What is Liturgy?

Etymologically: The term "Liturgy" has its roots in the Greek language, composed of "laos" (people) and
"ergon" (action or service), meaning "public work or action undertaken for the people."

Originally used for public works or services in a city-state, it denoted an obligation or responsibility of
public officials for the common good.

This concept evolved in classical Greek, encompassing both periodic (rendered during particular events
or special feasts or celebrations) and extraordinary (rendered mainly during conflicts and wars) services,
often performed voluntarily for the benefit of the community.

During Hellenistic Period (democracy), "liturgy" referred to obligatory service supporting the life and
activity of a community, and this notion persisted in regions like Egypt during the Roman Empire. The
term expanded to include honorable, friendly, and voluntary services.

In a religious context, liturgy denoted the service rendered to a deity through organized ceremonies,
notably found in inscriptions of mystery religions. The Christian understanding of liturgy involves rites,
ritual duties, and acts of reverence to honor and glorify God. In the Christian religion, liturgy is public
worship conducted by the people of God, representing the Mystical Body of Christ. In the LXX
(Septuagint), it is used to represent the priestly worship carried out in the temple. For the Fathers of
the Church, Liturgy denotes the worship each of the members of the church carries out for God and for
the interest of others. By the middle ages, it came to be understood as the official worship of the church
which the faithful offer to God. It encompasses various acts, including sacraments, official morning and
evening prayers, and the Divine Office. Pope Pius XII defines liturgy as the public worship rendered by
Christ as the Head of the Church to the Father and the worship offered by the community of the faithful.
(Mediator Dei, no. 20).

The Second Vatican Council describes liturgy as the summit and source (Culmens et Fons)of the
Church's activities, representing the exercise of Jesus Christ's priestly office (Sacrosanctum Concilium,
no.7 ). Liturgy is central to the Church's life, and it re-enacts the paschal mystery of Christ, making God's
dealings with humanity present through rituals and worship.

Liturgy, according to some scholars is defined as the official worship of the Blessed Trinity and is the
means through which the Church gains the merits of Christ's redemptive mission.

Christ is present in every liturgical celebration, and liturgy is the highest and most efficacious prayer of
the Church. It involves officially organized worship following approved rules and norms. Liturgy
surpasses other forms of popular devotions and piety in efficacy and dignity, occupying a pre-eminent
position in pastoral actions, apostolate, and evangelization.

The Apostolic Liturgical Forms

In the early Christian congregations, there was a lack of a clear order of service, and no comprehensive
service book was available. The New Testament provides limited but rich information about the life of
the first Christians and their expressions of faith. The apostles, coming from a background familiar with
rich Jewish liturgy, gradually distanced themselves from Judaism while continuing to create new forms
of worship.

The primitive church, proclaiming the salvific Christ, fashioned its worship by incorporating elements
from both the teachings of Jesus and the liturgical customs of Judaism. The created forms included:

i.) baptism in the name of Jesus,

ii.) the breaking of bread (Lord's Supper) as a memorial of Christ's death,

iii.) prayer in various forms,

iv.) the imposition of hands to confer the Spirit and the power to lead the ecclesial community, v.) the
anointing of the sick.

Despite this, the early church maintained an atmosphere of extraordinary simplicity, spontaneous
vitality, and joy.

Although the early Christians avoided practices connected with temple worship after being expelled
from the temple, they continued to pray the psalms and read lessons in the synagogue. Daily prayer was
prevalent in family life, especially during the daily and weekly meals, often held on the Sabbath. The
pious life of the Jews, influenced by the synagogue and the Essene community, experienced significant
evolution during this period.

Baptism: The New Testament emphasizes the significance of Christian initiation, involving both water
baptism and baptism with the Holy Spirit.

Although there was no standardized order of service, various descriptions of baptism modes exist (e.g.,
Acts 8:26-40).

Baptism was seen as an autonomous Christian creation, borrowing elements from John the Baptist's
penitential bathing, proselyte washing, and Qumran customs.

Prayer: Both Jesus and the apostles engaged in prayer regularly, individually, and collectively. Jesus
participated in synagogue psalms and likely practiced daily and synagogue prayer with His family.

New Testament passages (e.g., Acts 2:42, 47; 3:1; 4:24-31; 10:9; 16:25) and writings of Paul provide
evidence of the early Christian community's prayer life.

(A.) Jewish forms of prayer: included the recitation of the Shema, a fundamental creed of Israelite faith,
and the Shemone Esreh, a prayer of eighteen blessings recited thrice daily. Blessings, known as
(Berakoth), were recited before partaking in any food, featuring fixed formulae that expressed gratitude
to God. On Sabbaths and festivals, the ceremony of Kiddush (Sanctification) marked the beginning of the
Holy day, involving blessings for wine, the Sabbath or festival, and bread.
(B.) Hours of Prayer: The influence of Jewish liturgy on early Christian worship is evident in preserved
prayers. The early Christians observed the three daily hours of synagogue worship (third, sixth, and ninth
hours). The Didache instructed Christians to recite the Lord's Prayer three times daily. Characteristics of
early Christian prayers include:

1. Praise and Thanksgiving: Emphasizing God's power in creation, guardianship, deliverance from evil,
and spiritual enlightenment.

2. Confession and Prayer for Forgiveness: Concluding with petitions and a focus on corporate worship.

3. Intercessory Prayer: Including prayers for rulers.

4. Doxology: A necessary element with concluding praise, often ending with "Amen."

5. Historical Reminiscences: Adopted and adapted from Jewish prayers in a Christian context.

The prayers reflect a synagogal influence with an emphasis on corporate worship, intercession, and
historical elements. Extemporized prayer and a later expansion to five hours were also observed in
Christian practices.

(C.) The Service in the Synagogue: The synagogue service, originating during the Babylonian exile,
consists of three main elements: prayer (singing praises), reading of scriptures, and interpretation of the
reading. The absence of sacrifices and priests in exile led to a focus on the Torah and prophets during
these services.

Overall:

The early Christian liturgy, especially in the context of Judaic culture, saw the emergence of varied
practices in baptism and prayer, influenced by Jewish traditions and adapted to reflect Christian beliefs
and experiences.

Elements adapted by the early Christians

The Psalms: The use of Psalms in Jewish worship, especially in the synagogue, has a well-established
history, adapting Temple liturgy even while the Temple was standing. The Psalms held a significant place
in synagogue liturgy, with variations over time, and even today, only about half of the Psalms in the
Psalter are commonly used. The liturgical incorporation of Psalms in early Christian worship is evident in
passages such as Acts 4:24-30, which reflects adaptation from Psalm.

In the Gentile churches, as seen in 1 Corinthians 14:26, Ephesians 5:19, and Colossians 3:16, the use of
Psalms in liturgy was customary from the beginning, likely influenced by Jewish practices. The essence of
the service of the Word in the early Christian Mass has Jewish origins. The structure involving two
readings, psalmody, and a homily is borrowed from the Jewish Sabbath morning service. While Jews
traditionally read from the Laws of Moses and then from the prophets, Christians adapted the sequence,
starting with Old Testament readings, followed by Apostolic writings, and concluding with the Gospel.
This arrangement was accompanied by the singing of psalms or other canticles, known as the " gradual,"
sung by soloists from the elevated lectern.

The practice of singing from a raised platform, likely known to Jesus and his apostles from their
experience in synagogues, served both as a break for the audience's attention and an opportunity for
devotional commentary on the scripture just read. This method allowed for an intelligent selection of
chants that provided a devotional perspective on the scriptures, aiding in conveying the message to the
listeners. Early examples of such "commentary" through chants show a thoughtful and ingenious
understanding of the devotional use of scriptures. The incorporation of Psalms and the structured use of
scripture in Christian worship can be traced back to these adaptations from Jewish liturgical practices.

The Liturgical Year: The liturgical practices in Christianity, including the establishment of the liturgical
year, have deep connections to Judaism. The adoption of the seven-day week and the shift of the day of
worship from the Sabbath to Sunday demonstrate this connection. The liturgical calendar, featuring
festivals like Easter and Pentecost, originated from Jewish sources, and later commemorations for
martyrs, Christmas, and Epiphany were added. The evolution of the liturgical year, from the second
century onwards, reveals a gradual adaptation of Jewish forms into Christian worship. The apostolic
period likely involved a flexible use of liturgical schemes, eventually developing into more fixed
practices, as seen in liturgical texts within the New Testament. This process reflects the influence and
transformation of Jewish traditions in early Christian liturgy

The Breaking Of Bread (Fractio Panis): The practice of the Breaking of Bread, originating from the Last
Supper, exhibits three key elements:

1.) Jewish Schema: The Breaking of Bread is rooted in a Jewish ritual, influenced by prayers said over
bread and wine in a sacred Jewish meal. The blessings were recited over the broken bread and the third
cup of wine.

2.) A New Purpose: Jesus instituted the Breaking of Bread with a novel purpose, instructing his disciples
to continue this act in memory of His death. The New Testament describes early Christians coming
together, praying collectively, holding meals, and breaking bread, particularly in the context of the
Eucharist.

3.) An Extremely Free Adaptation: The celebration of the Breaking of Bread is described in ancient
sources as a distinctive term. Acts 2:42 mentions the believers steadfastly continuing in the breaking of
bread, indicating a sacramental significance. Acts 2:46 notes their daily gatherings for this purpose. Acts
20:7 records a gathering in Troas for the Breaking of Bread. Paul, in 1 Corinthians 10:16, connects the
broken bread with participation in Christ's body.

The term "Breaking of Bread" is linked to the last supper, where Jesus broke bread, giving it as His body
and commissioning disciples to repeat the act. The Didache, dated around 100 AD, contains prayers
(chapters 9 and 10) seemingly for domestic celebrations, indicating private forms of the Eucharist. The
connection with a meal may have persisted, especially in private Masses initiated for family occasions
with the presence of a bishop or priest. While some modern scholars suggest a connection to a material
meal in the Didache prayers, there is limited clear evidence, and the overall association is with the
Eucharistic celebration.

Sources of liturgy

The Didache, also known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, is a second-century church order
discovered by the oriental Bishop Philotheos Bryennios in 1873. It consists of various teachings and
instructions, providing insights into early Christian practices.

In summary, the Didache provides a rich source of early Christian teachings and practices. It covers
moral instructions, baptism, fasting, prayer, Eucharistic prayers, church leadership, and eschatological
vigilance. The document's prayers, particularly those related to the Eucharist, offer valuable insights into
the evolving nature of Christian worship in the second century.

The Didascalia Apostolorum, believed to have been composed in North Syria around 230 AD, provides a
comprehensive guide to Christian life, ecclesiastical organization, and moral conduct during the early
Christian period. The document is thought to be modeled after the Didache and emphasizes the role of
bishops.

In summary, the Didascalia Apostolorum provides detailed guidance on various aspects of Christian life,
ecclesiastical organization, and moral conduct. It addresses the roles of bishops, widows, deacons, and
the care of orphans. The document emphasizes the importance of attending Church, avoiding heresy,
fasting, and caring for those persecuted for their faith. It also presents a strong defense of the freedom
of Christians from Old Testament ritual legislation.

The "Apostolic Church Order,"

also known as "The Ecclesiastical Constitution of the Apostles," is a small treatise that received its name
in 1843 when first published by J. W. Bickell. The Greek title is "The instructions through Clement and
ecclesiastical canons of the Holy Apostles." It is believed to have been written in Egypt, possibly at the
end of the third century.

In summary, the "Apostolic Church Order" as a small treatise, combines didactic material from the
"Didache" with regulations for church offices. It likely originated in Egypt, possibly at the end of the third
century. The manuscript evidence is limited, with only one complete manuscript in Greek and
translations in other languages, providing valuable insights into early Christian organizational structures
and practices.

The "Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus" (Traditio Apostolica) is a church order that provides a
comprehensive guide to various aspects of Christian life and worship. Written by Hippolytus of Rome
around 215 AD, it offers detailed instructions for ordinations, liturgical practices, and the Christian
initiation process.

In summary, the "Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus" provides a detailed picture of the liturgical life of
the early Christian Church, covering ordinations, Christian initiation, and various liturgical practices.
Written by Hippolytus of Rome, it is a valuable source for understanding the early Church's worship
practices around the middle of the 3rd century.

The Canons of Hippolytus,

composed between 336 and 340, represent a collection of 38 canons accompanied by a concluding
sermon. These canons are considered an essential source for understanding Egyptian church life in the
4th century, particularly in the absence of other evidence from that period. The collection is believed to
be a product of the environment influenced by the Apostolic Tradition.

The Canons of Hippolytus are significant not only for shedding light on the church practices of 4th
century Egypt but also for their potential contribution to reconstructing the original text of the Apostolic
Tradition. The author of the canons seems to have freely paraphrased, supplemented, and adapted the
Apostolic Tradition in light of their own ecclesiastical situations and liturgical traditions.

The Apostolic Constitutions,

composed between 375 and 380 in Syria, purportedly contains decrees that Pope Clement I received
from the apostles and sent to bishops and priests. However, it is considered apocryphal. Comprising
eight books, the collection is recognized as the most extensive liturgical compilation of antiquity.

In summary, the Apostolic Constitutions, despite its claim to convey apostolic decrees through Pope
Clement I, is recognized as apocryphal. Its historical significance lies in its extensive liturgical content,
including the Clementine Liturgy, and its compilation from various sources such as the Didascalia of the
Apostles, Didache, and the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus. However, concerns about potential
falsification have been raised by later synods and ecclesiastical authorities. Nonetheless, the work
remains a valuable witness in the reconstruction of the liturgy of the fourth century.

The "Testamentum Domini Nostri Jesu Christi"

is a church order that presents an expanded version of the Apostolic Tradition, placing it within the
context of instructions supposedly given by Jesus to his disciples before His ascension. The work begins
with an apocalyptic discourse attributed to Jesus. Discovered by the Syrian Patriarch Rahmani in 1899, it
was published in Syriac.

In summary, the "Testamentum Domini Nostri Jesu Christi" is a church order presenting an expanded
version of the Apostolic Tradition, set within the context of Jesus' teachings to His disciples. Its discovery
and publication in Syriac by Patriarch Rahmani in 1899 added to our understanding of early Christian
liturgical practices. The work is closely related to the "Constitutionis Apostolorum," and various papyri,
including the Papyrus of Der-Balyzeh, contribute further insights into the liturgy of early Christianity.

St. Justin Martyr,

In summary, St. Justin Martyr's First Apology, written in the mid-2nd century, provides an early and
substantial description of Christian worship. The text includes accounts of baptismal procedures leading
to the Eucharist and regular Sunday Eucharistic celebrations. These insights into liturgical practices
contribute significantly to our understanding of early Christian worship in the 2nd century.

The Writings Tertullian,

a North African lay Christian who converted around 195 AD, initially strongly opposed the Montanist
movement but later aligned himself with it. Throughout his extensive writings, which encompass both
his Catholic and Montanist phases, Tertullian provides insights into various aspects of liturgical practice.

In summary, Tertullian, a North African lay Christian with a complex relationship with the Montanist
movement, offers insights into liturgical practices in his writings. He highlights the significance of Easter
for baptism, emphasizes the continuous spiritual significance of every day, and suggests the authority of
lay people in baptizing and presiding at the Eucharist in certain circumstances. These writings contribute
to our understanding of early Christian liturgical practices and the evolving roles within the Christian
community.