GEO3Z03 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Lecture 4: Mapping Fundamentals
Lecture 4: Topics
geologic maps structure contour and structure maps three-point problems, cross-sections stereonets
Representation of Geologic Structures
Structural orientation data are displayed and analysed using various types of graphical aids geologic maps structure maps cross-sections stereonets rose diagrams histograms
Geologic Maps
Shows surface distribution of rock types and contacts structures portrayed using symbols (strike and dip of beds, fold axes, faults etc.) read and interpret map to infer subsurface structure
Outcrop Patterns
Outcrop patterns controlled by attitude (strike and dip) of beds and topographic relief predictable for inclined beds
Rule of Vs
Outcrop pattern of dipping planar bedding is predictable in valleys beds dipping downstream V-downstream beds dipping upstream V-upstream
dip upstream
dip downstream
Rule of Vs
Outcrop of vertical bed will always parallel the direction of strike, regardless of terrain e.g. vertical dike intruded into older strata vertical structures usually easy to spot on satellite imagery, air photos
Rule of Vs
Inclined bedding dipping at same gradient as stream will Parallel stream valley contours
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are beds dipping relative to stream valley?
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are beds dipping relative to stream valley?
Block Models/Diagrams
Relations between outcrop pattern and subsurface structure are visualized using block models or diagrams construct cross-sections along map edges
Bryce 3-D
Block models now constructed using 3-D modelling sofware slice and dice stratigraphy interactively
Structure Contour Maps
Map showing the relief on a geologic surface e.g. top or bottom of bedding plane, fault, folded surface constructed from borehole data
Structure Contours
Structure contour lines are lines of equal elevation show elevation relative to a horizontal datum values are often negative since subsurface elevations are commonly below sea level
Projection of map plane -30 -20 -10
Elevation metres Elevation metres
Folded surface (antiform)
0 -10 -20 -30
Datum Surface
Datum is a horizontal reference surface (e.g. sea level) commonly use subsurface datum - usually regional stratigraphic surface with low relief (e.g. top of shale)
BH-3 Unit A
BH-1 Datum = 0 m
BH-2
BH-4
Depth 100 m
Unit B - Shale
Elevation = - 100 m b.d.s.
Unit C
Constructing Structure Contours
Structure contours defined by finding points of equal elevation along a bed contact find intersections of contact with topo contour draw structure contours through points of equal elevation
Unit A
100 m a.s.l. 90
80 100 90
Unit B
80
Example:
Unit A
100 m a.s.l. 90
80 100 90
Unit B
80
Planar Surfaces
For uniformly dipping plane, the structure contours are parallel lines contours equally spaced for surface of constant dip
- 10 m
- 20
45
- 30
45
- 40
INCLINED BED WITH CONSTANT DIP ANGLE
- 50 STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
Curvi-planar Surfaces
Contours lines are curvilinear with variable spacing e.g. folded surface, erosion surface with valleys, ridges dip direction and magnitude changes across map
FOLD AXES
- 10
- 20 - 30 - 40
- 50 COMPLEXLY FOLDED DIPPING SURFACE STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
Rules of Contouring
The general rules of contouring also apply to all structure maps: 1) contours cannot cross or bi-furcate 2) contours cannot end in the middle of the map, except at a fault or other discontinuity 3) same contour interval must be used across the map and elevations must be labelled 4) elevation is specified relative to datum (e.g. m above sea level)
Determining Dip Angle,
Dip direction and angle can be determined from structure contour map measure horizontal separation X, find difference in Z tan = Z/X, = tan-1 (Z/X) e.g. = tan-1 (10 m/100 m), = 6
Distance between structure contours (X) 20 m
- 10 - 20 100 m - 30 - 40 6 - 50
Change in elevation (Z)
30 m STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
Three-point Problem
Minimum of three points is required to uniquely define a orientation of a plane can construct structure contours given minimum of three boreholes
50 m a.s.l. 20 50 40 30 20
50
40
30
40
40
20
Three-point Problem
1. Find minimum and maximum values 2. Draw line between max, min elevations and subdivide into equal distance intervals 3. Connect points of equal elevation to define structure contour
50 40 30 20
50
40
30
40
20
Isochore Map
Map showing change in thickness of stratigraphic interval constructed from borehole data does not take into account dips of surfaces and is an apparent thickness
BH-1 BH-2
Unit A Apparent thickness Unit B
Unit C
Zero Thickness
Areas where stratigraphic unit is absent (eroded or not deposited) are bounded by a zero contour zero contour useful in defining edges of geologic units e.g. oil-bearing sandstones
ISOPACH OF FURNACE CREEK UPPER SAND (THICKNESS IN METRES) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 38 5 0 8 0 14 6 33 14 0 7 20 34 0 0 10 30 20 25 15 20 30 10 0 31 45 40 12 0 21 25 0 0 0 36 0 22 25 7 48 8 5 0 0 0 32 6 0 0 4
0 metres
500
Isopach Map
Map showing thickness of unit taken perpendicular to bed sometimes difficult to estimate true thickness when there is lots of relief on bounding surfaces calculate using trig
BH-1 BH-2
Structure Cross-sections
Cross-section is a 2-D slice through stratigraphy construct by projecting elevations of structure contours onto profile procedure called orthographic projection
