle brought to these
markets may exceed over 1,000 heads/ week. Supply of livestock to the primary and secondary
markets including to the terminal markets is mostly done through trekking. Traders/ producers
use traditional stock routes to trek their animals to the markets. Now a day’s trucking to by using
vehicles `is also exercised.

Marketing system in Ethiopia is generally poor, lacks information and transportation facilities,
problem of livestock diseases and absence of well equipped export markets.

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 Whilst cattle prices strop down during droughts, and peak up during holidays, the price of beef
has remained more or less content in the major cities of Ethiopia. This implies that butchery
owners control the meat market. They are the most powerful group in the cattle marketing chain
followed by Middlemen. The two groups control the price of livestock at major domestic market.
General management practices and farm facilities
Facilities
Cattle crush: - is used for restraining animals to perform different operations such as -
vaccinated, sprayed, drenched, dehorned, inseminated, pregnancy diagnosed and loading on
trucks
Isolation pen
Calf pens: Calf pens should be equipped with a feed box, a hayrack, and watering facilities.
Loading and unloading rump: Every cattle man needs a loading chute. These chutes may be
portable or of the fixed type.
Feed through To hold sufficient feed, troughs need to be 45-60 cm wide and 30-45 cm
deep,with the top of the trough 60cm from the ground
Water through -Water troughs should be long enough to provide drinking space for 10%of the
yard at any one time.
House

Management

1. Dehorning or Disbudding
Horns are objectionable on animals in the commercial herd because of possibility of inflicting
injuries on one another and the farm attendant. The presence of horns also necessitates the
provision of extra shed, watering and feeding spaces and makes the animals more difficult to
handle. Nutrients that could have gone to other areas are used to sustain the horns. It is used for
self defense where predators exist. It is therefore desirable and it is general practice that calves
should be dehorned when they are 2 – 4 weeks old.
Advantage of dehorning are
 Prevention of sever bruise
 Cattle feed more convenient and easily with less interference from large animal
 Large number of animal can be trucked, feed, housed
 Fewer troughs required
 Less injury to udders, ayes and attendants
Methods of dehorning
(a) Use of chemical: This involves the use of either KOH or NaOH. These chemicals come in
form of sticks, Pastes or liquids. The hair around the horn buds are clipped closely. A ring of
heavy grease or petroleum jelly e.g. jelly, Vaseline is smeared on the surrounding skin. These
prevent skin burns and keep the caustic from running into the calves eyes especially when the
liquid is used. If a stick is used, then slightly moisten one end of the stick with water and rub it
firmly over the horn bud with a rotary motion until blood appears. The effect of the caustic is to
deaden the horn root. In a few days a scab appears over each horn bud which soon drops off
leaving a smooth spot of skin devoid of hair.
Calves treated with caustic should be protected from rain for a day following the application
since chemical may wash down an injury the side of the face and the eyes of calf. It is also best
not to turn calves back to their dams for a few hours after the application of the caustic.

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b. Use of Saw and Clippers
Saws of various forms of shears and clippers are used for de-horning. This is however a less
desirable method which applies only to older calves. Whatever the instrument used, it is
necessary to remove the horn with about ½ to 1cm of the skin around its base to be certain that
the horn-forming cells are destroyed.
c. The eclectic dehorner or hot iron method
The method consists of the application of a specially designed electrically heated hot iron to the
horn buds of the young calf. The cup like end of the hot iron is firmly pressed on the horn bud.
While the method is bloodless it is much more painful than the use of chemicals. It can only be
used on calves under 5 months of age.
d. The elastrator
This is an instrument for use in stretching a specially made rubber ring over the horn well down
into the hair line. This is aimed at cutting off the blood circulation to the bud.
The system may be used on cattle with horns from6 – 15cm long. Small horns drop off in 3 – 6
weeks; large horns stay up to 2 months.
e. Dehorning by Breeding
The use of a polled bull is the most natural method of securing cattle without horns, since it
results in a majority of hornless calves. If such a bull is “pure” polled, carrying in its blood no
tendency to produce horns, practically all of its calves will be polled, even though their dams
may have horns. If however, the bull is an impure polled (product of polled bull x horned cow),
only half of its calves from horned cows will be polled. Dehorning by breeding saves labour and
avoids pain and possible set-back to the calves.

Treatment after Dehorning

It is essential that a good fly repellent e.g. antibiotic be applied to the wound to remove the
danger of flies. The danger of infection is generally reduced if there is extreme care and
cleanliness. The instruments used should always be disinfected.
2. CASTRATION OF BULL CALVES
Castration is making of animal unable to reproduce by stopping the function of tests. This is
performed purely for economic reasons.
Functions
 It results in a more symmetrical development of the body, in particular, a better balance
between the fore- and hind-quarters.
 It is generally believed that castration improves the texture, tenderness and flavor of beef
 makes animal more quiet and easier to handle,
 not prone to physical damage to other animal and manager or attendant
 Castrates deposit fat more rapidly than non-castrates.
 Castration prevents such undesirable secondary sex characteristics, aggressive
temperament and sexual activity.
 Growth rates and feed conversion ratios are better with bulls than steers.

Bull calves can be castrated any time from a few weeks to 8 months. It is however best done
when the calves are from 4 – 10 weeks age, and in any case before they are 4 months old. The
older the animal at the time of operation the greater the shock and risk but the more masculine
and steer develops in appearance.
METHODS

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i. The Bloodless castrator/Burdizzo Pincers
The spermatic cords and associated blood vessels are crushed or severed so completely that the
testicles waste away from lack of blood circulation.
 It is most common method of castration in our society
 Blood less method
 No or less infection

Two independent closures about ½cm apart should be made for each cord. If done properly, it is
a satisfactory means of castration as there is no external bleeding and the chances of infection are
reduced.

ii. Open Incision (emasculator)

An incision is made on the scrotal sac and the testes are removed by pulling them away from the
spermatic cord.

It I not advisable to cut the spermatic cord since excessive bleeding may result. The cord is
gradually scraped with a sharp knife until snaps off.
There is excessive bleeding
iii. The Rubber Ring or Elastrator
This consists of stretching a specially made rubber ring over the scrotum. It is a useful method
for castrating young calves less than 2 months of age. The rings cut off the scrotal and the
testicular blood circulation stop so that they finally drop off.
As a rule the hands of the operator and instrument should be kept clean and as nearly sterile as
possible by dipping in disinfectant solution between operations. The wounds should also be
disinfected.

3. branding or marking and identification

Branding is the process of destroying hide pigmentation (color forming) cell which damage to
hair follicles
It is highly desirable that all animals in the herd bear some mark or tag whereby each can be
positively identified. This is necessary for the establishment of pedigree or ancestry as it is
especially the case in purebred herd. The method of marking employed will depend primarily on
the objective. When the objective is to establish ownership as it is the case on open range and in
poorly fenced pastures, branding with a hot iron is possibly the best method.
 Of two kinds
 Hot iron branding
 Freez branding
 Hot iron branding is heating of the iron but not until red and be held firmly for about 5
seconds
 Branded surface grows white colour after about 3 months
 Freez branding is branding using copper iron mixed with alcohol and dry ice held firmly
on animal for about 30 seconds.
Although much has been said against branding by hot iron because of the pain inflicted and the
damage to the hide, the hot iron is still the most common. In advanced countries before cattle
can be legally branded, the brand being used must be properly registered with the livestock

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identification office to avoid duplication especially at state boundaries. Other method of
marking include ear marking, horn brands, ear tags, neck chains or straps and tattoo.
The successiveness of brandings depends on
 Age of A+
 Hide color
 Time of the year
 Method of application
 Branding
Disadvantage of branding are
-variable result
-hide devaluation
Advantage – identification of unique animal

4. Health mgmt

The incidence of diseases in beef cattle is low compared with the disease rate of the other
important species of livestock. Nevertheless losses do occur and may be of considerable
importance in individual herds. The common modifiable diseases in beef cattle production are
Anthrax, black lag Brucellosis, foot and mouth disease, Bovine tuberculosis and rabies.

Antrax
A very serious bacterial disease of all domestic animals and that caused bay bacillus anthracis.
Transmissions
Infected animal discharges bacteria in blood, secretion, exrition, exposed to air
Exposed to air feces form spores contamination of pasture, water source of
infliction
Predisposing factors
Drought - during drought animal forced to graze closure to the ground this there is dry torny
roughage which abrade oral mucosa of animals this makes spores in soil to get easily access into
animals
Communal watering points- easy accesses to be infected un infected animal
Scavenger, rodents, flies etc
Clinical signs
-has got precut, acute, and sub acute
- Fever>42oc
-anorexia complete stopping of feed
-tremor or Convulsion and sudden death
- Dark blood passage from natural orifices
-Dysentery
Diagnosis
Clinical signs and laboratory
Treatment – early oxy tetracycline and penciline treatment
Control and prevention
Don’t open carcass
Burry or burn carcass

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Treat sick animal vaccination of animal before season of out break
Black leg
It is accute bacterial diseases of cattle and sheep that caused by bacteria called clostridium
chauvoei.
Clinical sign
Fever
Lameness
Depressed
Swelling over heavy muscle which crepitates up on palpation
Diagnosis – clinical sign and lab
Treatment- penciline and oxy tetra cycline
- Drainage and splashing of affected tissues

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Chapter 4. Sheep and Goats Production
4.1. Origin, Domestication, Population and Distribution of Shoats
4.1.1. Origin, Domestication, Population and Distribution of Sheep

The history of the domesticated sheep goes back to between 11000 and 9000 BC, and the domestication
of the wild mouflon in ancient Mesopotamia. Sheep are among the first animals to have been
domesticated by humans, and there is evidence of sheep farming in Iranian statuary dating to that time
period. These sheep were primarily raised for meat, milk, and skins. Woolly sheep began to be developed
around 6000 BC in Iran, and cultures such as the Persians relied on sheep's wool for trading. They were
then imported to Africa and Europe via trading. As early as then, man had discovered the value of sheep
as a two product animal. It could provide two of life's essentials, soft warm covering and food.

4.1.2. Origin, Domestication, Population and Distribution of Goats

The domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild
goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe.

The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the
goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat. [1] Goats are one of
the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over
much of the world.[2] In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe,
according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.[3]

Female goats are referred to as "does" or "nannies", intact males are called "bucks" or "billies"
and juveniles of both sexes are called "kids". Castrated males are called "wethers". While both
the words "hirsine" and "caprine" refer to anything having a goat-like quality, the former is used
most often to emphasize the distinct smell attributed to domestic goats.

4.1.1. Population and Distribution of Sheep

The livestock population densities were computed in two ways: number of animals per square kilometre and number
of animals per 1000 human population. When the density was expressed for the composite of shoats together,
numbers of animals were converted into tropical livestock units (TLUs). It was observed that the highest numbers of
cattle and shoats were to be found along a north–south transect covering parts of the central highlands of Tigray,
Amhara and Oromia regions, and the transect that connects Adama) and Dire Dawa. Conversely, very low livestock
numbers occurred in pastoral areas like Afar, Ogaden, and Boran; this would be normally expected

4.2. Sheep and Goats

4.2.1. Breeds of Sheep

Ethiopian breeds of sheep and goats

What is breed?
Breed may be defined as population of animals within the same species that have common origin
and are distinguishable from other populations with regard to some conspicuous genetically
determined characteristics that can be transmitted from generation to generation.
Sheep Breeds and their Characteristics

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Afar sheep
 Mainly distributed in the Danakil and the lower valley of Awash.
 Possesses the following characteristics
 Fat-rumped type
 Polled but has long lop ears
 The base of the tail is wide
 Usually white or reddish in colour
 known for the production of high quality meat
 Mainly kept by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities
 Small-sized breed with mature weight ranging 30–35 kg
 The average observed wither height for adult rams is 66 centimeters (cm) while
that for adult ewes is 61 cm.
 Afar sheep weigh about 2.5 kg, 13 kg and 25.8 kg at birth, weaning (90 days), and
one year of age, respectively.
 Ewe mature weight is about 31.6 kg. Twin births are not common.
Abyssinian (Ethiopian) sheep
 Found throughout the highland areas of the country
 May be originated from the Arabian Peninsula
 Kept mainly in the crop-livestock farming system (mixed farming system) for meat and
skin production.
 Has the following characteristics:
 Fat-tailed type sheep
 Females are usually polled and males have various types of horns
 May have ruff or mane (a long hair on the back of the neck and shoulder) and
long legs
 Medium size, weighing on average 45-52kg and 74cm high
 Mostly brown in coat colour but may be reddish, black, white or mixed/patchy
 The milk yield is low, only sufficient for the lambs
Arsi-Bale sheep
 Found distributed throughout the high land areas of Hararghe, Bale and Arsi.
 Raised in mixed farming systems for meat and skin production
 Has the following Characteristics:
 Fat-tailed type sheep
 Males are horned but females are either polled or may have rudimentary horns.
 Colour varies from dark brown to grey, with white spots
Tukur sheep
 Mainly found in the Lasta area (between Wollo and Tigray)
 Mainly kept in crop livestock farming systems/ Mixed farming systems for meat and skin
production but it may also be used for coarse wool production.
 Characterized by the following physical features

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  Fat-tailed type sheep
 Small in size
 Has well developed fat tail.
 The coat colour is white brown and pied (mixed), somehow hairy sheep.
Blackhead Somali sheep
 Also known as Ogaden or Berber Black head sheep distributed all over the Somali areas
and horn of Africa
 Well adapted to arid conditions, hence kept by nomadic people
 Characterized by the following features:
 Fat-rumped type sheep (large deposit of fat on the rump and at the base of the
tail/hind quarter, not on the tail of a sheep).
 Weigh 30-45kg and have 60-68 cm height
 The coat cover has short hairs
 They have black head with white body and legs.
 The black area covers from head to neck and in some cases reaches to shoulder
 Known for meat and skin Production
 Well adapted to arid conditions, hence kept by pastoral and agro-pastoral
communities
Horro sheep

 Mainly distributed in west Ethiopia, around Horrogudru area in Wellega

 Kept in mixed farming systems.
 Characteristics
 Neither fat-tailed nor fat-rumped type , rather a thin tailed type

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  Mainly polled, medium size sheep with light brown coat colour
 Known for twin births
 Meat and skin productions are the main purposes of keeping
Menz sheep

 Distributed throughout the Menz and Selale areas of Shewa

 Adapted to mixed farming systems
 Characteristics
 Fat-tailed type sheep
 Males are usually horned but females are polled
 Medium size, weight ranges 30-35kg, and mean height at the shoulders is 64 cm
and 58cm for adult rams and ewes, respectively
 Wool type, probably the local sheep known for coarse wool production
 Shearing is done twice a year with a yield of 1-1.6 kg coarse wool; used for
different woolen article making.
 Also kept for meat production.
 Twin births are common, sometimes up to 60%.
Washera (Dangla) sheep

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  Found predominantly in West and East Gojam zones of the Amhara Region extending to
the south of Lake Tana.
 Characteristics
 Weigh about 2.8, 13.8 and 22.7 kg at birth, weaning and six months of age,
respectively.
 The growth rate after weaning is comparable and even better than some other
indigenous breeds. This indicates the potential of this breed for commercial
mutton production for the local and export markets.
 High twinning rate
Important exotic breeds of sheep (Self study)
Merino, Merino type, Karakul, Fulani, Corriedale, Dorper, Awassi, Hampshire sheep, etc

4.2.2. Breeds of Goats

Goat Breeds and their Characteristics

Nubian goats
 Found in low land areas of North West Ethiopia (Wegera), on the boarder with Sudan
inhabited in arid and semi arid zones and hence predominantly kept by pastoral and agro-
pastoral communities
 Characteristics
 Tall, bear long ears and long hair.
 Mainly black or brown or grey in colour.
 The body weight ranges 30-34 kg and height at wither 70-74 cm
 Mainly kept for milk production, meat is secondary product.

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  One of important dairy goats found in Africa (the only dairy goats recognized
in Africa).
Afar goats

 Found distributed in the Rift valley strip of Ethiopia, in Danakil depression and in
northern and western Hararghe, adapted to arid and semiarid areas mainly kept by
pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.
 characteristics
 Long-legged and have long thin upward pointing horns,
 They have mixed coat colour,
 Prick eared, and they have narrow face (small face).
 They may weigh 24-31 kg and are 61-65 cm high.
 Kept for milk, meat and skins and social functions, i.e. goats are used to pay
bride price at weddings and traditional/ religious healers. Pastoralists use
white or black goats for sacrificial slaughters.
Abergelle goats

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  Found along the Tekeze River in South Tigray, and North Wollo and eastern Gonder in
high land areas, in mixed farming and agro-pastoral systems
 Characteristics
 Have compact and well built body conformation.
 Mostly reddish brown in colour.
 Males bear horns directing backwards.
 Weigh 28-34 kg and are 65- 71 cm high. They are known for single birth.
 kept for milk, meat, skin and manure production
Arsi-Bale goats
 Found throughout the Arsi and Bale regions, up to an altitude of 4000 m. and also found
in higher altitudes of Sidama and western Hararghe.
 predominantly adapted to humid and sub-humid areas. But some are still kept in the semi
arid areas of Arsi, Bale and Sidamo by agro-pastoralists
 kept in mixed farming systems (highlands and lowlands)
 characteristics
 The goats found in highlands are often hairy but those in lowlands have short
hairs, long legs and long ears (these are body conformation of most low land
goats).
 The coat colour is white, black and brown in combined patchy patter
 The body weight ranges from 30 to 42 kg and height 66 to 75 cm
 Goats of this group are known for their twin or multiple births.
 Kept for milk, meat, skins and manure
Woyto-Guji goats

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  distributed around north and south Omo, Southern Sidama and parts of Wolayta
 found predominantly in arid and semi arid areas, kept by pastoralists and few in mixed
farming systems
 characteristics
 Brown, black or red in patchy pattern colour, with shiny smooth coat.
 Have small head with black or brown stripes along the back, on the underside
or on the front legs.
 They have straight or curved horns. Most males bear wattles, beard and ruff.
 Weight ranges from 29 to 39 kg and height 66 to 73 cm
 Kept for milk, butter, meat, skins and mature
Short-Eared Somali
 Distributed around northern and eastern parts of Ogaden and Jijiga, and Degehabuor and
Wardier, adapted to arid and Semi arid areas, predominantly kept by pastoral people
 Characteristics
 Mainly white in colour with short hair, straight facial profile
 Smaller in size than the long eared Somali goat types.
 They bear upward pointing horns. Most males and few females possess beard.
Wattles occur in few males and females.
 The body weight ranges from 28 to32 kg and height 61 to 66cm.
 Kept for milk, butter, meat, skins and social functions/obligations are believed to
be the function of these goats. E.g. If a Somali man wishes to marry, he will take
a goat in a good condition to the father of the girl the boy wishes to marry. If the
father accepts the goat, it is understood that he has agreed to the marriage.
Long Eared Somali goats
 Distributed throughout the Ogaden, and in lowlands of Bale, Borana and southern
Sidama, adapted to arid and semiarid areas, kept predominantly by pastoral people
 Characteristics
 The coat colour is mainly white, have straight facial profile.
 Have curved and backward pointing horns, long ears
 Few males have ruff but most males and few females possess beard.
 The body weight ranges from 32 to 42 kg and height 69 to 76 cm.
 Mainly kept for milk, meat, blood and social obligations/functions
Hararghe Highland goats
 Distributed throughout the highlands of east and west Hararghe, adapted to the moist
semi humid and moist semiarid areas, kept in mixed farming systems
 characteristics:
 Have white, brown, black or mixed coat colour, Mostly polled, straight or concave
facial profile and short hair.
 Beard occurs in most males but not in females. Wattles occur in some males
 Body weight ranges from 29 to 42 kg and height 63-72 cm

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  Kept for milk, meat and skins. Skin used for bedding purpose, container of water,
grains, milk, butter and honey. Skins can be made into strips for construction of their
houses.
 Manure to fertilize their land.
Central Highland goats
 Distributed throughout the central highlands, west of the Rift valley (Tigray, Wollo,
Gonder and Shewa), humid and semi humid areas (Dega and Weynadega)
 Kept in small flocks in mixed farming systems
 characteristics:
 They have wide face and thick horns, reddish brown in colour and most males
possess beard and ruff.
 Kept for meat, milk, skin and manure
Western Highlands goats: also called Agew goats
 Distributed throughout the highlands of south Gonder, Gojjam, Wollega and western
Shewa, adapted to highland areas/humid to sub-humid and kept in mixed farming
systems
 Characteristics
 Have concave facial profile, coarse but long coat cover (hair), coat colour is white in
combination with other colours.
 Most goats have straight horns pointing backward.
 Beard and ruff occur in some males. Wattles occur in some goats (female and male)
 Kept as source of cash, meat and skin.
 Known for high rate of twin births (36%)
Western low land goats
 Distributed throughout the western lowlands bordering Sudan (Metekel, Assosa and
Gambella, adapted to humid and sub-humid areas, kept mainly by agro-pastoralists
 Characteristics:
 have a straight facial profile, mainly white with some black and grey colours, straight
horns pointing backwards, beard and ruff occur in most males and wattles occur in
few males
 Weigh ranges 34-36kg and height 64-67 cm
 Kept for meat, milk and skins.
Keffa goats
 Distributed throughout the highlands and lowlands of Keffa and south Shewa in Kembata
and Haddiya, adapted to the sub-humid highlands and semi-arid lowlands, kept in small
flocks in mixed farming systems
 Characteristics:
 Coat colour is red or black, have short neck with small ears and straight facial profile.
 Males bear horn pointing backwards. Have coarse hairy coat cover. Beard and ruff
occur in most males but wattles occur in few males and females.

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  The body weight ranges from 28 to 41 kg and they are 67 to 76 cm in height
 Kept for meat, milk, skin and manure
Important exotic breeds of goats (Self study)
Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, Beetal, Boer, Jamnapari, Toggenburg goats, etc

4.3. Shoats Production System

The recent classification of sheep and goat production systems in Ethiopia are based on
criteria that included degree of integration with crop production and contribution to
livelihood, level of input and intensity of production, agro-ecology, length of growing
period and relation to land and type of commodity to be produced. Three major and two
minor production systems are described.
 The major production systems are:
 Highland sheep–barley system
 Mixed crop–livestock system
 Pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems
 The other production systems that are not currently practiced widely but have a
future are:
 Urban and peri-urban (landless) sheep and goat production system
 Ranching
Highland sheep–barley system
This system is found in the highlands above 3000 m.a.s.l. where the major crops grown
are barley and pulses such as faba beans, lentils, etc. Temperature is the main factor determining
productivity in the highland sheep–barley production system. Sheep are the dominant livestock
species. The main feed resource-base includes wasteland grazing, stubble and sometimes straw.
Sheep flock sizes range from 30 to several hundred head. Sheep are reared mainly for meat, skins
and coarse wool production. There is, therefore, a clear possibility of establishing more formal
sheep production enterprises using appropriate technology packages. Large sheep production
ranches could be established where mainly meat or dual-purpose breeds could be maintained
either by individual farmers or cooperatives.
Mixed crop–livestock systems
Both sheep and goats are raised in mixed crop–livestock systems. These systems are
based on cropping associated with livestock husbandry. This system is generally found in areas
where the altitude ranges between 1500 and 3000 m.a.s.l. The area has adequate rainfall and
moderate temperature and is thus suitable for grain production. The integration of crops and
livestock is high in most areas. The integration is lower in the perennial crop–livestock system
(coffee growing areas) in southern Ethiopia where animals are of minor importance. Livestock in
general and small ruminants in particular play an important role in food security and food self-
sufficiency in this production system. In the grain-based mixed production system, livestock are
the main cash source for the purchase of agricultural inputs. Livestock are used as a savings and
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insurance mechanism. Cattle are the dominant livestock species and are kept mainly for draft
power. Sheep and goats are kept to meet small and immediate cash needs.
Sheep are more dominant than goats in this production system. The major commodity is
meat, while milk is a subsidiary product in some areas. Skin of hair goats in the extreme
highland areas has a local niche market for making saddles. Coarse wool is also produced from
Menz sheep and other sheep in the central and north central highlands. The wool is usually used
for the local carpet-making industry.
The major feed resources are natural pasture and crop residues. Sheep and goats in this
system experience year-round nutritional stress due to increases in cultivated land area. This
results in very high grazing pressure and subsequent shortage of feed. There is a need to intensify
production because of the high population density in these areas.
Pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems
Pastoral system
In general, pastoral systems are associated with agro-ecological zones (AEZ) that are too dry
to sustain crop production. Under Ethiopian conditions, pastoral systems of production are found
at altitudes below 1500 m.a.s.l. and where the annual precipitation is less than 500 mm. The
following characterize pastoral systems:
 High mobility in search of grazing and water
 Livestock are maintained as a principal activity. Fifty percent of household revenue
comes from livestock or more than 20% of household food energy is derived directly
from livestock or livestock-related activities.
 Rangeland is the main land resource.
 Seasonal availability of feed
 High mortality rate of kids and lambs
 Long lambing and kidding interval
In recent years, pastoralists have shown an increasing interest in keeping larger numbers of sheep
and goats. There are more goats than sheep in this system. Milk and meat are the two outputs. In
drought years, goats gain more importance as suppliers of milk to the household. Goats also help
to control bush encroachment. Pastoralists depend on their livestock not only for their income
but also for their survival. Consequently, risk avoidance is very important to the pastoralist.
Pastoralism is ecologically, economically and socially important for sustainable development in
dry lands.
Agro-pastoral system
This system is characterized by less integration with crop production as compared to the
crop–livestock production systems. Producers under this system have a permanent residence and
their movement is limited in terms of both distance and duration. The system is characterized by
a high degree of dependence on milk and meat production. Some crop agriculture is practiced
around the permanent homestead. This is also a low input / low output system. The system is
usually practiced below 1500 m.a.s.l. but with higher rainfall to support short season crops
compared to the pastoral system.

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Urban and peri-urban (landless) sheep and goat production system
This system involves the production of sheep and goats within and at the periphery of cities.
Quantitative data is not available on the importance of urban and peri-urban production systems
but it is not uncommon to observe sheep and goats in urban areas including the capital Addis
Ababa. Feed resources are usually household wastes, market area wastes, mill leftovers, by-
products and roadside grazing (particularly in the peri-urban system). In addition, small-scale
sheep fattening is emerging as an economic activity in many growing cities. The viability of this
activity depends on its acceptance into the formal extension services. It could either be a high
input / high output or low input / low output system. In most cases, the type of sheep and goats
available from this system are meant for local consumption, being well-finished, fatty animals
demanded by the local Ethiopian market.
Ranching
Ranching is a range-based system of livestock production similar to the pastoral systems
but with different production parameters, livestock functions and management. Ranching can be
considered as a modern landuse system. It is a labor-extensive system focusing on the production
of marketable commodities from one or two selected species. This is mainly in the form of
producing live slaughter animals for meat. The main function of the system is to generate cash
income.
Management of livestock is characterized by grazing within defined borders and an
individual tenure system with possibilities of intensified feeding and watering of animals. The
form of ownership in ranching could be parastatal, cooperative or private (companies or
individuals).
It is possible to produce sheep and goats that are more uniform and targeted to satisfy the
increasing export and domestic market if such systems could be introduced into the pastoral,
agro-pastoral and the highland sheep–barley production systems.

4.4. Feeding of Shoats

Feeding behavior
Sheep and goats differ in their feeding behavior. Selection and intake of forage depends
not only on the available plant resources but also on the feeding behavior of animals. Knowledge
of feeding habits that have nutritional implications is important in improving sheep and goat
nutrition.
Sheep are grazers and prefer short grasses. But goats are browsers and prefer to consume
a wide variety of feedstuffs. Goats are more selective and browse more, especially under
extensive conditions, than sheep. The selectivity of goats is reduced under intensive
management. Goats generally have better body condition compared to sheep under the same
grazing conditions, mainly due to their ability to select a nutritious diet. Goats prefer to eat feed
at a height of 20–120 cm. They have the ability to stand on their hind legs for long periods and
can even climb trees in order to reach parts of trees they prefer. They also have mobile upper lips
and tongues that enable them to consume leaves between thorns. The preference of goats for

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consuming browse can be used in the control of invasive species on grasslands. Therefore,
keeping a mixture of browsers and grazers can maintain rangeland grazing areas rather than
allowing them to become overgrown with brush. The mixed species of livestock kept by
pastoralists enables simultaneous use of vegetation at different heights.

Digestive system of sheep and goat

The digestive tract (or gastrointestinal tract) of a ruminant animal can be considered a
continuous hollow tube- open at both ends-with the body built around it. It includes five main
parts: mouth, esophagus, compartmentalized stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
Small ruminants possess large compartmentalized stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum
and abomasums). Such part of a digestive system provides two primary nutritional advantages
for ruminants animals:
More space: they have the necessary space for processing large quantities of bulky forages to
provide their nutrients.
More microorganisms: the rumen, the largest segment of the stomach, provides a highly
desirable environment for the enormous population of microorganisms. It contains bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, and yeasts that ferment the ingested feed. Hence it functions as a fermentation
vat.
These microorganisms serve two important functions:
I. They make it possible for ruminants to utilize roughage-to digest the fiber therein. They
breakdown the cellulose and pentosans of feeds into usable organic acids, chiefly acetic,
propionic and butyric acid- commonly called the volatile fatty acids (VFA). These VFAs are
largely absorbed through the rumen wall and provide the ruminant 60 to 80% of the energy
needs.
II. In exchange for their rumen-housing privileges, the microbes synthesis nutrients for their
host, in a true type of symbiotic relationship. Rumen microbes synthesize, or manufacture, all the
B complex vitamins and all the essential amino acids. Finally the microorganisms give their lives
to their host in payment for food and shelter, being digested farther along in the gastrointestinal
tract.
Rumination
In ruminants the breakdown of feeds, particularly roughages, into smaller particles to
facilitate fermentation is accomplished by the process of rumination. Rumination is a cyclic
process constituting regurgitation, mastication (chewing), reforming and re-swallowing of
bolus. Rumination allows ingesta to be mechanically degraded in the mouth as the result of
movement of the rumen.
Nutrient requirement of sheep and goats
All the feed that is consumed is not completely utilized by the animal. Rather those
portions of the feeds called nutrients, which are released by digestion will be absorbed into the
body fluids and tissues and used by the animal for different functions.
Functions of nutrients

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 Of the feed consumed, a portion is digested and absorbed for use by the animal. The
remaining undigested portion is excreted and constitutes the major portion of the feces. Nutrients
from the digested feed are used for a number of different body processes, the exact usage varying
with the class, age and productivity of the animal.
I. Maintenance: All animals use a portion of their absorbed nutrients to carry on essential
functions (staying alive), such as regulation of body temperature, breathing, blood circulation,
body metabolism (digestion process) and replacement and repair of body cells and tissues.
Maintenance requirements may be defined as the combination of nutrients which are needed by
the animal to keep its body functioning without any gain or loss in body weight or any
productivity activity. It means to keep/maintain the animal alive.
II. Production: The portion of the digested feed used for growth, fattening, or the production of
milk and wool/hair is known as production requirement. Growth may be defined as the increase
in size of bones, muscles, internal organs, and other parts of the body. It is the normal process
before birth and after birth until the animal reaches its full mature size. Hence any growth
requires nutrient, especially during the main period of growth, between weaning and attaining
the mature body weight. Young and growing animals require relatively large quantities of energy
and protein for growth. The lactation requirement of females of all mammalian species for
moderate to heavy milk production is higher than the maintenance or pregnancy requirements.
Production of milk either for single or two kids/lambs or for human consumption
requires/demands high level of energy, protein and water. Wool and hair are high-protein
products. Hence, protein rich feeds are highly demanded for animals producing wool or hair.
III. Reproduction: The portion of the digested feed meant for the production of ova and
spermatozoa, and development of fetus is termed as reproduction requirement. A ration exerts a
powerful effect on sperm production and semen quality.
IV. Extra activity: The portion of the digested feed used for walking, fighting/buting and
mating is considered as extra activity requirement. Sheep and goats in pastoral systems have to
be very active, particularly in dry season, to search feed and water. Usually they travel 10-15
km/day, which demands a great deal of energy

Nutrients required by sheep and goats

The purpose of providing feedstuffs and formulating diets is to provide animals with the
nutrients they require. These nutrients are grouped into one of five categories: energy, protein,
minerals, vitamins a or water.
i. Energy: Energy is required for practically all life processes- the action of the heart,
maintenance of blood pressure and muscle tone, transmission of nerve impulses, synthesis of
protein and fat, secretion of milk, production of wool/hair, etc. At least 80% of the total feed
intake consists of calories. Lack of energy-hunger- is probably the most common nutritional
deficiency of sheep and goats and it may result from lack of feed or from the consumption of
poor-quality feed. The metabolizable energy content of the diet of sheep and goats should be at
least 8.4 MJ/kg of the diet. But the requirement depends on the purpose for which the energy is
needed.
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Table 5. Energy requirements

Requirement Energy
1. Maintenance 413.8 KJ ME per kg W 0.75
2. Growth 35.3 KJ ME per g live weight gain
3. Lactation +24 KJ ME/kg milk
4. Pregnancy/gestation 45 KJ ME/day
The requirement for lactation depends on the composition of the milk and amount
produced per female. Environmental factors, shearing and stress can also affect the energy
requirements of the animals.
Energy deficiency is characterized by slowing and cessation of growth, loss of weight, reduced
fertility and shortened lactation period, reduced quantity and quality of wool/hair (including
breaks in fiber) and lowered resistance to infection.
ii. Proteins: Proteins are complex organic compounds made up chiefly of amino acids. Sheep
and goats need protein, as do other classes of animals. The protein requirement varies with stage
of growth and type of production, but generally is less than 20% of the diet (between 14 and 18%
in the DM). Like that of the energy, the protein requirement depends on the purpose for which
the animals require.
Table 6. Protein requirements
Requirement Protein
1. Maintenance 1.82 g DCP per kg W 0.75
2. Growth 0.36 g DCP per g live weight gain
3. Lactation + 52 g DCP/kg milk at 4%, 59 g at 5%, 66 g at 5% fat
4. Pregnancy/gestation 45.4 g DCP/day (early pregnancy), 68.6 g/day (mid-
pregnancy), 68.7 g/day (late pregnancy)

Protein deficiency results in reduced appetite, poor feed efficiency, poor growth and reproductive
efficiency, weight loss and lowered milk production and reduced wool/hair production
iii. Minerals: Minerals are inorganic elements, frequently found as salts with either inorganic
elements or organic compounds. At least 16 minerals are known to be essential for sheep and
goats. These minerals can be grouped into two types as far as the requirement of animals is
concerned: Macro-minerals (major elements), Micro-minerals (trace elements).
iv. Vitamins
Vitamins are complex organic compounds that are required in minute amounts for normal
growth, production, reproduction, and/or health of sheep and goats. Based on their solubility
minerals can be categorized into two major groups: Fat soluble vitamins and water soluble.
v. Water
It is one of the most important nutrients required for transport of nutrients, regulation of body
temperature, etc. The water requirement can be affected by:

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A. Feed intake: Usually animals consuming more feed require more water. Non-lactating
animals require about 2 kg water for each kg DM feed taken.
B. Air temperature: in most conditions water requirement of animals rises with temperature. At
a temperature of 12-18 oC, 2 kg water/kg DM is required, but when temperature rises up to 35 oC,
the requirement may be 4 fold.
C. Stage of Pregnancy: In the last three months of pregnancy, water requirement will rise to
140% (if single fetus) and to 200% (if twin)
D. Lactation: Production of milk requires high amount of water. For one kg milk 1.3-2 kg water
is required in addition to the water required to the dam itself
E. Kind of feed: for instance when sheep and goats forage on feeds of high moisture content,
they may go for a number of days without water.
6. Frequency of watering: When there is frequent access to water, animals usually take less
water at a time but if they are withdrawn for long time they can take more water.
Animals obtain water in three ways. The mainly source of water is drinking water. The second
source is from food they consume (in case of green and young forage). If they consume a feed
that contain 70% water, they can survive without water. The oxidation of food and body tissue
also provides some amount of water for sheep and goats. Generally sheep and specially goats
are less dependent on water compared to cattle, because of their efficiency in water utilization.
The faeces of sheep and goats is in the form of pellets (i.e. water content of faeces is very low).
This is one of the mechanisms through which they tolerate water deprivation for long periods.
During dry season the amount of urine is also reduced which enables them to survive long
periods without water.

[Link] Feeding and Housing Management

Feeding management of sheep and goats
The nutrition of sheep and goats is the most important factor affecting performance. Poor
nutrition results in low rates of production, often defined by growth and reproduction. It also
affects the immune system and the ability of an animal to fight disease. In extreme conditions of
malnutrition, death can occur. In many animal production systems, approximately two-thirds of
improvements in livestock productivity can be attributed to improved nutrition. In economic
terms, feed cost accounts for about 70% of the total cost of livestock production. The feasibility
of livestock enterprises is, therefore, a function of the type of feed and feeding system. It is
estimated that up to a five-fold increase in tropical livestock productivity can be attained if there
is optimal feed resource utilization. Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia suffers from feed
shortages at all levels with an estimated 40% deficit in the national feed balance. This is
aggravated by seasonal availability of forage and crop residues in the highlands and by recurrent
and prolonged drought in the lowlands.
Improving performance through better nutrition is determined by three interrelated
considerations:
• The availability of nutrients;
• Type of feeding system; and
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•The level of feeding management
Feed resources for sheep and goats
Sheep and goats are adapted to consume a great variety of feeds. Most of the common
feeds used by them can be conveniently classified into two major types: roughages and
concentrates. Roughages are bulky materials with high fiber content and a low nutrient density.
As a group they can be further subdivided and classified into dry roughages and succulents.
Roughages constitute the majority of the ration of sheep and goats during most of the year.
Concentrate, on the other hand, contain less crude fiber and high nutrient density than roughages.
Feed sources
i. Natural Pastures: A pasture is an area of land on which there is growth of forage that animals
may graze/browse. Natural pastures/range lands provide most of the annual feed sources of sheep
and goats in the tropics and subtropics, i.e. supplementation with other feeds (concentrates) is
rare. Pastures differ in their species and canopy coverage. The canopy coverage depends on the
amount of moisture in the soil and sunlight. UNESCO (1979) adopted the following
classification for natural pastures:
Savannah: It is composed of grasses and shrubs or trees. The acacia grasslands of East Africa
fall into this category. Grasslands are composed of pure grasses. There is little true grassland in
the tropics.
The potential carrying capacity of the pasture is determined by the quantity of vegetation. The
productivity of sheep and goats on pasture is affected by the quality of the vegetation. The
quantity and quality of pasture is affected by:
 Climate and season
 Burning: accidental fires or burning for pasture management
 Legume content: the mixture of legumes and grass has a better quality than grass alone.
The potential carrying capacity of pasture is determined by the quantity and qualities of
vegetation, which in turn is affected by climate and season, burning and legume content. Natural
pasture with 30 to 40 % cellulose content is adequate for maintenance requirements of small
ruminants. Pastures with high cellulose content can not support requirements of small ruminants.
ii. Improved Pastures
The yield and quality of natural pastures can be improved by changing the species composition
(eg. Introducing a legume) and improving pasture management (eg. Grazing control, fertilizer
application and burning). But improving pasture in the dry zones of the tropics is limited by cost
such that only simple measures can be implemented.
iii. Cultivated pastures or fodder crops
Even though natural pastures are used extensively in sub-saharan Africa, they can only support
the desired productivity of sheep and goats to a certain level and for a short period. Therefore, to
boost and sustain the productivity of flock, it is important to look for other alternatives.
Cultivated pasture or fodder crops are grown with the aim of increasing forage production per
unit area and improving the feed value of the grasses. But fodder crops are not yet widely used in

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sub-saharan Africa because of the high cost of inputs such as land, labour and fertilizer. These
crops are attractive when grown as
 catch crops, growing in a period when the land is otherwise unused
 Break crops , which improve the yield of subsequent crops by improving soil fertility or
reducing pests and disease
 Intercrops, grown between the rows of another crop to improve soil fertility, provide
shade or control erosion.
iv. Conserved forage
During dry season, the quality of pasture is low and forages are scarce. One way to solve this
problem is to conserve forages. Conservation aims at retaining the feed value of the forage.
Fodder can be conserved as hay or silage.
Hay: is fodder dried in green state. To produce hay of high quality, it is essential to harvest the
fodder at the right time. When fodder is harvested to early, its moisture content is too high
resulting in hay with reduced dry matter content. On the other hand, if the fodder harvest is
delayed, the plants develop a high lignin content which reduce digestibility.
Silage: is produced by fermenting the sugars in green herbage under anaerobic conditions. The
desired product is reached when enough acids are produced (low pH which prevents bacterial
decomposition) and fermentation stops. Silage can be made in silos of various shapes. The silo
must be airtight to prevent the fodder putrefying. The bottom of the silo must be covered with
stones to allow the liquids resulting from fermentation to drain off. To ensure successful silage
making;
 keep the harvested forage at low temperature
 chop the forage into fine pieces of not more than 10-cm length
 compress the forage into the silo to remove as much air as possible (treading with feet
can be used to compress forage in small silos) and
 finally cover the silo as soon as possible with compacted straw or a sheet of plastic and
place soil on top (a layer of about 50-cm). Compact the upper layer of the soil to maintain
good coverage.
v. Crop residues
There are many crop residues which can be used for feeding sheep and goats. Sheep and
goats make better use of crop aftermath, straw and stover (which are the main agricultural by-
products in crop-livestock systems). Straw and stover are most important feed resources during
much of the dry season. They are second feed sources next to pasture. Wheat, barley, rice, millet
and teff yield considerable amount of straw and sorghum and maize are good sources of stover.
Generally straw and stover have low nutritive value. The energy content ranges from 5.5 to 9.6
MJ ME/kg DM. They are high in lignin and mostly low in crude protein and minerals. The feed
value of these by-products can be improved by adding supplements of energy, protein and
minerals, grinding or chopping and treatment with chemicals (Sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, etc) and nitrogenous compounds (Urea and Ammonium hydroxide).
vi. Agro-industrial by-products

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 As is the case with feeding other species of livestock, agro-industrial by-products are
used extensively for small ruminant feeding. Oilseed cakes (oil meals) are by-products of
processing a variety of oil crops: groundnut, sunflower, cottonseed and soybean. These cakes are
rich in protein and fatty acids. By-products from flour factories (such as wheat short, wheat bran,
rice bran, etc) are also important sources of energy for sheep and goats. Sheep and goats readily
accept by-products from brewers. They are also important sources of protein. Usually agro-
industrial by-products and other concentrates are used as supplements. Supplementary feeding is
required during:
 The dry season when feed shortage occurs
 The breeding season, especially after weaning to encourage onset (occurrence) of
estrus. This improves prolificacy (fertility). Such type of feeding practice aimed at
encouraging estrus cycle is termed as flushing and steaming up.
 The last 4-6 weeks of pregnancy, to stimulate the increase in birth weight, reduce
mortality rate of lambs/kids
 Lactation period to produce more milk for young and human consumption.

Table 7. Nutrient composition of feeds used for sheep and goats.

Feed Intake in sheep and goats

Sheep are primarily grazers, prefer grasses, whereas goats are browsers and prefer to eat
bushes and tree leaves, flowers, seed pods, etc. .Goats prefer to eat at a height of 20-120 cm
above the ground by standing on their hind legs. They can stand on their hind legs for long
period and even climb into trees. When goats are forced to graze, they often eat by kneeling

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down on their front feet. Hence, sheep are easier to control on natural pasture and on marginal
lands near farm holdings. Moreover, range grazing of sheep may be advantageous because there
is less refusal/wastage of feed (short grasses of range may be efficiently eaten by sheep).
Generally, keeping/grazing different species of animals together helps to utilize grazing lands
efficiently.

The requirements for the nutrients for different purposes are met from feed intake. In trying to
meet their requirements different factors can limit the feed intake.
1. Body weight and breed:
Commonly feed intake is expressed as DM/kg 0.75. As the size increases animals will take
more fed to meet their energy requirement. But feed intake per unit weight decreases as weight
increases. Intake may vary from 3-4.5% of live weight for all-purpose tropical sheep and goats.
In case of the temperate breeds, it can vary from 5-6% of their live weight which sometimes can
be as high as 8%.
Of these intakes, about 3-4% will be used for production and 1.5-2 % for maintenance.
2. Environmental Factors
Animals regulate their body temperature through increasing or reducing feed intake.
Generally, it can be said that animals eat feed to maintain optimum body temperature. High
temperature reduces feed intake, because animals will try to maintain their body temperature by
reducing feed intake. Low temperature increases feed intake, because animals produce more
metabolic heat to maintain their body temperature.

3. Physical structure (form) of feed

Grinding or chopping of coarse feed and pelleting of dusty feeds increase feed intake as
compared to untreated ones. Grinding and chopping can reduce the particle size or collapse and
disintegrate the lignin (indigestible structures) of the feed. Reduction of particle size increases
rate of passage of feed or movement from one compartment to another. Increased passage rate
means reduced retention time of feed. Accordingly, there will be more room in the rumen for
intake. Some feeds are dusty in nature which will not be accepted and liked by ruminant animals.
But when such feeds are offered in pellet form, the animals are initiated to take more. Molasses
is commonly used to reduce the dustiness of feed and to increase palatability.
4. Energy concentration/density of the feed
The higher the density (concentration) of the energy of a feed, the lower the intake will
be. In other words, the lower the density (concentration) of energy of the feed, the higher the
quantity of feed that the animal will eat. Animals eat mostly to meet their energy requirement
5. Productive state
High producing animals require more feed than the low producing ones. In case of
females, for instance, feed intake is greater when they are lactating than they are dry. Lactating
animals can consume 20-70% more feed as compared to non-lactating or dry ones.
6. Feed supplement
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 Addition of supplements to basal feeds stimulates the activity (function) of micro-
organisms in the rumen to degrade the feed. If protein source is sufficient to the micro-
organisms, they can degrade cellulose or hemi-cellulose. Increased activity of micro-organisms
reduces the retention time of feed in the rumen and increases the rate of passage of feed,
absorption and excretion.
7. Shearing of wool or hair
Increases feed intake in sheep and goats, because they feel cool and they need more feed
to maintain their body temperature. The wool or hair cover produces more metabolic heat to raise
the body temperature.
Feeding Different Classes of Small Ruminants
Little information is available on the nutrient requirements of animals at various
physiological states under tropical conditions. The amounts of energy and protein or amino acids
supplied to the animal determine productivity. Both energy and protein must be supplied in
sufficient quantities and balanced to meet requirements and optimize feed utilization. Energy in
ruminants is largely supplied by volatile fatty acids (VFA) that arise from the rumen
fermentation of all types of organic matter, though the majority comes from carbohydrates. The
principal way of increasing VFA energy is to increase intake and/or the rumen degradability.
This can be accomplished by supplementation with a nitrogen source or, in the case of poor
quality roughages, urea treatment.

Table 8. The first limiting nutrients for different physiological functions of sheep and goats

Productive functions and the need for supplementary nutrients

Growth: Growing animals have a very high requirement for amino acids for tissue synthesis.
High growth rates cannot be supported by the products of fermentative digestion alone. Bypass
protein supplements are essential.
Reproduction: The growth of the fetus has little effect on the dam’s protein and energy demand
until the last third of gestation when most fetal tissues are formed. It appears that rumen function,
even on diets of low digestibility, can support the birth of a viable offspring of normal weight.
Urea supplementation can enhance milk production to a level that ensures survival of the
offspring. But to allow the young animal to grow, milk yield must be further stimulated by
feeding a bypass protein source.

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Milk production: The major constraint to milk production from diets based on crop residues and
agro-industrial by-products is the availability of nutrients to provide the glucose for lactose (milk
sugar) synthesis. A dietary source of lipid can reduce any imbalance caused by relative
deficiencies of glucogenic energy in the end-products of rumen digestion. For many feeding
systems in the tropics, the level of fat in the diet could be a primary constraint to milk
production.

4.5. Reproduction in Shoats

Reproduction is giving birth to an offspring. Reproduction begins at the age of puberty

Puberty
Puberty is the time when the reproductive organs of animals become functional.
 In males, puberty is defined as the age at which first ejaculation takes place (8- 12
months).
 In females, puberty can be defined as the time at which the first functional estrus takes
place and the earliest age at which reproduction can occur. Female sheep and goats may
reach puberty at 6 to 10 and 5 to 8 months of age, respectively.
 But puberty does not necessarily mean the time for breeding. The females should not be
permitted for mating before 10-12 months of age, depending on the body weight of about
50-70% body weight of mature female.
The age of puberty varies according to:
 1. Breed- usually smaller breeds reach earlier their age of puberty than larger breeds
 2. Nutrition- poor nutrition will delay and good will enhance the occurrence of puberty
probably related with the growth and development of the body and reproductive organs.
 3. Health- good health condition enhances the occurrence of puberty
 4. Presence and absence of sexually mature males- the sight, sound and smell of males
induce sexual maturity in females.
 Season of birth and growth rate

Age at first service

 The age at which first mating takes place is known as age at first service (it is the actual
mating to produce offspring).
 If females are mated and conceived before at early age:
o The dam may not with stand the stress of pregnancy and lactation.
o The fetus and the dam may compete for nutrients: The growth of both the dam
and the fetus will be impaired.
o The dam may have also difficulties (size wise) to accommodate the fetus and
hence may have lambing/ kidding complications.

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Estrus/heat
 Estrus is defined as the time at which the female is receptive to the male.
Estrus Cycle in does and ewes
 Estrus cycle is a repeatedly occurring sexual cycle after an age of puberty. It is simply
the interval between two successive heat periods.
 It culminates in ovulation (release of ova into one of the oviducts), i.e. estrus cycle will
complete when a female animal ovulates or when a mature egg is released from follicles
into one of the oviducts.
Table 4. Characteristics of estrus in ewes and does
Average duration
Ewes Does
1. Estrus cycle 5-19 days 18-21 days
2. Duration of heat (heat period) 18-42 hrs 24-36 hrs
3. Time of ovulation
(after onset of estrus) 25-30 hrs 21-36 hrs
4. Time of service 18-24 hrs 15-26 hrs
 An ovum remains viable in the oviduct for 10-12 hrs while sperm for 24-36 hrs.
Therefore, service or mating should be carried out late in heat period but before
ovulation to ensure high rate of fertilization.
Signs of estrus/heat
 When females are in heat, some physiological, behavioural and anatomical changes can
be observed. Some of which are listed below
o Frequent nervous bleating
o Side-to-side tail shaking (Wagging/rhythmic movement of tail)
o Pushing and standing over other animals
o Standing to be mounted (mated)
o Reddening and swelling of the vulva. Hormonal changes associated with heat
cause an increase in blood supply to the reproductive organs. This in turn causes
swelling and reddening of the vulva
o Discharge or hanging of mucus from the vagina Lack of interest in feeding
o Drop in milk production, if lactating
Reproductive Measurements/traits of Sheep and Goats
For small ruminants to be highly productive, good levels of reproductive performance
need to be achieved. Measures of reproduction commonly used in sheep and goats include age at
puberty, age at first lambing/kidding, post-partum interval, and parturition interval and fertility
indices.
Age at puberty
It is difficult to have an accurate measure of puberty unless hormonal assays are done at
certain intervals (biweekly). On experimental stations, puberty may be recorded as the first

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behavioral estrus observed. This estrus is called pubertal estrus. The manifestation is not strong
and its duration is short, hence, requiring close attention for heat detection.
Age at first lambing/kidding
This trait can be recorded easily in a farmer’s flock. There is a big variation among
production systems and breeds for this trait (12–24 months). It is usually late in animals living in
harsh environments.
Post-partum interval (PPI)
This is the time between parturition and the resumption of cyclic ovarian activity and it is
a major component of lambing/kidding interval. It has a significant contribution to productive
efficiency. A mean interval of 83.5 days (51–133 days) has been reported for Somali goats.
Nutrition, suckling, parity (number of times kidded/lambed) and breed affect this trait. During
lactation, the onset of a new cycle is actively inhibited so that the energy is preferentially
reserved for milk production for the offspring. This is called lactational [Link] and does
giving birth in the dry season have a longer interval compared to those lambing/kidding during
the rainy season. Ovarian activity in most tropical breeds commences after weaning. Suckling
interferes with hypothalamic release of GnRH, provoking a marked suspension in the pulsatile
LH release, resulting in extended postnatal anestrous. Females at earlier parities take longer than
older ones to return to reproductive status.
Parturition interval (lambing/kidding interval)
This refers to the number of days between successive parturitions. It is called lambing
interval in ewes and kidding interval in does. Under normal circumstances (no drought), tropical
sheep/goats should be lambing/kidding at least three times in 2 years. For this to be realized,
lambing/kidding interval should not exceed 8 months (245 days). As the major component of
parturition interval is post-partum interval (PPI), accelerated lambing or kidding revolves around
manipulating PPI because a shorter PPI will result in a shorter parturition interval. Better
nutrition and early weaning could impact this measure of reproductive performance. Tests on an
eight-month lambing interval under controlled mating in Horro sheep has shown acceptable
results in both ewe and lamb performance. One of the most important ways of increasing off take
rate is through reduction of the parturition interval and, if done with optimal input, this may help
in meeting the growing demand of the export trade.
Fertility
Various definitions of fertility exist in literature such as conception rate, fecundity,
prolificacy, birth rate, etc. A general definition of fertility is the number of ewes lambing or does
kidding divided by the number of ewes/does mated. Fertility is affected by factors such as
nutrition, age, diseases and season of mating. In most cases, there is a positive effect of
supplementation. Supplementation during the mating period (shortly before the mating period
and afterwards) could increase the number of ova shed and improve embryo survival. This
practice is called flushing and is discussed in the nutrition and management sections. Age of the
ewe or doe is also an important factor. Fertility increases with age, and also starts to decline with
old age.
Litter size (LS) here
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 This is a combination of ovulation rate and embryo survival. Litter size (LS) varies
between 1.08 and 1.75 with average of 1.38. Positive relationships between LS and age and LS
and parity have been noted. LS increases with parturition number until the fifth kidding/lambing.
Increases in ewe or doe weight (prior to mating) by 1 kg over the mean of the population results
in an increase of about 3.8% in LS. Breed differences in litter size are common. Finnish
Landrace and the Romanov breed are considered the most prolific sheep in the world. In
Ethiopia, the Horro breed is said to be prolific as compared to the Menz sheep. A litter size of
1.93 has been reported in Boer goats. This is said to increase to 2.5 with selection. Sheep and
goats in the pastoral areas are known to give birth to singles only. This might be due to negative
selection that has taken place in the environment. Heritability estimates suggest the possibility of
genetic improvement in LS through selection.
Annual reproductive rate
This is defined as the number of lambs/kids weaned per ewe/doe of reproductive age per
year. Some authors use litter size at birth rather than litter size at weaning. However, the latter is
preferred as it takes the mothering ability of the dam into consideration. Apart from single traits,
a combination of two or more traits can be used as a measure of reproductive performance.
Management of reproduction
Mating management
Once males and females are sexually mature, they will display characteristic behavior
prior to mating. Unless restrained, both sexes will make an effort to reach each other and mate.
Smell, sight and noise are the common attractants. In sheep, the fat tail of a ewe may make
mating difficult or even impossible. Experienced rams push the tail aside to let the penis
penetrate the vagina. Young and inexperienced rams may need assistance, i.e., hand-mating may
be essential. The following types of mating could be practiced depending on the system of
production.
Flock-mating
Fertile rams or bucks are allowed to remain continuously with a group of females. This
mating system is commonly practiced by pastoralists.
Pen-mating
This involves confining a sire with a group of females, in a paddock for example, for
mating during the service period.
Hand-mating
This involves detecting females in estrus and bringing them to breeding males. In such a
system, regular and efficient heat detection methods are essential.
Artificial Insemination (AI) in Sheep and Goats
Artificial insemination is a process whereby the sperm from a male is collected and used
to inseminate a female artificially (or by man). In AI, sperm may be used fresh or can be frozen
and stored for long periods in liquid nitrogen at -196 oC. The procedures in artificial
insemination of sheep and goats are similar to those used in cattle.

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Estrus synchronization in ewes and does
Estrus synchronization is a method through which estrus is induced artificially in a group of
females to be bred or inseminated at one time (at predetermined time).
Male to female ratio
Good reproductive efficiency can be achieved partly by employing optimum male to
female ratios. Therefore, it is imperative to set proper male to female ratio at the breeding
season. Under the tropical conditions the optimum ratio is thought to be about 1:20-1:30 and
1:10-1:20 for goats and sheep respectively. But, if the management is good a ratio of 1:40-1:50 is
also acceptable.
The number of ewes/does that will be assigned for a particular male will depend on:
Breed-some breeds are sexually active and produce high quality semen and able to mate more
females. Aggressive males are able to serve more females that reflect their breeding ability
Age - quality and quantity of semen from very young and old males are poor compared to
matured males. Difference in quantity and quality of semen matters also the number of females
assigned to one male.
Nutrition of males- nutritional deficiency depresses production and characteristics of semen like
motility, volume of ejaculation or concentration of sperm. Since under- and over-feeding affect
testosterone production and sexual activity of males, over and underfed animals will not be in a
position to produce semen frequently and to mate more females.
Mating Season- change in the length of daylight affects quality and quantity of semen, i.e. when
light period is longer, fertility or sexual interest reduces. A hormone inhibin will be released in
excess amount and reduced in testosterone or estrogen and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
production.
Pregnancy Detection
Knowledge of pregnancy testing is of considerable economic importance in sheep and goat
production. Early diagnosis of pregnancy is necessary for an early identification of non-pregnant
animals. Production cost (time) lost as the result of infertility may be reduced by employing
appropriate measures, such as improving feeding practice or culling of infertile animals.
Pregnancy diagnosis is also required to certify animals for sale or insurance purposes.
Gestation
Gestation is the period from fertilization to delivery of the fetus. The average duration of
gestation periods in ewes and does is fairly constant and ranges from 147 to 152 days. To some
extent, it could be influenced by:
 Age of the dam: younger ewes and does have shorter gestation than older ones.
 Litter size: dams carrying twins have shorter gestation than those carrying singles.
 Nutrition of the pregnant ewe or doe: low level of feeding on range shortens gestation.
 Breeds: small and dwarf breeds have shorter gestation periods

Culling

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 This is a method used to improve the overall productivity of the flock. Although reasons
for culling could be different for different systems and agro-ecologies, from a reproductive point
of view, it is essential to intensively cull ewes/does after 5–6 years of age. It is important to
detect barren ewes or does in the flock. Habitual aborters should be identified early and culled.
This is of significance as abortion caused by brucella bacteria can be transferred to healthy
animals within a short period of time. Frequent screening of the flock for brucella could be
useful if diagnostic labs are found in the area.
Control of Mating
In some societies, breeding is controlled either to synchronize birth (lambing/kidding) or
to reduce stress during the year when pasture is felt to be inadequate for normal reproductive
processes. For instance, use of a leather apron to give a physical barrier to penetration is used.
Similarly, ‘Kunan,’ a cord tied round the neck of the scrotum and looped over the prepuce to
prevent extrusion of the penis.
Breeding of sheep and goats
The main objective of breeding is to maximize output (meat, milk, wool, skin) per unit
input. The quality of animal products must target the requirements of the end-user or target
market. This may be an export or domestic market. Meat is the most important product of small
ruminants in Ethiopia. Milk is also a highly valued product in some pastoral, agro-pastoral or
mixed agricultural areas. The quantity of meat produced depends on the number and weight of
surplus animals at age of sale. The importance of reproduction rate must be stressed in relation to
the number of meat animals for sale.
The most common breeding systems are:
Inbreeding
It involves the mating of related animals such as father and daughter, brother and sister,
and son and mother. Inbreeding increases animals with homozygous genes with dominant or
recessive gene combinations (AA or aa) but reduces animals with heterozygous gene
combinations (Aa). Hence, it is used to produce a uniform flock characteristics or a flock with
uniform genetic make-up. But it reduces fertility, vigour and growth rate of animals because of
absence of heterosis effect. There are two types of inbreeding, viz;
 Close breeding: Involves the mating of closely related animals
 Line breeding: Usually it involves the mating of cousins or more distantly related
animals that trace to the same parents in the pedigree.
Cross breeding
Crossbreeding involves the mating of two separate or different pure-bred individuals
aiming at producing offspring with higher performance than both or at least one of the parents.
Moreover the offspring might be more vigour and thrift than the parents. When two pure-breeds
are crossed the F1 generation may show unusually superior performance than the parents which
is due to heterosis effect or hybrid vigour as the result of favourable gene combination brought
about by crossing. If not superior, it may express intermediate performance between the parent
types and may show phenotypic similarities to one of the parents. It is the most widely used

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method of breeding system in the tropics to improve productive and reproductive performance of
local sheep and goat breeds.
Upgrading
It involves the successive use of pure bred exotic rams or bucks to mate the indigenous
and crossbred female flocks to produce a high grade flock that resembles the characteristics of
the sires. In other words, males of the exotic breed are mated with the indigenous and crossbred
females generation after generation. It is a method of choice when a flock owner wishes to
change the characters of his animals radically. At about the F4 generation the flock will almost
entirely of the exotic breed type.

4.5. Managements of Shoats

5. Housing Management of sheep and goats
6. Types of houses
7. The type of housing depends on the type of production or management system. If the
management system is confinement/intensive, more floor space is required inside the house
and durable type of housing should also be constructed. If the management system is
extensive, relatively less floor space is required and the house can be constructed with
relatively simple materials. If animals are housed only at night floor space is required for the
animals only but if they are raised under confinement system, floor space is also required for
exercise yard, feed racks, water troughs, etc. The floor space needed depends also on the size
of the animals. Bucks and rams require 2. 8 – 3 m 2 per head including exercise yard. Adult
ewes and does need 2- 2.5 m 2 and lambs and kids need 0.3 m 2. Kidding/lambing pens should
be 3 m2 per dam. Generally, there are two common ways of construction of sheep and goat
houses: ground level and stilted types.
8. 1. Ground level housing
9. This kind of house is suitable for arid and semi-arid areas, where rainfall is not excessive and
where there is no danger of flooding. The floor can be made from rammed earth or concrete
materials. Concrete floor is easy to clean but it requires bedding material (other wise may be
cold). The roof material can include leaves of bamboo, banana and enset, grasses and
aluminum sheets. In cold areas the long side of the house should face the sun to dry inside
during the day time. Ventilation can be provided by a gap of about 20 cm between the top of
the walls and the roof
10. 2. Stilted housing
11. Such type of house has floor raised above the ground level to about 1.5 m. It is suited to areas
where there is high rainfall and danger of flooding. The floor can be made of wooden or iron
slats/plat forms with perforated opening to facilitate easy cleaning/ dropping and collection
of manure and urine. The spaces between the slats must be wide enough to allow the manure
to fall through, but not wide enough to trap the legs of animals. The spaces should be
between 1.5 and 2 cm. The roofing material for this type of house can be similar to the
ground level housing.

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12. Handling Facilities
13. i. Handling pen or handling area (Working facilities)
14. Other than housing for sheltering animals, a handling pen or handling area is required in a
farm. Animals may be required to be handled regularly for the purposes of mating,
culling/sale, weighing, dipping, vaccination, hoof trimming, castration, dehorning and
identification. It is easier to carry out the above activities if a handling pen is constructed.
Without adequate facilities, these jobs often get delayed or overlooked. A small pen is
usually adequate for most small operations, whereas a working facility, complete with pens,
gates and chute, is suggested for larger flocks.
15. A dipping bath is necessary for regular dipping of animals against external parasites. A
concrete dip should be constructed for large flocks, but for small flock size knapsack sprayer
may be sufficient. Dusting is also possible in cases of small flock size.
16. ii. Isolation pen (quarantine)-another handling facility where sick or newly incoming
animals are kept isolated from the rest of the flock to avoid the transmission of diseases. It
should be built away from the main house and grazing area.
17. iii. Milking and shearing shed: milking shed is required if animals are regularly milked.
Shearing shed is also required for wool or hair producers. The sheds help to produce clean
milk and wool/hair.
18. iv. Office and store:
19. Office is the facility where the manager sits and handles all activities taking place in the
farm. It is also required to keep records, reference books, equipment and displaying sketches.
20. Store is required to keep bulky supplies such as feed, tools, etc.
21. Equipment
22. Different equipment like feeding and watering troughs is required in the farm. Feeding and
watering troughs can be of wooden boxes, concrete blocks, plastic buckets or metal troughs.
For goats feeding troughs should be raised above the ground, because of their browsing habit,
they prefer to eat from feed troughs raised above the ground. The space should be sufficient
for all animals. Feeding trough space required per animal is 30 cm. Otherwise weaker
animals will be squeezed out of the rack by the stronger ones. Weighing crates/balances are
also required for regular weighing of animals for recording their growth performance.

4.7. Constraints of Shoats Production

Sheep and goat production and productivity in Ethiopia is constrained by many factors.
The major ones are summarized below.
1. Scarcity of feed: The feed resource base for sheep and goat production in Ethiopia is natural
grazing and crop residues. The quality and supply of these resources is seasonally variable.
Grazing resources in the highlands are diminishing due to increases in cropping land. Bush
encroachment and overgrazing have reduced grazing resources in the pastoral areas.
2. Lack of infrastructure: Infrastructure necessary to transport livestock or livestock products
from remote rural communities, where production is concentrated, to urban markets is lacking.
Sheep and goats are generally trekked long distances for marketing, often without adequate water

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and feed. They are also trekked similarly long distances in search of feed and water. There are
very limited market centers and stock routes with the necessary facilities such as feeding and
watering points.
3. High mortality rates: About one-half of all lambs/kids born die due to various causes. This is
a very important constraint limiting productivity. Annual mortality in all classes of stock
averages 23% for sheep and 25% for goats in the central highlands.
4. Inadequate veterinary coverage: This results in high mortality and morbidity. Certain
disease conditions are also causing Ethiopian animals and products to be banned from export
markets.
5. Long marketing channels and lack of market information: Producers do not have access to
market information. The system lacks market orientation, which would have been an important
driving force for increased production.
6. Low product quality: Poor quality of live animals and small ruminant meat and meat
products prevents penetration into many export markets.
7. Absence or inadequate provision of credit services: Livestock owners have difficulty
obtaining credit to begin or expand production, purchase inputs, increase stock, etc.
8. Low average reproductive rates: Typical reproductive rates average as low as 55 lambs and
56 kids born per 100 mature females per year in the central highlands.
Opportunities for sheep and goat production
1. Increasing human population: Increases demand for meat and milk
2. Sheep and goats population can be increased easily than large ruminants: High
fertility, short generation interval, etc.
3. Presence of wide genetic variability: Suitable for genetic improvement
4. Sheep and goats can easily be integrated to cropping system: Less requirement of
feed and grazing land, feed on weeds and crop residues, less space requirement, source of
manure.
Presence of diversified agro ecology: Create suitable habitat for differ breeds of shoat.

Chapter 5. Poultry production and Hatchery Management

1. Introduction
What is Poultry? It is a collective tem for those species of birds that have been domesticated to
reproduce and grow in captivity and that render products of economic value. Birds kept only for
companionship or beauties are not poultry.
Examples of poultry species are
- Domestic fowl
- Turkeys

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 - Ducks
- Geese
- Guinea fowls and other
- Domesticated birds.

Terminologies used in poultry

Avian: Of, relating to, or characteristic of birds; derived from birds.
Bantam: A small miniature chicken, usually one-fourth to one-fifth the size of regular chickens;
frequently called "bantie." Most, but not all, bantams are the likeness of a larger variety of
domestic chickens.
Breed: A group of chickens within a class having a distinctive body shape and the same general
features and weight
Broiler or fryer: A young meat-type chicken, usually 9 to 12 weeks of age, of either sex, that
can be cooked tender by broiling or frying, usually weighing between 2 1/2 and 3 ½ pounds.
Cock: A male chicken over one year of age; also called cock bird and old rooster.
Cockerel: A male chicken under one year of age; also called young rooster.
Gallus domesticus: The domestic chicken.
Gallus gallus: The Red Jungle Fowl; also called gallus bankiva.
Hen: A female chicken over one year or age.
Layers: Mature female chickens kept for egg production; also called laying hens.
Pullet: A female chicken under one year of age.
Rooster: A young meat-type chicken, usually 3 to 5 months of age, of either sex, that can be
cooked tender by roasting, and usually weighing 4 pounds or over.
Sexed chickens: Day-old chicks with the males and females separated.
Started pullets: Female chickens that are partially grown, usually to point of lay that is about
20 weeks of age, by specialized growers for sale to egg farmers.
Straight-run chicks: Day-old chicks that have not been separated according to sexes.
Stewing chicken: A mature female chicken, usually more than 10 months of age; that requires
moist, pressurized, or extended cooking; also called hen or fowl.

2. Origin and Domestication of Poultry

They are domesticated 8000 years ago (6000 BC) in Asia from Red jungle fowl (Gallus Gallus),
according to recent archeological findings. According to Darwin, modern chicken (Gallus
domesticus) are descendents of the wild species Gallus gallus.
But, there are some others who believe that modern chickens have been contributed by four wild
species found in eastern part of India.
These were Gallus gallus (red jungle fowl)

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Found in eastern part of India, Burma, Jawa and Sumatra
Most closely resemble domestic fowl and readily bread producing fertile hybrid
Gallus sonneratii (the grey jungle fowl)
Prevalent in western and southern parts of India
It has the same size as the Red Jungle fowl but differs in plumage ( adult male have feather
Black with white shaft and grey border; adult female are like the red species except that the
breast feather are whitish)
Gallus lafayetti (Ceylone jungle fowl)
They are native of Sri Lanka. Resembles the Red species with some variation in the structure of
the feather, little is known about the physical appearance of this fowl due t o its limited
distribution in Cylon .
Gallus varius (the Javan jungle fowl)
Found in lower islands of java.
Differ considerably from the above three fowl species and has 16 tail feathers instead of 14 as
found in the three species
* The four species are interbred
* There are two scientific names, which are in use for chickens; they are Gallus Gallus and
Gallus domesticus. The first implies that chickens were domesticated exclusively from the Red
Jungle fowl (Gallus Gallus); and the second that more than one of the four wild jungle fowl
species contributed to the domesticated fowl.
Taxonomically birds categorized as follows
Kingdom - Animalia
Subkingdom - Metazoa (multicellular animals)
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Class - aves
Order - Galliforms
Family - Phasianidae
Genns - Gallus
Species – Gallus domesticus
- Gallus gallus .

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.
1.2 Importance & uses of Poultry

 Provides meat and eggs for food,

 Manure for vegetable and crops,
 Feather for clothing, other by products as animal food
 They also serve as laboratory animals for research.
Advantages of poultry production over other livestock

 Easy to adapt to a number of feed available

 Low initial investment
 products are relatively inexpensive
 Manure can be used as fertilizer/feed for ruminants
 Play important role in insect/worm control
 jobs to all categories of people
 Spreading family income through-out the year
 Experimental animals because of their small size, low feed
intake, ease in handling, fast and sensitive metabolism etc
Disadvantage of poultry production over other livestock
o Serious problems with disease and parasite
o Need high level of management ability, especially for large commercial flocks
o Death lose may be high due to predators and stampeding
o Quality of product must be carefully controlled and careful marketing is required
o Problems of waste disposal and odor

Types of poultry
Commercially chicken can be grouped into three categories:
Egg-type (Layer): Small-bodied, nervous and active, excellent egg producers. Early maturing, do
not brood. They can produce 250-330 eggs per laying period of 12-14 months. Their average
body weight will be 1800 gm. It has higher mortality rate than broilers.
E.g. Leghorns

Meat-type (Broiler): Bigger body, faster growth rate, poor egg producer, slows movement, quiet
and gentle. Marketable at age of 5-8 weeks
E.g. White Cornish and white Plymouth rock

Dual Purpose type/General purpose: for meat and egg production, medium body size, less active
than the layers but more than the meat breeds, lays fewer eggs than the layers about 220-
230 eggs/laying period of about 12 months. Body weight of the hen will be about 2300 gm. They
have low mortality rate than the layers. E.g. Rhode Island Red

Poultry production systems in Ethiopia

Three production systems can be seen in Ethiopia. One production system may be important in
one agro ecology but may not be important in the other. These production systems are

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characterized mainly by the objectives of the producer, the input used and number and types of
birds kept on the farm, these systems are

 Traditional (backyard) production system

 Commercial and
 Small scale intensive production system.

Traditional (backyard) type of production system

In Ethiopia about 99% of chicken populations are indigenous chicken. The traditional production
system is practiced almost by every family in the rural, urban and pre -urban dwellers. It is
estimated that an average of six indigenous birds are kept by every family. This system is
characterized by minimum input with birds scavenging for most of their food and no investment
other than the cost of the birds and for simple night time shelter. Almost all birds kept under this
system are non descript indigenous breeds of low performance. Broodiness is highly pronounced,
egg production is estimated at 40-60 per bird per year. Egg weight is low ranging from 39 to 42
gm. The weight of male to an age of 12 months is about 1.52 kg and for female it is much less
than this.
Commercial poultry production system

 Currently, this sector that involves both private and government enterprises is still in its
early development stage. It contributes only about 1% of the country's poultry
production.
Small scale intensive production system
This is a newly emerging system in urban and pre-urban areas particularly along the roads from
Addis Ababa –Beshoftu – Adema and Addis Ababa Sebeta roads. It is characterised by small
flock size (usually 50-500 birds). It is organized along commercial line.
Poultry production system and housing
Husbandry systems are defined based on:
 level of exposure to sunshine and pasture
 housing pattern
 three husbandry systems
 extensive (unlimited access to grass land)
 semi- intensive (restriction to a certain amount of grassland)
 intensive (confined and no access to grass at all)

1. extensive system
There is free movement of birds over large area and it practiced only during day light.

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Advantages
 It can be adopted for all class of of birds
 Enable birds to become hardy and strong
 Disadvantages
 Useful only with plenty of grass
 Not suitable for commercial egg production
 Loss of energy during wandering
 Egg collection is difficult
 Requires large amount of land
 Exposure of birds to extremes of weather conditions
 Economic loss by diseases, predators, thieves, lost eggs

2. Semi intensive system

It is combination of extensive and intensive system whereby birds are restricted to certain
amount of grass land.
Poultry run
The run

 A piece of grassland enclosed by a fence of wire netting or other chicken proof barrier
 birds wander in the run during the day and are shut up at night in a house located with in the
enclosure
 Food and water are available in the run or in the house
The house
 may be occupied during night and part of the day
 must be equipped with feeders, drinkers, perches, laying nests and be well littered
 should be better situated along dividing fence in a divided fence (with popholes)

Advantages of poultry run

 requires far less land than the free range system

 suitable for commercial egg production (unlike the free range system)
 ideally suited to domestic poultry keeping
 does not involve expensive equipment (average man can construct it with little cost)
 eggs and birds can be protected against thieves and predators
Disadvantages

 possible build up of parasites and disease germs in the pasture (mortality increases)
 requires considerable amount of fencing and more elaborate house than free range
system

3. Intensive system

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Grouped into two that is deep litter system and battery system.

Housing systems
Poultry housing systems vary from the small backyard flock only having simple night shelter to
modern poultry houses with thousands of birds in controlled environment houses. In more
intensive systems in hot climate zones there are two options, open houses in wet climates and
closed (environmentally controlled) houses in dry regions.
A properly constructed poultry house, regardless of its size and the materials used has certain
essential features.

 A watertight roof
 Proper ventilation
 Inner surfaces which are easy to clean
 Rat and wild bird proof floor walls and roof
 Correct location

Location

Sometimes there is no choice, but if there is a choice features for a good location are:
 Well drained land, this is especially important where litter systems are used.
 Within sight of owner / supervising personnel.
 Away from other chicken houses to reduce the spread of diseases, generally the more the
distance the better.
 Noisy areas should be avoided
In general the ff house type can be used in poultry production; based on environment, production
system and economy.

The deep litter house

It is housing system in which the flower is covered by litter material available in local like grass,
saw dust up to 5-10 cm depth. Used a lot in tropical countries and is in many situations the best
solution

Advantages of deep litter

 litter material is easier to remove and the frequency of removing is reduced

 the litter is useful for in controlling disease infections, largely because the system reduces the
concentration of pathogens (due to production of heat and ammonia)
 production is higher because birds are kept under hygienic conditions

Disadvantages of deep litter

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 very large amount of litter must be available at once to start a deep litter
 as with other intensive systems, birds have to be regularly supplied with fresh green feed

Wire floored system

Is housing system in w/c wire floors or wooden or wooden slatted floor used
 a perforated floor is laid on which birds live
 the perforated floor may be of wire mesh
 gives the possibility of increasing stocking density
Advantages
 very effective disposal of droppings
 accommodates more birds than deep litter system
Disadvantages
 no special arrangement for care and collection of eggs in wire floored house
 make the bird’s feet sour (especially when the cheaper wires are used)

Cage systems

It is a housing system in which birds are housed individually and feed and water available for
each bird from common feeder and water trough
The cages are designed to take 1-4 birds

Adv
 Very high standard of hygiene
 Dropping pass immediately through the floor cages
 Infection by practice is rare
 The actual egg production is recorded and un productive bird is culled from flock.
 Losses by egg eating hens are minimized b/c eggs rolls away out of the reach of pen

Disadvantage
 Require large capital for operation of the system
 It is not easy available in country side

There is also another type of house so called portable or mobile houses that can be moved or
taken from one place to the others.

Internal house facilities

Feeder
The requirements for a good feeder are:
 to avoid wastage of feed to prevent contamination of feed
 to prevent contamination of feed
 to clean easy
 durable, strong

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  easy to fill
 cheap
There are two types of feeder automatic and non
Drinkers
The requirements for a good drinker are
 always clean and fresh water should be available
 durable
 stable
 easy to clean
 easy to fill
 no splashing of water

Perches
Chickens like to spend the night on perches in high places. During theday the more nervous birds
can also quickly find shelter there. You will need to have a space under the perches which
catches the bird droppings. The litter will get less moist and it is also easier to collect the manure.
Laying nests
In all poultry houses except battery cages, eggs are collected by hand from nests on which one
hen sits. These individual nests need to be about 30 cm wide, 35 cm long and 40 cm high. They
can be made of wood or of other locally available materials, such as bamboo or hard types of
grass.
Hatchery management
Selection and culling of layer hens
The first and most basic knowledge a poultry producer should have, is to know how to identify
which hens are in production. Once a female chicken has reached physical maturity egg
production begins. The biological process of laying eggs begins with sunlight. Sunlight
stimulates the pituitary gland causing a release of hormones, which effect changes in the
chicken’s body.
 comb and wattles increase in size and soften;
 skin becomes velvety and stretchable;
 the egg organs increase in size;
 the abdomen becomes enlarged, soft, and pliable
 the distance between the pelvic bones increase
 the vent becomes moist and wide.

A hen that is not in laying condition will be found to have: short, hard, shriveled comb and
wattles; small, puckered, and dry vent; short distance between the pelvic arch and the rear tip of
the keel bone; little distance between the pelvic bones; skin will be tight and somewhat coarse in
texture; and abdomen will be found to be firm, and in some cases hard.

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Within laying, layers are selected and culled on the basis of individual performance and
appearance that we seen above.
Individual performance refers to egg production performance and it could be measured by
percosity, intensity of laying and persistency.
Persistency is the number of eggs the hen has laid over a specific time period. Persistency of lay
is determined by skin pigmentation and molt, but pigmentation is the first criteria used to place a
class of hens.
With yellow-skinned hens, such as leghorns, loss of pigment from their skin is an important
characteristic for determining the persistency of lay. As a pullet grows, yellow pigment is
deposited in the skin, beak, shanks, and feet. Once the pullet starts laying eggs, The pigment is
removed from the different parts of the body in a definite order—from the vent, eye ring, ear
lobe, beak (corner of the mouth toward the tip), bottom of the foot, the shank (front, back, and
sides), and finally the hock and top of toe.

Comparison in the color of the skin around the vent a poor layer (photo on the left) and a good
layer (photo on the right of) respectively

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Comparison yellow color in the eye ring, ear lobe and beak of a poor layer (photo on the left)
and a good layer (photo on the right of) respectively
Precocity – refers to sexual mating of pullet and measured by egg at first age.
Light breed start lying at 5 months age, heavy breed at 6month and indicuss breed lay eggs 6-8
month. Thus cull pullet with percosity of >7 months.
Intensity of lying- it is the number of egg produced and it is measured by cultch size. Cultch size
is the number of egg produced on consecutive days.
Ex some hens lay eggs every other day, some lay egg 2 eggs before skipping some lay 3 eggs
before skipping having cultch size of 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Cull hens that produces eggs <180
eggs / year.
Persistency- is the tendency of laying egg for linear period and it measured interms of egg at last
egg
Incubation and hatchery management
The egg is complex structure distinguished by having four parts, shell, shell membrane, albumin
and yolk.
Eggs can be incubated either naturally or artificially using incubators.
However the choice between two is depends on the following as both are not equally perform
and beneficial to producers. Thus the following factors should be considered in choosing the
best method based the situation where we are living or available.
 production systems,
 the number of eggs to be hatched,
 the work involved,
 the costs of building an incubator,
 the cost of running an incubator,
 the different performance obtainable from hens and incubators.

Hatching eggs using broody hen
One brooding hen is capable of hatching 8-10 eggs at the same time. If about 70% of the
chicks hatch, this means that each brooding hen gives 6-7 chicks. However, the mortality
rate among young chicks can be very high. The experience you have and the extent to
which you can minimize the deaths among young chicks determine, therefore, how many
brooding hens you will need.
How we know broody hen?
When a hen is broody she will generally have one or more of the following
characteristics;

 Puffing her feathers up; A broody hen will puff up to make herself look bigger to
predators

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  Growling and biting; most brooder are grumpy and hormonal, and will peck you if you
get to close to her or her eggs.
 Staying in the nest box; a broody hen will make herself a nest in a place she deems safe
(normally in the place where she lays her eggs) and sit there most of the time, getting up
only to eat drink and relieve her.
 Pulling her feathers out; A broody hen pulls her feathers out to keep her eggs warm
 broody sound
 a wrinkled comb
 the collecting of as many eggs as possible in her nest

A broody hen

Selection of hatching eggs

The eggs of different poultry breeds vary in weight from 30 to 70 grams. Best hatching results
are obtained by using normally sized eggs from good quality layers (hens that lay well). By
taking care to use eggs from good stock, good quality chicks will be obtained, as the qualities of
the hen are passed on through her eggs.

You must choose which eggs to hatch using the following criteria: The eggs selected must, of
course, be fertilized. This is rarely a problem if there is a cock present. On average, one cock is
needed for every 10 hens. If normally a cock is not kept with the hens, he must be put with the
hens two weeks before the hatching period. Use undamaged and clean eggs which are neither
too small nor too large. The best results can be expected if you choose medium sized eggs from
hens which lay well. Collect the eggs regularly, for example three times a day. Let the eggs cool
down as quickly as possible. If necessary, the eggs can be saved up for a few days, but

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preferably for not more than one week. If the eggs must be kept for one week, they must be
stored at a temperature below 15°C. If the temperature cannot be kept below 15°C, a shorter
storage period is necessary.

Before allowing a hen to brood, it is best to treat her with an insecticide against flies and lice. If
flies and lice are a problem, the treatment should be repeated after 10 days. In the beginning, the
hen will brood irregularly until she can sit on 6 to 12 eggs. It is best not to let the hen sit on
selected eggs during this period. Only when she broods regularly can the eggs be replaced with
specially selected eggs. Large hens can brood on 14 eggs, but is best to let a smaller, local hen
brood on 8 eggs at most.
Use a clean and parasite-free brooding coop. The coop should be about 35 x 35 cm, and 40 cm
high. The nest consists of straw, hay or dry leaves, and is about 25 cm. To stimulate the brooding
process, you can place the coop in a dark and cool place, or partially cover it. The brooding place
must be free from other chickens and protected against dogs, rats, snakes and such like. It is a
good idea to add a run onto the brooding coop. Place good feed and clean and fresh water in the
vicinity of the brooding hen.
Incubation period
Species Average (days) Minimum Maximum

hens egg 21 19 23
ducks eggs 30 28 32
Turkey eggs 28 26 30
Goose eggs 30 28 32
Pigeon eggs 18 17 19
Ostrich 42 40 44

Artificial incubation
It is possible to buy small incubators which hatch out a larger number of eggs at the same time.
You can, however, also build such a device yourself using relatively simple materials.
The most important requirements for artificial hatching are:

 You must be able to regulate the temperature you need. This must be about 38°C
(100°F).
 The temperature must be kept as constant as possible.
 The relative humidity of the air must be quite high, about 55-60%.
 Towards the end of the brooding period, i.e. after the 18th day, it must be increased to
about 75%. Bowls of water are placed in the incubator to achieve this. Naturally you
must keep them filled.

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  Fresh air must be circulated regularly through the incubator
 The eggs must be turned regularly (at least seven times a day). To turn an egg, you must
rotate it 90° about its longest axis.
 With the proper care and effort you can achieve almost the same results with artificial
hatching as the hen achieves. Still, it is usually better to count on a slightly lower
success rate, e.g. 65-70% instead of 75-80%. The brooding period should be timed so
that the chicks hatch in the dry season.

There are three aspects to the preparation of the eggs for incubation:
 selection
 cleaning
 storage
Selection
Never use odd-shaped eggs for incubation (too long, too short, misshapen), as their contents will
also be abnormal.
The egg shell is also an important factor. There should be no cracks, as moisture will be lost
during incubation. Dried-out eggs will produce either weak or dead chicks. Avoid using eggs
whose shell is contaminated with pieces of eggshell and feed. These will block the pores in the
shell and block the chick’s access to fresh air. Try to use eggs from several different hens in
order to reduce the risks of failure
Cleaning the eggs
Eggshell is porous - air and water can pass through it. Dirt and disease- bearing organisms can
also slip through the eggshell. Reduce the risk of disease by using clean eggs. Never use very
dirty eggs for hatching, and it they are soiled clean them with a dry cloth. Do not wash eggs in
water. Water will open up the pores and give poorer hatching results.
Storage
If possible, use fresh eggs for hatching. Eggs to be stored should be kept in a cool place. Eggs for
hatching should be collected twice a day and cooled off as quickly as possible. This is especially
important when the weather is warm. The optimal level of relative humidity for storing hatching
eggs is 70 - 85%. If you find mould on your eggs, the humidity is too high.
Never use mouldy eggs for hatching!
All poultry eggs should be stored with the air space inside the eggs (the .air pocket.) uppermost
Activity to be followed during incubation
Turning of eggs
Eggs should be turned regularly at least twice a day starting 24 hours after setting until the 18 th
day. There are two reasons for turning.
 To prevent the embryo sticking in one side
 For equal temperature distribution. When turning avoid shocking and jolting
occurs

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Regarding position it is important to place the eggs the small end pointing down ward. If the
blunt end is placed down ward hatchability will be decreased by about 15%.
 If hand turning, to insure proper turning, mark each side of the egg with a pencil. Put an "x"
on one side and an "o" on the opposite side. Stop turning the eggs for the last three days of
the incubation cycle and do not open the incubator until the hatch is completed to insure that
a desirable hatching humidity is maintained.

Candling of eggs
Candling is process of allowing bright light to pass through the eggs in order to check wether the
egg is fertile or infertile
Candling is a method used to observe the growth and development of an embryo inside an egg
which uses a bright light source behind the egg to show details through the shell. It is so called
because the original sources of light used were candles.
Modern egg candlers or candling lamps are lights with a concentrated beam. LEDs are now
preferred because they are very bright, very efficient and have an extremely long life - so no
bulbs to replace and the convenience of compact, portable battery powered units which can be
used right in the nest. They also put out a cool light rather than a lot of heat that might damage
the embryos.

Eggs may be candled after 5 days of incubation and every few days thereafter. For best results
you should candle eggs in a darkened room or in dimly lit conditions. The candler should be held
right against the shell at the larger end of the egg where the air sac is located. The egg can be
rotated to observe blood vessel growth and embryo development. In fertile eggs you will initially
see a small spot (the embryo) with a web of blood vessels radiating from it.
Conversely, infertile eggs will remain clear and eggs which have died will show a dark ring.
Later on in incubation, eggs which have died will show a dark mass with ill defined detail and no
healthy blood vessels radiating.
By day 18 the embryo will take up most of the egg (apart from the air sac) and it will be hard to
make out detail even with a good quality candler but you should be able to see movement.
Temperature regulation
Incubator temperature should be maintained between 99° and 100°F (37.2-37.7 °c). The
acceptable range is 97° to 102°F. Mortality is seen if the temperature drops below 96°F or rises
above 103°F for a number of hours. If the temperature stays at either extreme for several days,
the eggs may not hatch. Overheating is more critical than underheating. Running the incubator at
105°F for 15 minutes will seriously affect the embryos, while running it at 95° for 3 or 4 hours
will only slow the chick's metabolic rate.
Humidity regulation
The relative humidity of the air within an incubator should be about 60 percent. During the last 3
days (the hatching period) the relative humidity should be nearer 65-70 percent. (Too much
moisture in the incubator prevents normal evaporation and a result in a decreased hatch, but

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excessive moisture is seldom a problem in small incubators.) Too little moisture results in
excessive evaporation, causing chicks to stick to the shell, remain in the pipped shells, and
sometimes hatch crippled.

Ventilation
Ventilation is important in incubators and hatchers because fresh oxygenated air is needed for the
respiration (oxygen intake and carbon dioxide given off) of developing embryos from egg setting
until chick removal from the incubator. The oxygen needs are small during the first few days
compared to the latter stages of development.

Egg shells contain three to six thousand small holes, called "pores", through which oxygen
passes from the air to the developing embryo and through which carbon dioxide passes from the
embryo to the outside air. The embryo's lungs are not developed during early embryonic
development to the point that they can accommodate respiration by breathing. Respiration,
therefore, is provided during the first three to five days by the vitelline blood circulation plexus
growing from the embryo.

The average hatching egg needs about 5 litters of oxygen for the complete development of its
embryo while about 3 litres of co2 is produced. From 21 days the need for o 2 increases 100 times
under normal condition the incubator environment should contain no more than 0.1-0.4% co 2 in
the setter and only 0.5% in the hatcher. This means ventilation has to be increased gradually
during incubation period.
Hatchery sanitation
All incubator factors like temperature and humidity can be operating just right but poor
hatchability can result because of poor sanitary practices. Poor sanitation causes not only poor
hatch but subsequent early death loss during brooding. It can also cause a lingering morbidity
problem that sometimes affects the birds during the grow-out period. Losses during the brooding
and grow-out period caused by poor hatchery sanitation can cause more monetary loss than the
loss from poor hatchability.
The most important tools available for use in cleaning and disinfecting an incubator and hatchery
are water, detergent, and elbow grease. Some people mistakenly think disinfecting agents are the
answer to their problems. They think disinfectants can replace poor cleaning, but this simply is
not true.
Routine practice after the end of hatchery
Debeaking
Beak trimming, removal of 1/3 to 1/2 of the beak, is a routine husbandry procedure practiced in
the poultry industry to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism.

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There are two debeaking methods ‘hot and cold’ with the ‘hot’ methods cutting and cauterizing
are done at the same time. With the ‘cold’ method the beaks often regrow.
Age at debeaking
Opinions differ as to the best time for debeaking. In general the younger the bird the less stress
the debeaking causes. Usually carried out at 10th and 60th days old.
Sexing
Sexing day-old chicks can be accomplished by vent sexing and feather sexing
Vent sexing
This method requires special training and experience. It can be used to sex all types or breed .
It can be done by looking at the vent in which the cloaca protrudes in which sexual parts of the
chicks can be recognized
Feather sexing
This can be conducted by observing the wing feather. In the case of female the bottom row of the
feathers are always longer than the top row. In male either both rows of feathers have same
length or the bottom row of the feathers is shorter than the top row.
Chick removal – chick should be removed as soon as dried, remove the chick at 22 days.
Controlling temperature of chicken.
Before chicks ready for delivery or leave hatchery be sure that records of breed, fertility, number
of saleable chicks and cull have to properly select.
Vaccination- Vaccination is required for Newcastle and marks disease
Brooder mgmt
Brooding refers to the care and management/rearing of chicks from day 1 to 6/8 weeks of age.
Successful brooding lead to good pullets or broilers and then good egg and meat production
Two types of brooding system are in common use. They are sometimes called “warm/hot room”
and “cool room” brooding systems
Warm-room brooding is accomplished by heating the entire house or pen through central
heating system
It is done by circulating hot water in pipe or under-floor heating or blowing hot air
Cool-room involves heating only the area under the brooder canopy and to a limited extent
beyond this area
• Oil, wood, coal, gas and electricity are used as source of heat
• Brooding system with larger warmed areas have greater merit
– Wider distribution of birds
– improve growth
– reduce the likelihood of disease
– ensure full use of the houses

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Table Temperature requirement of chicken at d/t age under d/ t brooding

Age (week) Cool room brooding temp ( 0c

Worm room brooding temp (0c)
1st 35-32 32-30
2nd 32-30 30-28
3rd 30-28 28-26
4th 28-25 26-24
5th 25-22 24-22

How we know wether temperature about to right or not for chicken?

If the temperature is too high the chicks are found at the corner of heater or away from heater, if
temperature is about right there is evenly distribution of the chicken under source of heat or
heater and if temperatures drop below the requirement the chickens are crowded under brooder
or heater.
Feeding brooder
The chick develops rapidly and grows to maturity in a few months. Errors made in feeding
during the growth period cannot be corrected after the fowl is mature. An excess of one class
of feeds does not offset a deficiency in another.
Where chicks are brooded and reared in large numbers in relatively close confinement, free
range cannot be depended upon to correct errors in feeding judgment.
Basic feeding requirements: Any successful method of feeding is based upon supplying in
reasonable balance the following classes of feeds:
 Cracked grains termed "scratch" and a combination of ground grains called "mash or
pellets" to supply carbohydrates and fats for heat and energy.
 Animal proteins in the form of milk, fish meal or meat scrap, to supplement the vegetable
proteins, for muscle, feather, and organ development.
 Ash (minerals) in the form of grit, oyster shell or limestone, bone meal and charcoal, to
supplement the deficiencies of grains, for bone development.
 Leafy, succulent, sun-cured or dehydrated green feeds to provide vitamin A, for growth.
 Vitamin D fish oil to prevent rickets.
 Water for circulation, heat control and digestion
Broiler management
Broiler production is progressing at much faster pace than layers, because,
– increased broiler meat price in many countries,
– higher and quicker return, and
– lesser risk attached with broiler farming than layers
The birds required for broiler production should have
– fast growth rate,
– high feed efficiency,
– early feathering
– good body conformation and low mortality
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  The birds are fed broiler starter (0-4weeks) with 23-24% CP and 3200Kcal/kg ME and
finisher (5-8weeks) with 20-22% CP and 3200Kcal/kg ME.
A broiler chicken consumes about 2.5 to 4kg or more feeds from day-old to
market weight.
Grower management
After a good starting, during the growing period, the flock should be managed in order to get a
suitable development to allow the breeders to reach their highest potential to produce eggs and
commercial chicks. The objectives during growing period are: - to achieve the recommended
weight at 5 % production - to establish a good feeding behaviour pattern - to develop the
digestive tract (crop and gizzard) - to obtain a good uniformity of 80 % minimum These
objectives could be achieved thanks to: - a correct stocking density and housing conditions - a
lighting program adapted to rearing conditions - a good standard of beak tipping - a good
management of the feeding program

Layer management
To be successful in the layer business, you have to remain updated on changes in nutrition
and management.
 Light has been shown to affect the behavior and reproduction of poultry
 Light entering the eye will penetrate into brain of poultry where it stimulates cells in the
hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin-releasing hormones
 This stimulates the pituitary gland to produce
 gonadotropic hormones,
 follicle–stimulating hormones (FSH) and
 luteinizing hormone
Continuous light is not required to stimulate reproduction but significant duration of light must
be provided within photosensitive period to stimulate good egg production
The use of high-energy rations is now fairly common practice in hot areas, particularly during
the early production period
The birds should get about 16%CP
Layers must be supplied with water adlibtum, because
 One day without water- sudden drop in egg production
 2 days without water- birds start moulting on the neck & this means 3 weeks of lowered
egg production.
 3 days without water results complete moulting and 4 to 6 weeks of lowered production
or total stoppage of egg production.

Chapter 6. Apiculture

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Apiculture is a science-based industry that harvests plant products (foods) mainly nectar and
pollen by using honeybees. This enables man to utilize those environmental resources, nectar and
pollen, which could otherwise be wasted. When bees collect nectar and pollen from different
plant species they assist them to undertake pollination. For honeybees to perform these activities
effectively they have to be well managed. Beekeepers should have know how on the
characteristics of bees, how the bees perform, what factors affect their activities and so on. In
general, apiculture is the science and art of keeping honey bees.
Beekeeping is maintaining of healthy colony of honeybee in hives designed for easy and
convenient use and handling of honey bees and their products. It refers to the techniques of
taking care and supervision of bees. It is, therefore, a science and art of keeping and managing
bee colonies for man’s economic benefit.

Bees (Apoidae) are a super family of about 20,000 species in the order Hymenoptera. Other
super families in this order (Hymenoptera) include the ants and the wasps. The majority of bee
species are solitary (not social) while a minority are social. Two sub-families of bees (Apidae);
honeybees (Apinae) and stingless bees (Meliponinae) produce enough honey that can be
harvested. Apinae has only one genus Apis, of which Apis mellifera is of much greater economic
importance species.
Why keeping and managing honeybees? Beekeeping has many important values for man and
for the environment. Honeybees produce honey, wax and other hive products by collecting
nectar and pollen from flowering plants and while doing this they assist pollination of plants.
Honeybees depend wholly on plants for their food and many flowering plants also need
honeybees and other insects to pollinate (i.e. for reproduction) and hence there is a mutual
symbiotic relationship between honeybees and plants.

1.1. Systems of Beekeeping

Traditional Beekeeping
Traditional beekeeping is the oldest and richest practice, which has been carried out by people for
thousands of years. In this system, the farmers keep their bee colony/colonies in traditional hives made
from cheap and locally available materials like clay, straw, bamboo, false banana leaves, and bark of
trees, logs and animal dung. They fix up the hives and hung them on certain trees. The bees fix (made)
combs and hang down from the ceiling of the hive. During harvesting of honey, the colony will often be
destroyed or at least damaged because the honeycombs together with the broods are cut off using knife
or sharp material and removed. During honey harvesting a greater damage could happened to the
colony.
Advantages of fixed-comb hives:
 Construction materials are usually readily (locally) available and they are cheap.
 Beeswax production is relatively high (there is a ready local market for beeswax).
 The hives can be made by the beekeeper themselves.
 No /minimum accessory equipments are required.

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Disadvantages of fixed-comb hives:
 It is impossible to replace the cut out/removed combs
 Inspection of the colony condition and hive manipulations are impossible.
 Swarming is often common because of limited space.
 Brood is often lost during honey harvesting.
 Honey production is hindered and low.
 Honey quality is usually low because it comes from old comb or is mixed with pollen and brood

Transitional (Intermediate) Beekeeping System

This system, also called Top Bar Hive (TBH) system, uses top bar hives of variable size or design in
which bees build their comb from the top bars, instead of attaching comb to the ceiling of the hive as
in traditional fixed comb hive. It is an intermediate between the traditional and modern beekeeping
systems. In this system, Kenyan Top Bar Hive (KTBH), Tanzanian top bar hive, Mud block and other
hives are used, but the KTBH is the most widely used one.

The KTBH is a popular type of intermediate technology hive. It was developed in Kenya, by Professor
G.F. Townsend and his team, in the 1970s and has been extensively used in beekeeping development
projects. This is a practical hive to use in small-scale beekeeping projects. When compared to other
intermediate technology hives, this hive offers a relatively large number of management options.

Each top bar hive accommodates 27-30 top bars where bees attach their combs. The bars are 3.2cm
wide (for African races) and 3.5 cm (for European races) and 48.3cm long and are arranged across the
hive top. To help the bees to place their combs on the right position on the bar, a line of bees wax is
smeared at the center of the bar. It is important that the width of the top bar hive be correct so that
the bees will construct only one comb per bar. The sides of the hive should be inclined at an angle of
120 degrees to the bottom. This minimizes the combs being stuck to the sides as it follows the similar
form in which bees naturally construct their comb.
Advantages of transitional/TBH:
 It can be opened easily and quickly.
 The bees are guided to building parallel combs by following the line of the top bars.
 The top bars are easily removable and this enables the beekeeper to work fast.
 The top bars are easily to construct than frames (in the modern hive).
 The top bar hive is relatively inexpensive to construct and simpler to build than a hive
with frames.
 The combs can be lifted from the hive, returned back, replaced, and this allows the
beekeeper to examine the condition of the colony.
 Honeycombs can be removed from the hive for harvesting without disturbing combs
containing broods. The colony is therefore will not be harmed and the bees can continue
gathering.
 Harvesting of both honey and bees wax are obtained in this type of beekeeping, because
the empty comb is not returned to the hive.
 The hive can be suspended with wires or ropes and this gives protection against enemies.

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Disadvantages of Transitional /TBH:
 Top bar hives can be (relatively) more expensive than traditional hives made from local
materials.
 Combs suspended from the top bars are more apt to break off than these, which are
building with in frames. This makes it difficult to transport colonies hive is vehicles
especially on bad roads for long distances.
 The honey harvested from top bar hive is less in quality than from the frame hives, as
honey, pollen and broods are filled on the same comb.

Improved (modern) Beekeeping System

In this method of beekeeping, moveable frame hives are used. The rapid development of
modern beekeeping is attributed to three very important discoveries:

A. The discovery of moveable frame hives in 1806; those movable frame hives enable for
easy management and inspection of the colony, easy harvest of honey without damaging the
beeswax combs and the bees, enable reuse and transfer of the beeswax comb frames easy
and safely to other colonies. High quantity and quality honey is harvested from movable
frame hives compared to other type of hives.

B. The application of bee space by Langstroth in 1851 and the subsequent development of
modern moveable frame hive; the bee space is the crawl space needed by a bee to pass easily
between two structures (7.5 mm for the western hive bee, less for the eastern hive bee). If
the space between any two surfaces in the hive is too small for a bee to pass through easily,
the bees will seal it with propolis. If the space is larger than a bee needs to pass through
easily, the bees will construct comb in the area. When the space between two surfaces in the
hive is the right size, the bees will leave it free as a crawl space. If the bee space is
considered and respected in the construction of a hive, a hive that allows for easy comb
removal and replacement will result.

Lorenzo Langstroth was the first person to make use of the bee space in hive construction.
He constructed the first modern hive in 1851, using moveable frames to contain the comb
within the hive. The modern frame hive currently used for “high-tech” beekeeping is still
sometimes referred to as the Langstroth hive.

C. The discovery of equipments such as casting mould, queen excluder and honey
extractors: the moveable-frame system (improved) beekeeping system is the ultimate in
beekeeping development. Nevertheless, such a system will remain economically out of reach
of many people who might like to improve their methods of honey or wax production.

Improved/modern beekeeping system uses moveable frames in several boxes. This system
allows for easy manipulation of combs. Both frames (containing combs) and boxes can be

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easily interchanged for management. Frames containing honey are removed from the hive,
the capping of the cells cut off with a heated knife, and extractor. The empty combs are then
returned to the colony for the bees to refill. Honey production is maximized at the expense
of wax production with moveable-frame hives. Bees need to produce about eight kilograms
of honey to produce one kilogram of wax. Because the empty combs are returned for
refilling, honey production is enhanced.

Comb foundation, or sheets of beeswax embossed with the dimensions of worker cells are
used in the frames. The main function of this is to produce strong comb centered in the
frame. Comb foundation also reduces the amount of wax that the bees have to produce,
which also increases honey production.

Since the combs are attached to the frame on four sides, and the frame usually contains
several strands of thin wire to reinforce the comb, hives can be easily moved with little
chance of breakage. Therefore, migratory beekeeping can be carried out with moveable-
frame hives. A moveable-frame beekeeping system also gives beekeepers the option to
produce pollen, royal jelly, or queens in large numbers.

In movable frame hive or modern beekeeping system, different types of frame hives are used.
Some of these frame hives being used in our country are Zander, Langstroth and Dadant hive.
These hives differ in the number and size of frames that are used and thus the overall dimensions
of the hives are different.

The standard Langstroth hive accommodates 10 frames 44.8x23.2 cm at 34.9mm center-to-center

spacing. The most commonly used type of hive in the country is Zander pattern 10-frame hive.
But, such hives are designed for European races of bees they should be modified to suit the local-
honey bees when used in our country. The desired spacing for our bees is obtained by reducing
the spacing of the frames from the standard 34.9 mm to 31.8mm with this spacing the Langstroth
hive will take exactly 11 frames as opposed to the normal 10. These frame hives have got certain
hive component, which consists of the bottom board, the brood chamber (base hive,) the super
(honey chamber,) the inner and outer cover. The brood chamber and honey chamber (a super) are
essentially the same, and are frequently grouped as hive bodies.

Advantages of modern hive (beekeeping):

 The amount of honey produced is high 15-20kg/hive on average.
 The quality of honey is much better than the honey produced from transitional and
traditional bee keeping.
 This method of beekeeping helps (makes possible) swarming control by supering the hives
and seasonal inspection
 It is possible (convenient) to make hive manipulation and search solution for the problems
in the hive (to bees)
 It is possible to undertake migratory bee keeping (moving the bees from place to place):

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  To search for available honey bees flowering plants
 For pollination of certain fruits and cultivated crops
Disadvantages of modern beekeeping:
 The bee keeping equipments of modern methods is relatively expensive.
 It requires skilled manpower to run the bee keeping and prepare the modern hives.
 The equipment needs very specific precaution.
2. General Features of Honeybees
2.1. Taxonomy, Species, Races and Anatomy and Physiology of Honey Bees
Taxonomic classification of honey bees belong to:
 Kingdom Animalia
 Phylum Arthropoda
 Class Insecta
 Order Hymenoptera
 Family Apidae
 Genus Apis
 Bees that produce enough honey belong to two sub- families honeybees (Apinae) & stingless bees
(Meliponinae).
 Apinae has only one genus-Apis, of which five species are economically important: Apis florea,
Apis dorsata, Apis cerana/indica, Apis mellifera and Apis laboriosa. Of these five species of
honeybees, A. mellifera has greatest economic importance and widely distributed all over the
world.
1. Apis mellifera
 Apis mellifera is the most productive of all honeybee species
 Average honey yield is 45-180kg /year in good honey yield area
 It has high degree of adaptability
 It is fairly aggressive
 The population of worker bees is about 50,000-80,000
 It is less prone to swarm than other species
 The disadvantage of this spp. is its vulnerability to a parasite like the varroa mite.
 They were originated from Asia, Europe and Africa-the old world, and today they are
found in all parts of the world where environmental conditions let them to live.
 There are 24—25 races of A. mellifera in the world, most of which are in Africa.
2. Apis florea (the little bee)
 It is found in lowlands of south Asia
 Is the smallest of all honeybee species (7mm in length)
 Its colony size is small (about 5,000)
 It makes single and small hand sized comb
 It tolerates very hot temperature (up to 500c)
 It is economically less important (produces 0.5-1kg of honey/colony)
3. Apis Dorsata (giant bee)

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  These bees are larger in size- 17-19 mm
 Have 20,000 or more workers in colony
 Produce honey up to 35 kg/year
 Their nests are constructed high in trees or suspended from open cliff face
 Like A. florea build a single comb but larger.
 Like A. florea devote major portion of their time and strength in protecting their nest
against predators and keeping their brood warm
 Communicative dance is more advanced than A. florae.
 The workers are aggressive
4. Apis labariosa
 Are the largest honeybee species
 Are dark in appearance
 Have long hairy coat
 Live in high mountains
 They construct a single comb
 They are very aggressive
5. Apis cerana/Indica/
 Resembles A. mellifera
 Their body size is quite similar but smaller than A. mellifera
 Build several combs
 Make nest in hollows or protected nests which enable to maintain brood rearing activities
more economically than in open nest.
 Average honey yield is 3-5kg/year
 The honey production is not as that of A. mellifera.
 Tend to swarm
 Tend to migrate to secure better food source
 Resistant to Nosema disease

2.2. Honeybee races of Ethiopian (A. mellifera races)

Ethiopian honeybee races are very similar to that of African races. The following are the most common
races found in Ethiopia:

1. A.m. monticola
 The biggest and darkest of all other races found in the country
 Found to exist in the northern high mountainous part of the country
 Has low tendency for reproductive swarming and migration
 Less aggressive than other races
 Has longest body hair than other races
2 .A. m. bandansii
 The largest honeybees next to monticola
 Found in central highlands of the country

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  Dark in colour, but has few yellow members
 Has longest body hair next to monticola
 Has high tendency for reproductive swarming
 less migration tendency than A. m. jemenitica
 Is less aggressive than A. m. jemenitica
 Gives better honey yield than A. m. jemenitica
3. A. m. scutelltata
 Occupy the wet tropical forest lands
 It is darker than A. m. jemenitica and [Link]-gambella
 Its population comprises some yellow honeybees
 Has higher tendency for migration
 Its migration is biphasic
 It exhibits aggressive to highly aggressive behaviour
 Give better yield than A. m. jemenitica
4. A. m. jemenitica
 Is the yellowish honeybee but also consists black members
 Smaller than bandansii, monticola & scutellata
 Has less tendency for reproductive swarming
 Its swarming is monophasic
 Has high migration tendency
 Is aggressive than other races
5. A.m. woyi-Gambella
 Found in the extreme western and southern semi-aired to sub moist low lands
 Found only in Ethiopia
 It is the smallest of all honeybee races in the world
 It has shortest hair cover
 It is predominantly yellow in colour, but also comprise black members
 Has less tendency for reproductive swarming
 Has intermediate migration behavior
 It is aggressive to highly aggressive in behavior
Meliponae (stingless bees)

 Belong to the genus melipondae

 Found all over the tropics
 Usually live in small colonies in cavities
 Produce special honey known as Tazma mar
 Some species are kept in logs, man- made box or clays
 Yield per colony is small (1-4 litter per year) but they can be kept in high numbers and the
honey yields high prices compared with A. mellifera honey
Management guidelines for the practical beekeeper

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A. External examination of a hive
While an experienced beekeeper can usually have a fair idea of how his colonies are progressing by
observing them from outside, the only means of knowing for sure whether everything is going smoothly
is to open the hives and inspect each comb.
The general rules for hive inspection are:
 Look at each hive from a distance or from behind the hive entrance.
 Start from weak colonies to strong colonies.
 Hive entrance should be clear, clean from dead bees, ants, termites and straw.
 Observe the condition of the bees near hive entrance, if they are weak, crawling and bees with
pollen loads and number of bees coming out for foraging.
 Take good notes on the ones needing further inspection by opening hive lid.
 Examine hive distance or spacing between hives, placement and position of hive and the wind
direction.
 Check if there are watering and flowering plants.
 Examine the potential resources available and estimate the flow of pollen and nectar carrying
bees.
 Evaluate the interest, working capacity and the handling of bees by farmers.
 Study on some recorded history of the sites.
 Check if all the colonies are under shade and how close to each other.
 In cooler area, beekeepers who can choose when they open their hives should work on a warm,
dry, windless, sunny day; when most of the older bees are not inside the hive. In any case, hives
should not be opened during cold temperature, windy and rainy days when all the foragers are
inside the hives. Bees are especially likely to sting when there is no nectar flow. Colony
conditions which make the bees more difficult to handle include: a very large population,
presence of many old bees, previously alerting of the colony by disturbances of any kind,
robbing by bees from other colonies, queen less or supersedure, and starvation.
 Always wear protective clothing. Open the hive when necessary, and then as briefly as possible.
Always work at the back of a hive, away from the bees’ flight paths in front of the hive entrance.
All movement should be smooth and deliberate, not jerky or rough. Do not bump or jar hives of
frames. Keep boxes of frames of bees covered, to reduce the number of bees flying and to
prevent robbing; manipulating cloth can be useful for this purpose.
 The beekeeper should take into account the fact that bees react strongly to certain smells such
as perspiration, alcohol, soap and perfume. Avoid carrying these strong smells. Do not keep
animals near the bees. Since bees can be entangled in hair and woolen clothing, avoid wearing
clothes made of these materials. Wear clothing of the lightest possible color. When bees are
aggressive they will always go for dark colors first.
 Make sure that you have smoke when you want to open the hives. Always first blow the smoke
at the flight entrance. Always make sure that you have enough fuel for the smoker at hand. If
you have been stung you must kill the bee that has stung you and then scrape the sting out of
your skin with a fingernail or a sharp object.

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B. Internal hive inspection
 Pry or open the lid of the hive if it is propolized. Detach the frames from the side of the hives
using hive tools or knife.
 Then remove the first comb and inspect it. If it is a brood comb, look at the cells to see whether
the cells are filled regularly and well sealed, and especially whether the comb contains queen
and the drone cells as well as the worker cells; this is a sign that the colony is preparing to
swarm. If it is a honey comb, examine whether the cells are fully capped (containing ripe honey)
or uncapped or partly capped (unripe honey).
 Replace the comb, give puff smoke, go on to the next operations and repeat it until all the
combs have been inspected.
 If more than ten brood combs are found, remove the excess because if too much brood is
allowed to emerge, the hive will become overcrowded and the colony may abscond. These
brood combs can be replaced in another hive to strengthen its colony if necessary.
C. Brood nest management
It is advisable to inspect the brood nest two or three times a year, especially during the swarming
seasons when the young queen might get lost on her mating flight.
The brood nest (with eggs, larvae, and pupae) is usually situated in the center of the colony, which
is the safest, and the warmest place. In a top bar hive it is generally located within the first eight to
ten combs. A permanent breeding temperature of about 35oc is maintained here. When it is cold,
the bees cluster together and burn up more “fuel’, i.e. they consume more honey to generate heat.
If it is too warm the cluster of bees disperses, and a lot of water is collected for both drinking and
cooling purposes. To cool the hive even further, warm air is fanned out of the entrance holes.
During winter the bees often close some of the entrance holes to protect themselves from the cold
winds. Inspections should be as brief as possible to prevent chilling the brood.
 While inspecting, take out the normally darker brood combs and examine them one by one.
Then push them to the empty side of the hive: do not expose them to the cold wind or direct
sun.
 If you see eggs (one per cell), larvae and pupae you can be sure that the queen is alright, even
if you do not see her. Do not worry if there is no brood in the winter as the queen reduces or
stops her egg laying at this time.
Note: In top bar hives, the movable top bars make it possible to check each comb separately,
but it is essential that they be replaced in the same order and position to maintain the structure
of the nest.
 If you see a brood comb in the middle of the brood nest, which has a large section of drone
cells, you should transfer it to the edge of the brood nest on the empty side of the hive,
pushing the other brood combs together to close the gap. You should secure the valuable
space of the brood nest mainly for new workers instead of unproductive drones.
 In case you find a crooked comb, a very black one, or a comb with a large patch of drone
brood remove it also from the brood nest.

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