Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 1178–1184

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Biofuels: An alternative to conventional fuel and energy source

Priya a, Prayagraj Singh Deora a, Yash Verma a, Ram Avtar Muhal a, Chandramani Goswami a,⇑, Tej Singh b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ACEIT Jaipur, India
b
Savaria Institute of Technology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Szombathely 9700, Hungary

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper gives a complete idea on the biofuel and its generation. In this fast-growing society there is a
Received 29 May 2021 need of energies for survive. Biofuel, is the process where fossil fuel is replaced by organic material. It is
Received in revised form 7 August 2021 an alternative source which can be also replaced the petroleum-based fuel. It is also the type of sustain-
Accepted 21 August 2021
able fuel derived from abundant biological sources called biomass. Biomass include a vast range of waste
Available online 6 September 2021
and plants. The objective of this paper is complete study of biofuel and its generation and find out the
solution of other energy sources. The conclusion of this paper is that, algae is one of the greatest sources
Keywords:
of energy and it can produce a lot of energy and can be replaced the fossil fuel. Biofuel and biomass are
Biofuels
Biodiesel
the only renewable sources which can replace the fossil fuel directly for the present and future energy
Energy restriction, because it is eco-friendly and renewable energy. The key finding of this review is biofuel
Green diesel can be the best substitute of fossil fuels.
Biofuel production Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Symposium on Synth-
esis, Characterization & Processing of Inorganic, bio and nano Materials –2021.

1. Introduction ovalis and broadleaf seagrass or Halophila stipulacea [3]. The mean
biomass derived from seagrass yield along the Persian Gulf coast
Thousands of years ago, people commonly use wood and straw varies from 53 to 253 g/m2 approximately, out of which 75% is
as fuels. Then these natural fuels are replaced by fossil fuels. In the from narrowleaf seagrass [4].
past few years, new regenerating techniques and technology In the last decade, the global industrial development, cause
became evolved for the reutilisation of the fresh biotic sources by exhaustion of fossil fuel or non-renewable reserves that state cru-
transforming these into solid, liquid and gaseous fuel such fuels cial concerns regarding liveability [5]. Anaerobic dissolution seems
are known as Biofuels. These are the imperishable fuel derived to be sensible solution for biofuel (like H2, grain alcohol and marsh
from abundant organic sources called Biomass. It includes broad gas) production from the degeneration of waste water that con-
variety of plants and waste, like agroforestry, farming residue (that tains biodegradable materials [6]. Ethylene is the essential con-
includes bran, stubble, animal blubber by-products), waste and stituent for agrochemical and petrochemical corporation with
sewage from paper manufacturing industry, waste material from 115 million tons annually of the worldwide demand. MEG (a glycol
construction sites (like wood), decomposable waste materials derivative of ethene called monoethyleneglycol or ethane-1,2-
(such as human waste, sewage sludge and manure, edible oils). diol), is the most demanded chemical compound. The demand is
The biofuels are extracted from some special crops, these plants expected to increased up to 34.09 million tons from 18.93 million
are cultivated for the generation of energy and extraction of fuels. tons in 2020 [7].
These crops are called as an energy crops, some of these plants are The use of Biofuel as an alternative to Fossil fuel has been
algae, microalgae and seaweeds [1,2]. The coastal area of Abu started since 1900 when Dr. Rudolph Diesel inventor of diesel
Dhabi, UAE is habitant for seaweed and seagrass. There are 121 engine used vegetable oil (peanuts oil) in compression engine [8].
seaweed and 3 seagrass species are commonly found in the Persian The technology of Biofuel production improving day by day.
Gulf near the coast area of Abu Dhabi. The three seagrasses are nar- This increases the production of Biofuels that raises several issues.
rowleaf seagrass or Halodule unineruis dugong grass or halophila The most commonly raised question is that Biofuel production
requires more energy than fossil fuel production. In this way some
⇑ Corresponding author. people say Biofuel production is not a good choice? But it is not a
E-mail address: chandramani.goswami10@[Link] (C. Goswami).
complete truth. The production of Biofuel requires more energy

[Link]
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Symposium on Synthesis, Characterization & Processing of Inorganic, bio and nano Materials
–2021.
Priya, Prayagraj Singh Deora, Y. Verma et al. Materials Today: Proceedings 48 (2022) 1178–1184

but it also provides 30% more energy than the energy used in its in biorefinery so that further chemical reaction and fermentation
production. to produce biofuel.
The production cost of Biofuel reducing due to the advancement Several states located in the corn belt region in USA, in these
in the current technologies of field such as Biology and Genetics. regions a large amount of corn is produced. This corn is used to ful-
Some analysis says that Feedstock holds 80% share in the produc- fil the supply network of corn sourced biofuel [29]. This directs the
tion cost. Due to advancement in technologies related to genetics excess corn output for bioethanol or biofuel products. The corn is
a high yield genetically engineered and modified agricultural crops traditionally consumed as a primary food grain that is commonly
are introduced which are used as a feedstock and due to above used all across the globe for humans as well as animals [30]. The
mentioned changes in their genes, they can be grown easily at a corn is used to produce biofuels and energy than it may causes
low cost which is economical for Biofuel production. food shortage and can give rise to fuel-versus-food conflicts.

2.1.1. Types of First-generation biofuel

2. Literature review The first-generation biofuels are the conventional biofuels,
these biofuels are obtained from the several subsistence crops like
The biofuel is classified into first, second, third and fourth gen- Maize, Wheat, Soyabean, Sugar, Beets, Corn, etc. There are many
eration on the basis of the sources they occur and their production types of conventional biofuels based on the technologies they are
as shown in Fig. 1. Many researchers have been worked on these all produced.
4 generations with emphasize on the resources and the production
of various biomaterials. As shown in Table 1, many researchers  Bio alcohols: - It is extracted by the help of enzymes and
have been worked different biofuels to improve the efficiency microorganisms. These enzymes and microorganisms produce
and enhancement of the method of extraction. bioalcohol by alcohol fermentation of cellulose, glucose, carbo-
hydrates, starches and other sugars. It is further classified into
2.1. First generation biofuels bioethanol, biomethanol, biopropanol and biobutanol [31].
 Biodiesel: - Those forms of diesel that are extracted from ani-
It include those fuels that can easily be extracted from starch, mals and plants or crops consisting of long-chain fatty acid
vegetable oil, sugar and animal oil [9]. The production technology esters. It is made by chemically reacting lipids such as animal
for the biofuels of the first generation is very complex. The biomass fat(tallow), soybean oil, or some other vegetable oil with an
used in the production of 1st generation of biofuel that is extracted alcohol, producing a methyl, ethyl or propyl ester [32].
mostly from sugarcane and corn that is very commonly used in  Green Diesel: - This type of biofuel is another possible Bio-
Brazil & United State [10]. Specifically, the feed stock of corn grain Source of energy; it is produced by a hydrotreating of triglyc-
is used in biorefinery facilities to manufacture biofuel or bioetha- erides in vegetable oils with hydrogen. Vegetable oils used as
nol. Corn is processed by a system of hammer milling that is used a feedstock are palm, soybean and sunflower. Hydrotreating

Fig. 1. Biofuel types & its generation.

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Table 1
Different material compositions, methods and applications for the production of biofuels.

Type of Material used as feedstock Method of extraction Application Efficiency References

biofuel
Biodiesel Corn, cottonseed, palm oil, soybean, Transesterification Used as heating oil, aircraft fuel, 93% efficient then energy [11 12 13]
sunflower, rapeseed. adhesive remover or cleaner. required for its production.
Bioethanol Sugarcane, corn, olive, wheat, straw and Fermentation Used for transportation, heat and It is range between 46% and [141516]
wood, bran, switchgrass. energy generation. 50%.
Syn-gas Coal, natural gas, hydrocarbon biomass, Gasification Used to produce fertilisers, _ [1718]
wood chips. electricity generation.
Green diesel Jatropha, rapeseed, soybean, animal fat, Pyrolysis Used as home heating oil, _ [1718]
switchgrass, palm, corn, sunflower. transportation fuel.
Lignocullose bioalcohol Jatropha, rice and Pre-treatment, hydrolysis, Used for power and heat _
wheat straw, kapok, fermentation production.
switchgrass, lignin,
cellulose, hemi-
cellulose.
[1718]
Biobutanol Sugar, starch, whole grain, bacillus, Fermentation, Used as ic engine fuel or _ [192021]
escherichia coli, cyanophyceae. hydrolysis transportation fuel.
Biogasoline Rubber seed oil, bacillus, chrysophyceae, Fermentation Used for transportation, _ [1920]
rhodophyceae. automobile industries.
Biohydrogen Raoultella, chlorophyceae, bacilleriophyceae, Fermentation, Used for electricity generation, It is range between 55% and [19202223]
food and industrial waste. thermochemical transportation. 71%.
reaction
Biomethane Animal waste, food waste, algal based Fermentation, Used as vehicle fuel, electricity _ [19]
biomass. methanation generation.
Cellulosic Switchgrass, wood, algae, straw, sugarcane Fermentation Used for transportation. It is range between 48% and [24]
ethanol bagasse. 55%.
Methanol Wood, natural gas, coal. Catalytic reformation Used for making adhesives, It is range between 51% and [2526]
paints. 55%.
Dimethyl Natural gas, coal. Methanol Used in specially designed ci It is range between 39% and [27]
ether dehydration reaction engine, chemical industries. 57%.
(dme)
Fischer- Wood, switchgrass, farm wastes, sludge, Fischer-tropsch Used as vehicle fuel. It is range between 41% and [2628]
tropsch manure process 52%.
diesel

process includes three main reactions. They are hydrodeoxy- nin and polyose (they have low density in comparison with corn or
genation (HDO), decarbonylation (DCO), decarboxylation maize than grains). Basically, to ease the productions of these bio-
(DCO2) [33,34]. fuels, the lignin seal around the cellulose must be break down by
 Vegetable oil: - Vegetable oils are produced from fat, sunflower chemical pre-treatment. To densify the biomass, there is a need
oil, olive oil and castor oil. Vegetable’s oil generates heat of physical densification (it increases the energy density of feed
approximately 90% like that of diesel fuel. These fuels are eco- stock of cellulosic biomass) [38-40]. The physical densification
nomic, environmental and energetical beneficial. Recent reports includes chopping, milling, grinding and pelleting so that the den-
inform the use of waste cooking oil and vegetables oils are rep- sity of biomass can be increased and size can be reduced [41]. To
resenting as an alternative fuel for diesel engines in some pre- reduce the size of biomass of non-edible crop, Pelleting technique
cise applications [35]. is used widely [42]. Such as wood, forest litter, leaves etc.
 Biogas: - Waste material production is a major part of activity.
The wastes are formed from medical, industries, agriculture, 2.2.1. Types of Second-generation biofuel
forestry and municipalities. Natural materials like lipid, glyco- The second-generation biofuels are the advanced biofuels, these
gen, keratin, collagen, chitin, starch and lignocelluloses as well biofuels are obtained from the several trees, grass, bushes, agricul-
as synthetic polymers like polyester, polyethylene and tural residues etc. There are many types advanced biofuels based
polypropylene are some examples of polymers. Hydrolysis is on the technologies they are produced as shown in Fig. 2.
the main step for conversion of these materials into biogas
(methane and some times fermentation into ethanol) [36].  Cellulosic ethanol: - To extract this biofuel , the use of fer-
 Solid Biofuels: - Many years ago, the solid biofuel is the most mented sugar which can be derived from polyose and cellulose
active and important bio-energy conveyor. Material like wood, compound of lignocellulose.
leaves, sawdust and animal dung are some commonly used bio-  Algae based biofuels: - Algae is the fastest growing raw material
fuels. The utilisation of solid biofuels in energy system is cur- for biofuel production and it is an interesting substitute to
rently limited to particular markets. These markets are extract biofuel. Algae can grow in open as well as close system
classified by different fuel requirements and some other cir- (like lakes, ponds etc). Algae has an advance feature that it can
cumstances: solid biofuel with low variations, medium varia- be converted into several types of biofuels like biodiesel, biogas
tions and high variations of fuel properties [37]. and hydrogen [43]. Centrifugation, aggregation, floatation,
purification and flocculation are the techniques used for extrac-
2.2. Second generation biofuels tion and concentration of biomass [44,45].
 Alcohol: - Methanol or mixed alcohols are extracted by catalytic
The biofuels those are manufactured by cellulosic or carbohy- synthesis which is draw up from syngas. Alcohol can also be
drate biomass. These carbohydrates are commonly extracted from obtain from syngas by fermentation of biomass with the help
non-edible matters of plants and farming [9]. Cellulosic biomass of some specific microorganism [46].
consists different types of chemical composition like cellulose, lig-
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Fig. 2. Procedure of biofuel production & its Uses.

 Dimethylfuran: It is also known as ‘sleeping giant’ of renewable  Biodiesel potential of algae

chemicals. It is an oxygenated hydrocarbon with a gravimetric  Biohydrogen potentials of algae (Bio photolysis, Photo fermen-
oxygen content of 17%, making it highly competitive in reducing tation, Dark fermentation).
engine-out emissions [47]. It also works as potential additive in  Biogas potentials of algae (Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis, Acetogene-
diesel fuels (ethanol and butanol) [48]. sis, Methanogenesis) [55].
 Biosynthetic natural gas (Bio-SNG): - Biogas can be obtained
from anaerobic digestion and some microbes. This biogas is pro- 2.4. Fourth generation biofuels
duced by mash gas and carbonic acid gas. Bio SNG is also used in
the form of CNG and LNG in vehicles and is used for the refilling It is produced with the help of genetic engineering of algae are
of natural gas cylinder [49]. termed as fourth generation biofuel. The biomass supply in fourth
generation biofuels is come from micro algae, macro algae and
2.3. Third generation biofuels cyno-bacteria. Cyno-bacteria are prokaryotes (lacking membrane-
bound organelles, belongs to kingdom bacteria) whereas micro
Algal fuel also known as algal oil. It is an option to substitute algae and macro algae are eukaryotes (containing nucleus that is
liquid fossil fuel. In this type of fuel generation algae is used as a surrounded by membrane, belongs to kingdom Protista) [56].
source because it contains energy rich oils. Algae based fuel can Micro algae used in algal biofuel production are: -
easily replace corn and sugarcane-based biofuel sources [50,51].
When the fuel is extracted from microscopic algae it is called sea-  Eustigmatophyceae
weed fuel or seagrass oil. Algae costs more per unit mass than  Chlorophyceae
other biofuel crops because of its high investment and its working  Bacillariophyceae
cost [52], but it generates about 10–100 times more biofuel or oil  Blue-green algae [57,58].
per unit area [52]. Earlier some researchers suggested that the
Microalgae can be grown to use as a source of lipids for fuel, oil Microphytes, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, collect high content of
and food [53,54]. starch via chemosynthesis, commercial hydrolase enzymes convert
Third generation is the limitation of first- and second- starch into glucose. 1.0 g of algal biomass can produce 235 mg of
generation biofuel as a low return on investment, advance and ethanol. In study of pre-treatment of green algae with dilute acid
modern techniques for production process. The raw material for like dilute sulfuric acid and enzymatic treatment of green algae
3rd generation biofuels are photosynthetic organisms like diatoms, such as chlorella vulgaris about 0.4 g ethyl alcohol biomass [59].
Euglena, cyanobacteria. There are several advantages of algal bio-
fuel raw material. It can easily grow in seawater, fresh water and
waste water from industries. Its raw material grows 20–30 times 3. Comparison of 1st generation, 2nd generation and 3rd
faster than other generation biofuels. The presence of oil in algae generation of biofuel
is 30 times higher than the oil present in raw materials of other
biofuel crops. The extraction of 3rd generation biofuel is from microscopic
algae is financially more probable than the extraction of 1st and
2.3.1. Algae based biofuels 2nd generation [60,61]. Microalgae is better than first and
second-generation feedstocks because it has possibility of repro-
 Bioethanol potentials of algae cessing of the nutrients, highest biomass utilization, low working
cost, less utilization of energy and sustainability of production of
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biofuels [62,63]. The fastest growing a switchgrass like wobsqua 200 years. The three largest coal production countries are China,
grass and tall panic grass produces 50 times less biomass than USA and India produces 75% of world’s yearly coal production.
the biomass extracted from microscopic algae [64]. The other Also, India has 9% of world’s annual coal consumption and cur-
admirable feature of microphyte biomass is that it is able to grow rently third largest coal consumer of the world [72]. Coal fulfils
in wastewater [65]. the half of India’s total energy needs. 80% of electricity is produced
Unfortunately, the cost of manufacturing of 3G biofuels are by coal-fuel industries in India. Natural gas is used as a fuel at very
higher in comparison with 1st generation and 2nd generation ethyl low level and represent only 10% of total energy utilised in 2008
alcohol. In other words, the expenses of corn ethyl alcohol (1st [73]. The demand of natural gas is growing day by day, in the last
generation), switchgrass ethyl alcohol (2nd generation), cellulosic decade it increases upto 6.5%. Natural gas demand is increasing
ethyl alcohol (second generation). Fodder ethyl alcohol by corn widely in fertilizer industries, petrochemical industries and power
stover (2nd generation) are about 2.33, 4.53, 2.74, 2.62 USD per generation industries.
gallon were as the cost of biodiesel made by algae is around 9– Presently, India has the highest possibilities and capability to
40 USD per gallon. However, the crop-based 1st generation biofu- use renewable energy effectively. After Denmark, Germany and
els are less expensive. The main disadvantages of production of Spain, India is the 4th highest wind power producer in the world.
crop-based biofuel, is that it confined to a few countries like United India has a capacity of power generation from renewable resources
State of America, Brazil and Europe. These countries are responsi- like hydro-energy (of 25 MW), biomass and solar energy [74]. India
ble for the expand of the global increase and hold out the leading has capability to produce 150,000 MW of hydropower energy and
position as a manufacturer and consumer of biofuel in both plot currently generating 13,242 MW power by hydropower plant. It is
or scenario [66]. The choice of raw material for biofuel extraction about 9% of total electricity produced by India [75].
in any country depends on same factors like geographic, location, On World Environment Day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi
financial condition and need of food-fuels of that country. After reports to Biofuels International provided some information
looking into these factors, 3rd generation biofuel is having more related to India’s Vision for a Biofuels Future and Biofuel produc-
potential and are more capable than 1st generation and 2nd gener- tion in India. According to this report, ethanol blending is about
ation biofuels. Even now it is required to improve the microalgae 1.5% in 2014 and in the current scenario it reaches about 8.5%.
biofuel extraction technologies to obtain cost-effective biofuel. He said that, India has aim to achieve the target of about 20% of
blending of ethanol by 2025.
4. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels

There are several technical, natural, economic and social barri- 6. Policy of biofuel in India
ers with biofuel generation and uses. The IRP (international
resource panel), is a panel of scientist and experts that provides Some critical factors of the biofuel policy are as follows:
information about resources. this panel raised the issues that are The indicated target is about 20% but it is not mandatory, by
associated with biofuel use in its report entitled ‘‘Towards sustain- making it mandatory upto 10% for bioethanol present but it also
able production and use of resources: Assessing Biofuels” [67]. not enforced [76].

 There is a need to understand the importance of sustainable

4.1. Advantages of biofuel
production standards but in India there is no such standards
applicable and does not exist at this time.
Biofuel are high power generation and cost effective with high
 Because of the less edible oils present in India, for generation of
performance. The CO2 emission is very less while burning of Bio-
biodiesel, only non-edible oils are used [77].
fuel so they are environment friendly. Feedstock is used for Biofuel
 The fulfilment of domestic need is primary concern of a country
production consumes almost equal amount of CO2 from environ-
that caused ban over the export of biofuels. Import of FFA oils
ment which is released during the use of Biofuel. Some Biofuels
for biofuel production is also ban and the raw material allowed
are non-toxic in nature and can be stored easily. Biofuel are rela-
to import export are subjected to taxes, import duties, export
tively less flammable than fossil fuel [68]
levies. Only the domestically produced biodiesel is free from
these taxes [78].
4.2. Disadvantages of biofuel  The biofuel manufacturing should be done on degraded or
unproductive land which is under government or private
Biofuels are more expensive than fossil fuel. Biofuel production groups or individual person [79]. The biofuel generation on a
requires large amount of energy. Some Biofuel can damage rubber high-yielding and productive land is discourages because it is
housing and seals in engine chamber. Distribution and supply of very difficult to make such a fructuous and rich mineral condi-
produced Biofuel is not easy. It requires advanced supply chain tion of land. the use of degraded land reduces competition of
system. The most important disadvantages of Biofuel are that it food-versus-fuel production [80].
requires a large land area, food crops, fibres as feedstock which  Biofuel production should not limit for transportation purpose
raise some concerns about fuel vs food conflicts [69]. only, it should fulfil the needs of daily power requirement and
consumption. The use of community lands for biofuel genera-
5. India’s energy condition tion encourages and motivate local people to do so [81].
 The government and responsible authorities should announce a
India is a fastest growing large economy that faces several dif- minimum support price or MSP for the feedstock to reduce the
ficulties and challenges to meet the need of energy. India’s require- uncertainties of price of biofuel to decrease the risk of power.
ment of energy is 2–3 times more than the energy presently
generated in India [70]. To fulfil this requirement, it is necessary Consequently, Indian biofuel policy is improving to develop that
to increase the energy generation and supply upto 1516 million it focusses to advance the sustainable production systems. It
tons of oil equivalently till 2031–2032 [71]. focuses on the use of degraded land and protect fertile land for
At the present level of manufacturing and utilization, coal food production, it provides price security to the manufacturers,
reserves of India are estimated to remain continue for about does not allow foreign investment directly in crop production
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