Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof.

Usman Danish

Numerical Problems & Solutions

Problem # 1:
The number of people with different ages N (A) in a room are as given below
N (14) =1, N (15) =1, N (16) =3, N (22) =2, N (24) =2, N (25) =5
Determine
a) The total no of people in the room
b) If a person is selected at random from this group, what is the probability that this person’s age will
be 15? 16? 25? 23? Generalize the result.
c) What is the probability that the randomly selected person will either 16 or 24?
d) What is the most probable age?
e) What is the least probable age?
f) What is the average/mean age?
Answer:
a) Total No of people = N (14) + N (15) +N (16) + N (22) + N (24) + N (25)
As there are no people with ages 1,2, 3…..13,17,18 etc, so N (1)=0,N (2)=0,…..,N (13)=0 , N(17) =0, …..
etc
So we can write,
Total No of people in the room (N) = ∑∞
N=1 N(A) = 14
1 1
b) Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age 15 = P (15) = 14 × 1 = 14
1 3
Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age 16 = P (16) = 14 × 3 = 14
1 5
Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age 25 = P (25) = 14 × 5 = 14
1
Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age 23 = P (23) = × 0= 0
14

1
Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age A = P (A) = (N) N(A)

c) The probability that the randomly selected person will be 16 or 24 is equal to the sum of individual
probabilities.
Probability that the randomly selected person will be of age 16 or 24 = P (14 or 24) = P (14) + P (24)
3 2 5
= + =
14 14 14
N(A)
d) As
N

So the most probable age is the age with maximum no of people (N(A))
Age of 25 is the most probable age
e) The least probable age is the age with minimum no of people (i.e. with minimum N (A))
The least probable age is 14 as well as 15

̅ = 1(14)+1(15)+2(16)+2(22)+3(24)+5(25)
f) Average age = <A> = A 14

=21
Problem # 2:
At time t=0, a particle is represented by a wave function

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

x
A if 0 ≤ x ≤ a
a
Ψ(x, 0) = (b − x)
A if a ≤ x ≤ b
(b − a)
{0 otherwise or elsewhere
If a, b & A are constant then
a) Normalize Ψ and determine A in terms of a & b
b) Sketch Ψ(x, 0) as a function of x
c) Where is the particle most likely found, at t=0?
d) What is the probability of finding the particle to the left of a? check your result in the limiting case
b=a & b=2a.
e) What is the expectation value of x?
Answer:
a) Applying normalization condition

2
∫ |Ψ(x,0) | dx = 1
all space

+∞
∗
∫ Ψ(x,0) Ψ(x,0) dx = 1
−∞

As Ψ(x,0) has different values in different regions, so we can split the path of the integral accordingly.

0 a b +∞
2 2 2 2
∫|Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫|Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫|Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫ |Ψ(x,0) | dx = 1
−∞ 0 a b

a b
Ax 2 A(b − x) 2
0 + ∫ | | dx + ∫ | | dx + 0 = 1
a (b − a)
0 a

a b
A2 2
A2
∫|x| dx + ∫|(b − x)|2 dx = 1 − − − − − (1)
a2 (b − a)2
0 a

For the integrand |(b − x)|2 , substitute u=b-x and du=- dx. This gives a new lower boundary u=b-a and
upper boundary u=b-b=0.
b 0
A2 2
A2
∫|(b − x)| dx = − ∫|u|2 du
(b − a)2 (b − a)2
a b−a
0
A2 u3
=− [ ]
(b − a)2 3 b−a

A2 0 − (b − a)3
=− [ ]
(b − a)2 3

A2 −(b − a)3
=− [ ]
(b − a)2 3
b
A2 2
A2 (b − a)3
∫|(b − x)| dx = [ ] − − − − − (2)
(b − a)2 (b − a)2 3
a

And
a a
A2 2
A2 x 3
∫|x| dx = [ ]
a2 a2 3 0
0

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

a
A2 2
A2 a3 − 0
∫|x| dx = [ ] − − − − − (3)
a2 a2 3
0

From (2) and (3) , (1) becomes,

A2 a3 A2 (b − a)3
[ ] + [ ]=1
a2 3 (b − a)2 3

a 1 (b − a)3
A2 [[ ] + [ ]] = 1
3 (b − a)2 3

a b−a
A2 [ + ]=1
3 3
a+b−a
A2 [ ]=1
3
b
A2 [ ] = 1
3
3
A2 =
b

3
A=√
b

3
Hence Normalization constant = A = √b

By convension we use only the +ve value of A.

And Normalized wave function is

3x
√ if 0 ≤ x ≤ a
ba
Ψ(x, 0) =
3 (b − x)
√ if a ≤ x ≤ b
b (b − a)
{0 otherwise or elsewhere
b) Graph

c) The particle is most likely found (i.e. probability of finding the particle is maximum) at the point
2
where |Ψ(x,t) | is maximum.

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

2
From the probability curve, it is clear that |Ψ(x,t) | is maximum at x=a. So the probability of finding the
particle is max at x=a (i.e. it is most likely that the particle will be found at x=a) at t=0.
a 2
d) Probability of finding the particle to the left of a = ∫−∞|Ψ(x,0) | dx
0 a
2 2
= ∫|Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫|Ψ(x,0) | dx
−∞ 0
a
Ax 2
P(to the left of a) = 0 + ∫ | | dx
a
0
a
A2
= 2 ∫ x 2 dx
a
0
a
3 x3
= 2[ ]
ba 3 0

a3
=
ba2
a
P(to thee left of a) =
b
Limiting /special cases
When b=a, then
a a
P (to the left of a) = = =1
b a
When b=2a, then
a a 1
P (to the left of a) = = =
b 2a 2
∗ +∞
e) Expectation value of x = 〈x〉 = ∫−∞ Ψ(x,0) x̂ Ψ(x,0) dx

+∞
∗
〈x〉 = ∫ Ψ(x,0) x Ψ(x,0) dx
−∞
+∞
2
= ∫ x |Ψ(x,0) | dx
−∞
0 a b +∞
2 2 2 2
= ∫ x |Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫ x |Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫ x |Ψ(x,0) | dx + ∫ x |Ψ(x,0) | dx
−∞ 0 a b
2 a 2 b
3 1 3 1
〈x〉 = 0 + (√ ) ∫ x 2 x dx + (√ ) ∫ x(b − x)2 dx + 0
b a b b−a
0 a

a b
3 x4 3
= 2 [ ] + ∫(b2 x + x 3 − 2bx 2 ) dx
a b 4 0 b(b − a)2
a

a b
3 x4 3 b2 x 2 x 4 2bx 3
= 2 [ ] + [ + − ]
a b 4 0 b(b − a)2 2 4 3 a

3 a4 3 b4 a2 b2 b4 a4 2b4 2a3 b
= + [ − + − − + ]
a2 b 4 b(b − a)2 2 2 4 4 3 3

3a2 3 1 1 2 4 a2 b2 a4 2a3 b
= + [( + − ) b − − + ]
4b b(b − a)2 2 4 3 2 4 3

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

1 3a2 3 b4 a2 b2 a4 2a3 b
= [ + ( − − + )]
b 4 (b − a)2 12 2 4 3

2 (b2 2 b4 a2 b2 a4 2a3 b
1 3a + a − 2ab) + 12 (12 − 2 − 4 + 3 )
= [ ]
b 4(b − a)2

1
= [3a2 b2 + 3a4 − 6a3 b + b4 − 6a2 b2 − 3a4 + 8a3 b]
4b(b − a)2
1
= [−3a2 b2 + 2a3 b + b4 ]
4b(b − a)2
1
= [b(−3a2 b + 2a3 + b3 )]
4b(b − a)2
1
= [2a3 − 3a2 b + b3 ]
4(b − a)2
Use completing the cube method
1
= [b3 − a3 − 3ab(b − a) + a3 + 3ab(b − a) − 3a2 b + 2a3 ]
4(b − a)2
1
= [(b − a)3 + 3a3 + 3ab2 − 3a2 b − 3a2 b]
4(b − a)2
1
= [(b − a)3 + 3a(a2 + b2 − 2ab)]
4(b − a)2
1
= [(b − a)3 + 3a(b − a)2 ]
4(b − a)2
1
= (b − a)2 [(b − a) + 3a]
4(b − a)2
2a + b
〈x〉 =
4
Problem # 3:

Let us consider a wavefunction Ψ(x,t) = Ae−λ|x| e−iωt

If A and ω are +ve and real constants then

a) Normalize Ψ & determine the normalization constant
b) Determine the expectation value of x
c) Determine the expectation value of x 2
d) Find the standard derivation of x
e) Sketch |Ψ|2 as a function of x
Solution:
a) Applying the Normalization condition
2
∫ |Ψ(x,t) | dx = 1
all space

Or
+∞
∗
∫ Ψ(x,t) Ψ(x,t) dx = 1
−∞
+∞

∫ Ae−λ|x| e+iωt Ae−λ|x| e−iωt dx = 1

−∞

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+∞

A ∫ e−2λ|x| dx = 1
2

−∞

As the integral is an even function (i.e. it remains equal to e−2λ|x| for both +ve and –ve values of x), so we
can write as,
+∞
𝑒 ±𝑎𝑥
A2 2 ∫ e−2λx dx = 1 ∫ 𝑒 ±𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
±𝑎
0

Now we find the integral to get

∞
e−2λx
2
2A [ ] =1
−2λ 0

A2
− [0 − 1] = 1
λ
A2
=1
λ
A = √λ
Normalization constant = A = λ
and normalized wave function is

Ψ(x,t) = √λe−λ|x| e−iωt

∗
b) Expectation value of x = 〈x〉 = ∫all space Ψ(x,t) x̂ Ψ(x,t) dx
+∞

〈x〉 = ∫ √λe−λ|x| e+iωt x √λe−λ|x| e−iωt dx

−∞
+∞

〈x〉 = λ ∫ xe−2λ|x| dx
−∞

Now integral ( xe−2λ|x| = (odd)(even) = odd )is an odd function and limits are symmetric about origin so
due to cancellation of +ve contributions from x>0 and by –ve contributions from x< 0side, the integral
vanishes. i.e.
〈x〉 = λ(0) = 0

This means that the particle is most likely to be found at origin.

∗
c) Expectation value of x 2 = 〈x 2 〉 = ∫all space Ψ(x,t) x̂ 2 Ψ(x,t) dx
+∞

〈x 2 〉 = ∫ √λe−λ|x| e+iωt x 2 √λe−λ|x| e−iωt dx

−∞
+∞

〈x 2 〉 = λ ∫ x 2 e−2λ|x| dx
−∞

As integral is an even function (it is not affected if we replace x by –x , & limits are symmetric along
origin, so we can write

+∞

〈x 2 〉 = 2 λ ∫ x 2 e−2λx dx
0

Now we use the integral

∞
n!
∫ x n e−ax dx = for n = 1,2,3, … …
an+1
0

To get

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2! 2
〈𝑥 2 〉 = 2 𝜆 ( 2+1
) = 2𝜆( )
(2𝜆) (2𝜆)3
4𝜆
=
8𝜆3
1
〈𝑥 2 〉 =
2𝜆2
d) Standard derivation of x = 𝜎
Now

𝜎 2 = 〈𝑥 2 〉 − 〈𝑥〉 2
Putting value
1 1
𝜎2 = − 0 =
2𝜆2 2𝜆2
Standard derivation of x = 𝜎
1
𝜎=
√2 𝜆
e) The normalized wave function
𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) = √𝜆𝑒 −𝜆|𝑥| 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
2 ∗
|𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) | = 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡)

= 𝜆𝑒 −2𝜆|𝑥|
2 𝜆
|𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) | =
𝑒 2𝜆|𝑥|
2
|𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) | is max (equal to 𝜆) at x=0 and decrease exponentially on both sides of origin (b/c |x| produces a
+ve value for all +ve and –ve values of x)

Note that the probability of finding the particles is maximum at origin at any time t.
Problem # 4:
2
Let us consider wavefunction Ψ(x) = Ae−λ(x−a)

If A and λ are +ve constants, then

a) Determine the value of A (the normalization constant)
b) Normalize Ψ
c) Find the 〈x〉, 〈x 2 〉, σ
d) Sketch the graph of Ψ(x)

Solution:
a) Applying normalization condition

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

2
∫ |𝛹(𝑥) | 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Or
+∞
∗
∫ 𝛹(𝑥) 𝛹(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
+∞
2 2
∫ 𝐴𝑒 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 𝐴𝑒 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
+∞
2
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑒 −2𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞

Put x-a=u, dx=du

When 𝑥 = −∞, 𝑢 = −∞
& 𝑥 = +∞, 𝑢 = +∞
So
+∞
2
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑒 −2𝜆(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 1 − − − − − (1)
−∞

Now we use the integral

=
+∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
−∝𝑥 2
√ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ 𝑥𝑛 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 ! (4𝛼) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛,

To get (for n=0 , x=u (even) and ∝= 2𝜆)

+∞
2 𝜋 0! 1
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = √
2𝜆 ! (4(2𝜆))0⁄2
0
−∞ 2
𝜋 b/c 0!=1
=√
2𝜆
So (1) gives
𝜋
𝐴2 √ =1
2𝜆

2𝜆 1/2
𝐴2 = ( )
𝜋
2𝜆 1/4
𝐴 = ( ) = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜋
b) Normalized wave/ state function

2𝜆 1/4 2
𝛹(𝑥) = ( ) 𝑒 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)
𝜋
c) (𝑐1 ) Expectation value of x
+∞
∗
〈𝑥〉 = ∫ 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) 𝑥̂ 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) 𝑑𝑥
−∞

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+∞
2𝜆 1/4 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)2 2𝜆 1/4 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)2
= ∫ ( ) 𝑒 𝑥 ( ) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
−∞
+∞
2𝜆 1/2 2
〈𝑥〉 = ( ) ∫ 𝑥𝑒 −2𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
−∞

Put x-a=u, dx=du

When 𝑥 = −∞, 𝑢 = −∞
& 𝑥 = +∞, 𝑢 = +∞
So
+∞
2𝜆 1/2 2
〈𝑥〉 = ( ) ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑎)𝑒 −2𝜆(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
−∞

+∞ +∞
2𝜆 1/2 2 2
〈𝑥〉 = ( ) [ ∫ 𝑢𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑎𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢] − − − − − (2)
𝜋
−∞ −∞

Now using the integral

+∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
−∝𝑥 2
√ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ 𝑥𝑛 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 ! (4𝛼) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛,

We get
For n=1, 𝛼 = 2𝜆 & x=u
+∞
2
∫ 𝑢𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 0
−∞

For n=1, 𝛼 = 2𝜆 & x=u

+∞
2 𝜋 0! 1
∫ 𝑢0 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = √
2𝜆 ! (4(2𝜆))0⁄2
0
−∞ 2
𝜋
=√
2𝜆
So (2) gives

2𝜆 1/2 𝜋
〈𝑥〉 = ( ) [0 + 𝑎√ ]
𝜋 2𝜆

2𝜆 𝜋
= √ 𝑎√ = 𝑎
𝜋 2𝜆

Hence
Expectation value of x = 〈𝑥〉 = 𝑎
(𝑐2 ) Expectation value of 𝑥 2
+∞
∗
〈𝑥 2 〉 = ∫ 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) 𝑥̂ 2 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡) 𝑑𝑥
−∞

As 𝑥̂ = 𝑥 so 𝑥̂ 2 = 𝑥 2
Hence

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+∞
2𝜆 1/4 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)2 2 2𝜆 1/4 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)2
〈𝑥 2 〉 = ∫ ( ) 𝑒 𝑥 ( ) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
−∞
+∞
2𝜆 1/2 2
=( ) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 −2𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
−∞

Put x-a=u, dx=du

When 𝑥 = −∞, 𝑢 = −∞
& 𝑥 = +∞, 𝑢 = +∞
So
+∞
2𝜆 1/2 2
〈𝑥 2 〉 =( ) ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑎)2 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
−∞

1 +∞ +∞ +∞
2𝜆 2 2 2 2
= ( ) ∫ 𝑢2 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑎2 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 2𝑎 ∫ 𝑢 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 − − − − − (3)
𝜋
−∞ −∞ −∞

Now using the integral

+∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
−∝𝑥 2
√ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ 𝑥𝑛 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 ! (4𝛼) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛, 𝑛 = 1,3,5,7 … …

We get
For n=2, 𝛼 = 2𝜆 & x=u
+∞
2 𝜋 2! 1
∫ 𝑢2 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = √
2𝜆 2 ! (4(2𝜆))2⁄2
−∞ 2
𝜋 1
=√
2𝜆 4𝜆
And For n=0, 𝛼 = 2𝜆 & x=u
+∞
2 𝜋 0! 1
∫ 𝑢0 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = √
2𝜆 0 ! (4(2𝜆))0⁄2
−∞ 2
𝜋
=√
2𝜆
And For n=1, 𝛼 = 2𝜆 & x=u
+∞
2
∫ 𝑢 𝑒 −(2𝜆)𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 0
−∞

So (3) gives

2𝜆 𝜋 1 𝜋
〈𝑥 2 〉 = √ [√ + 𝑎2 √ + 2𝑎(0)]
𝜋 2𝜆 4𝜆 2𝜆

2𝜆 𝜋 1
= √ √ [ + 𝑎2 ]
𝜋 2𝜆 4𝜆

So
1
Expectation value of 𝑥 2 = 〈𝑥 2 〉 = 𝑎2 + 4𝜆

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(𝑐3 ) Standard derivation of x

𝜎 = √〈𝑥 2 〉 − 〈𝑥〉2
Putting the values, we get

1 1
𝜎 = √𝑎2 + − 𝑎2 = √
4𝜆 4𝜆

Hence
1
Standard derivation of x 𝜎 =
2√𝜆

d) As
1/4 2𝜆 1/4
2𝜆 ( )
𝛹(𝑥) = ( ) 𝑒 −𝜆(𝑥−𝑎)
2 𝜋
= 𝜆(𝑥−𝑎) 2
𝜋 𝑒
𝛹(𝑥) is maximum at x=a and decrease exponentially on both sides around this point. So plot of 𝛹(𝑥) is as
shown

Problem # 5:
A particle is represented at t=0 by the wave function
2 2)
𝛹(𝑥,0) = {𝐴(𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ +𝑎
0 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
a) Determine the normalization constant
b) Normalize 𝛹(𝑥,0)
c) What is the expectation value of x (at t=0)?
d) What is the expectation value of p (at t=0)?
𝑚𝑑〈𝑥〉
Can you get it from 〈𝑝〉 =
𝑑𝑡

e) Find the expectation value of 𝑥 2

f) Find the expectation value of 𝑝𝑥2
g) Find the uncertainty in x and 𝑝𝑥
h) Verify Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP).
Solution:
a) Applying normalization condition
2
∫ |Ψ(x,0) | dx = 1
all space

Or
+∞
∗
∫ Ψ(x,0) Ψ(x,0) dx = 1
−∞
−a a +∞
2 2) 2 2)
∫ (0) dx + ∫ A(a − x A(a − x dx + ∫ (0) dx = 1
−∞ −a a

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Note that ∫all space integral needs to be evaluated only for those regions where Ψ ≠ 0 (because in other
region it constitutes 0)
+a

A ∫ (a4 + x 4 − 2a2 x2 ) dx = 1
2

−a
a a
2
x5 x3
A [a4 [x]a−a + [ ] − 2a2 [ ] ] = 1
5 −a 3 −a

2 4
A2 [2a5 + a5 − a5 ] = 1
5 3
30 + 6 − 20 5
A2 [ ]a = 1
15
15
A2 =
16a5
15
Normalization constant = A = √
16a5

b) Normalized wave function

15 2 2
Ψ(x,0) = {√16a5 (a − x ) if − a ≤ x ≤ +a

0 Otherwise
c) Expectation value of x

∗
〈x〉 = ∫ Ψ(x,0) x̂ Ψ(x,0) dx
all space

Where x̂ = x
+a
15
〈x〉 = ∫ x (a4 + x 4 − 2a2 x 2 ) dx
16a5
−a
∞
Note that we have to evaluate the integral ∫−∞ only over that region where Ψ ≠ 0, the other regions
where Ψ = 0 will constitute nothing.
+a
15
〈x〉 = ∫ (a4 x + x 5 − 2a2 x 3 ) dx
16a5
−a
a a a
15 4
x2 x6 2
x4
= [a [ ] + [ ] − 2a [ ] ]
16a5 2 −a 6 −a 4 −a

15 a4 1 a2
= [ (0) + (0) − (0)]
16a5 2 6 2

Expectation value of x = 〈x〉 = 0

d) (d1 )Expectation value of p
+∞
∗
〈px 〉 = ∫ Ψ(x,0) p̂x Ψ(x,0) dx
−∞

Note that here p is equal to px (i.e. momentum along x-axis) b/c problem is 1-D as clear from the fact that
Ψ = Ψ(x,0).

a
15 2 2 ))
∂ 15
〈px 〉 = ∫ (√ (a − x (−𝒾ℏ ) (√ (a2 − x 2 )) dx
16a5 ∂x 16a5
−a

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a
15 ∂
= 5
(−𝒾ℏ) ∫(a2 − x 2 ) (a2 − x 2 ) dx
16a ∂x
−a
a
15
=− (𝒾ℏ) ∫(a2 − x 2 ) (−2x) dx
16a5
−a
a
15
〈px 〉 = 5 (𝒾ℏ) ∫ x(a2 − x 2 ) dx
8a
−a

As integrand (x(a2 − x 2 ) = (even) (odd) = odd) is an odd function and limits are symmetric about origin
(x=0) so the integral will vanish due to cancellation of contributions from opposite side of origin.
Hence, expectation value of p
〈p〉 = 〈px 〉 = 0
md〈x〉
(d2 )No. In fact 〈px 〉 =
dt

But 〈x〉 is known only at one instant t=0 so we cannot determine 〈px 〉 from 〈x〉 by using alone relation.

e) Expectation value of x 2
+∞
∗
〈x 2 〉 = ∫ Ψ(x,0) x̂ 2 Ψ(x,0) dx
−∞

As x̂ = x so x̂ 2 = x 2
+a
15
〈x 2 〉 = ∫ x 2 (a2 − x 2 )2 dx
16a5
−a
+a
15
= ∫ x 2 (a4 + x 4 − 2a2 x 2 ) dx
16a5
−a
+a
15
= ∫ (a4 x 2 + x 6 − 2a2 x 4 ) dx
16a5
−a

Because integrand is an even function

+a
15
= 2 ∫ (a4 x 2 + x 6 − 2a2 x 4 ) dx
16a5
0
a a a
15 x3 x7 x5
= 5 [a4 [ ] + [ ] − 2a2 [ ] ]
8a 3 0 7 0 5 0

15 7 1 1 2
= a [ + − ]
8a5 3 7 5
15 2 35 + 15 − 42
= a [ ]
8 105
Expectation value of x 2

a2
〈x 2 〉 =
7
f) Expectation value of p2x

∗
〈p̂2x 〉 = ∫ Ψ(x,0) p̂2x Ψ(x,0) dx
all space

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a
15 2 2
∂ 2 15
= ∫( √ 5
(a − x )) (−𝒾ℏ ) (√ (a2 − x 2 )) dx
16a ∂x 16a5
−a

a
15 ∂2 2
= −ℏ2 ∫(a 2
− x 2) (a − x 2 ) dx
16a5 ∂x 2
−a
a
15 ∂
= −ℏ2 5
∫(a2 − x 2 ) (−2x) dx
16a ∂x
−a
a
15
= −ℏ2 ∫(a2 − x 2 ) (−2) dx
16a5
−a
a
30ℏ2
= ∫(a2 − x 2 ) dx
16a5
−a
a
30ℏ2 2 a x3
= [a [x]−a + [ ] ]
16a5 3 −a

30ℏ2 3
2a3
= (2a − )
16a5 3

30ℏ2 3 4
= a
16a5 3
Expectation value of p2x or p2

5ℏ2
〈p2 〉 = 〈p̂2x 〉 =
2a2
g) (g1 ) Uncertainty in x = Standard derivation in x

σx = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2

a2
σx = √ −0
7

Uncertainty in x = Standard derivation in x

a
σx =
√7
(g 2 ) Uncertainty in p = Uncertainty in px =Standard derivation in px

σpx = √〈px 2 〉 − 〈px 〉2

5ℏ2 5ℏ
=√ 2 −0=√
2a 2a

Hence

5ℏ
Uncertainty in p = √2 a

a 5ℏ
h) As σx = & σpx = √2 a
√7

a 5ℏ
σx σpx = √
√7 2 a

5
σx σpx = √ ℏ
14

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Which is quite in agreement with the HUP which state that

σx σpx or ∆x. ∆px

Problem # 6:
A particle is constrained to move along the x-axis in the domain 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 has a wave function
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝛹(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿
Where n=1,2,3……(an integer).
a) Normalize the wave function
b) Evaluate the expectation value of momentum
Solution:
a) Applying normalization condition
+∞
∗
∫ Ψ(x) Ψ(x) dx = 1
−∞
L
nπx nπx
∫ Asin ( ) A sin ( ) dx = 1
L L
0

Note that (i) We have attached the normalization constant A b/c it was not present already. (ii) We don’t
need to evaluate the integral from −∞ to +∞ b/c Ψ(x) is non-zero only in the region 0 ≤ x ≤ L.
L
nπx
A2 ∫ sin2 ( ) dx = 1
L
0
L
1 − cos2(nπx⁄L)
A2 ∫ ( ) dx = 1
2
0
A2 1 sin2nπL L
[[dx]L0 + [ ] ]=1
2 2 L 0
2
A 1 2nπL
[L + (sin − sin0)] = 1
2 2 L
But sin 2nπ = sin n(2π) = 0
A2
[L + 0] = 1
2

2
A=√
L

2
Normalization constant A = √L

Hence normalized wave function is

2 nπx
Ψ(x) = {√L sin ( L ) 0≤x≤L

0 elesewhere
b) Expectation value of momentum
+∞
∗
〈px 〉 = ∫ Ψ(x) p̂x Ψ(x) dx
−∞

L
2 nπx ∂ 2 nπx
〈px 〉 = ∫ √ sin ( ) (−𝒾ℏ ) √ sin ( ) dx
L L ∂x L L
0
L
2 nπx ∂ nπx
= − 𝒾ℏ ∫ sin ( ) ( ) sin ( ) dx
L L ∂x L
0

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L
2 nπx nπx L
= − 𝒾ℏ ∫ sin ( ) cos ( ) ( ) dx
L L L nπ
0
L
2𝒾ℏ L nπx nπx
=− ( ) ∫ sin ( ) cos ( ) dx
L nπ L L
0
L
2 nπx
2𝒾ℏL sin L
=− 2 2 [ ]
n π 2
0

𝒾ℏ nπL
=− 2 2 [sin2 − sin2 0]
n π L
𝒾ℏ
=− [0 − 0]
n2 π2
〈px 〉 = 0

Expectation value of px = 〈px 〉 = 0

Problem # 7:
Normalize
x2
Ψ(x) = Nx exp(− )
2
Solution:
By applying normalization condition
+∞
∗
∫ Ψ(x) Ψ(x) dx = 1
−∞
+∞
2 ⁄2 2 ⁄2
∫ Nx e−x Nx e−x dx = 1
−∞
+∞
2 ⁄2
N 2 ∫ x 2 e−2x dx = 1
−∞
+∞
2
N 2 ∫ x 2 e−x dx = 1 − − − − − (1)
−∞

Now by using the integral

+∞ π n! 1
n −∝x2
√ n n for even n = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ x e dx = { α ! (4α) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 for odd n, n = 1,3,5,7 … …

We get for n=2, α = 1

+∞
2 π 2! 1
∫ x 2 e−x dx = √ . .
1 2 ! (4α)2⁄2
−∞ 2
1 √π
= √π =
4 2
So (1) gives

√π
N2 =1
2
2
N2 =
√π

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2
N=√
√π

2
Normalization constant = N = √
√π

2 x2
Normalized wave function = Ψ(x) = √ π
x exp(− 2 )
√

Problem # 8:
The wave function of a particle in a state is
x2
Ψ(x) = N exp(− )
2α
1 1/4
Where N = ( )
πλ

Evaluate (∆x)(∆p)
Solution:
∆x = σx = uncertanity in x = standard derivation in x
∆p = ∆px = σpx = uncertanity in px = standard derivation in px

Now

σx = ∆x = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2 − − − − − (1)

σpx = ∆px = √〈px 2 〉 − 〈px 〉2 − − − −(2)

But before getting any information from Ψ, it is necessary to first normalize it.
Now by applying normalization condition

∗
∫ Ψ(x) Ψ(x) dx = 1
all space

Or
+∞
2 ⁄2α 2 ⁄2α
∫ N e−x N e−x dx = 1
−∞
+∞
2 2 ⁄2α
N ∫ e−2x dx = 1
−∞
+∞
1
2 −( )x2
N ∫ e α dx = 1
−∞
1
Put = λ = a constant then
α
+∞
2 2
N ∫ e−λx dx = 1
−∞

Now by using the integral

+∞ π n! 1
−∝x2
√ .n . n for even n = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ xn e dx = { α ! (4α) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 for odd n, n = 1,3,5,7 … …
We get for n=0, α = λ

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+∞
2 π 0! 1 π
∫ x 0 e−λx dx = √ . . 0 =√
λ 0 ! (4α) ⁄2 λ
−∞ 2
π
N2√ = 1
λ

π
N2 √ =1
1⁄α

N 2 √πα = 1

1 1/4
N=( )
πα
1 1/4
Normalization constant = N = ( )
πα

Hence Normalized wave function

1 1/4 x2
Ψ(x) = ( ) exp(− )
πα 2α
Calculation of 〈x〉:
+∞

〈x〉 = ∫ Ψ ∗ x̂ Ψ dx
−∞
+∞
1 1/2 2
=( ) ∫ x e−2x ⁄2α dx
πα
−∞
+∞
1 1/2 2
=( ) ∫ x e−x ⁄λ dx
πα
−∞
1
Where we have put = λ
α

b/c integrand is an odd function and limits are symmetric about origin, so
1
1 2
= ( ) (0)
πα
〈x〉 = 0

Calculation of 〈x 2 〉:

Expectation value of x 2
+∞

〈x 2 〉 = ∫ Ψ ∗ x̂ 2 Ψ dx
−∞
+∞
1 1/2 2
=( ) ∫ x 2 e−2x ⁄2α dx
πα
−∞
+∞
λ 1/2 2
=( ) ∫ x 2 e−λx dx
π
−∞
1
Where we have put α = λ

Now by using the integral

+∞ π n! 1
−∝x2
√ .n . n for even n = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ xn e dx = { α ! (4α) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 for odd n, n = 1,3,5,7 … …

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For n=2, α = λ
+∞
2 π 2! 1
∫ x 2 e−λx du = √ . .
2λ 2 ! (4λ)2⁄2
−∞ 2
π1
=√
λ 2λ
So

1 1/2 α
〈x 2 〉 = ( ) √πα
πα 2
α
〈x 2 〉 =
2
Hence
Uncertainty or Standard derivation

∆x = σx = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2
α
=√ −0
2
α
σx = √
2
Calculation of 〈px 〉:
+∞

〈px 〉 = ∫ Ψ ∗ p̂x Ψ dx
−∞
+∞
1 1/4 −x2⁄2α ∂ 1 1/4 −x2⁄2α
= ∫ ( ) e (−𝒾ℏ ) ( ) e dx
πα ∂x πα
−∞
1 +∞
1 2 2 1 2
= ( ) (−𝒾ℏ) ∫ e−x ⁄2α (− ) (2x)e−x ⁄2α dx
πα 2α
−∞
1 +∞
1 21 2
= 𝒾ℏ ( ) ∫ x e−x ⁄α dx
πα α
−∞

Now by using the integral

+∞ π n! 1
−∝x2
√ .n . n for even n = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ xn e dx = { α ! (4α) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 for odd n, n = 1,3,5,7 … …
We get for n=1
+∞
2 ⁄α
∫ x e−x dx = 0
−∞

So
1
1 21
〈px 〉 = 𝒾ℏ ( ) (0) = 0
πα α
Calculation of 〈p̂2x 〉 :

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+∞

〈p̂2x 〉 = ∫ Ψ ∗ p̂x 2 Ψ dx
−∞
+∞
1 1/4 −x2⁄2α ∂ 2 1 1/4 −x2⁄2α
= ∫ ( ) e (−𝒾ℏ ) ( ) e dx
πα ∂x πα
−∞
1 +∞
1 2 2 −x2 ⁄2α
∂ 2 −x2⁄2α
= ( ) (−𝒾ℏ) ∫ e ( ) e dx
πα ∂x
−∞

But
∂2 −x2⁄2α ∂ 2x 2 −x2⁄2α
(e ) = [− e ]
∂x 2 ∂x 2α
1 2 2x 2
= − [1. e−x ⁄2α + x (− ) e−x ⁄2α ]
α 2α
1 2 x2 2
= − [1. e−x ⁄2α − e−x ⁄2α ]
α α

So
+∞
λ 1/2 ℏ2 2 2
=( ) ∫ (e−λx − λx 2 e−λx )
π α
−∞
1
Where λ = α

Now by using the integral

+∞ π n! 1
n −∝x2
√ .n . n for even n = 0,2,4,6 … …
∫ x e dx = { α ! (4α) ⁄2
2
−∞ 0 for odd n, n = 1,3,5,7 … …
We get for n = 0
+∞
2 π 0! 1
∫ x 0 e−λx dx = √
λ 0/2! (4λ)0/2
−∞

= √πα
We get for n = 2
+∞
2 π 2! 1
∫ x 2 e−λx dx = √
λ 2/2! (4λ)2
−∞

π2 1
=√
λ 1 4λ
1 π
= √
2λ λ
α
= √πα
2
1 1/2 ℏ2 1α
〈p̂2x 〉 = ( ) (√πα − √πα)
πα α α2
ℏ2 1
= (1 − )
α 2
ℏ2
〈p̂2x 〉 =
2α
Hence, Uncertainty or standard derivation in px

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σpx = ∆px = √〈px 2 〉 − 〈px 〉2

ℏ2
=√ −0
2α

ℏ
=
√2α
Calculation of ∆x. ∆px
α ℏ
∆x. ∆px = √
2 √2α
ℏ
∆x. ∆px =
2
ℏ
Which is just in an accordance with the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle ∆x. ∆px ≥ .
2

Problem # 9:
Prove that two wave function will represent the same state and will follow the same normalization if they
differ only by a phase factor.

Problem # 10:
The wave function of a quantum mechanical particle is
Ax −1≤x≤1
Ψ(x,t) = {
0 otherwise
a) Determine the normalization constant A & normalized Ψ(x,t)
b) Determine the expectation value of x
c) Sketch Ψ
d) Sketch | Ψ|2
e) Expectation value of x 2
f) Standard derivation of x
Solution:
Assignment-Q1
Answer:
a)

3
A=√
2

Normalized wave function

3
Ψ(x,t) = {√2 x −1≤x≤1

0 otherwise
b)
〈x〉 = 0
(b/c integrand is odd & limits are symmetric about x=0)
c) Graph Ψ

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d) Graph | Ψ|2

3
e) 〈x 2 〉 =
5
f) Standard derivation of x

∆x = σx = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2

3
=√ −0
5

3
=√
5

Problem # 11:
The wave/state function of a quantum mechanical system (usually a particle) is
A(1 + cos x) − π ≤ x ≤ π or |x| < π
Ψ(x) = {
0 for x ≤ −π and x ≥ π
a) Normalize Ψ. What is the value of the normalization constant?
b) Sketch Ψ and | Ψ|2
c) Determine position probability density/ probability density px
∂px
d) Show that (i.e. probability density is constant in time)
∂t
e) What is the most expected position/ location? (i.e. most likely/ most probable position) of the
particle
Solution:
Assignment-Q2
Answer:
1
a) 𝐴 =
√3𝜋

Normalized wave function

1
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| < 𝜋
𝛹(𝑥) = {√3𝜋
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ −𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝜋

b)
1
c) | 𝛹|2 = 3𝜋 (1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)
d)
e) The most expected position of particle is x=0
〈𝑥〉 = 0

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Problem # 12:
In the last problem determine probability current density and show that the equation of continuity holds
𝜕𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽 + 𝜕𝑡 = 0

Solution:
In 1-D, probability density
∗
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 𝜌(𝑥) = 𝛹(𝑥) 𝛹(𝑥)

1 1
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥). (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| < 𝜋
𝜌(𝑥) = {√3𝜋 √3𝜋
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ −𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝜋
1 2
= {3𝜋 (1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| < 𝜋
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
& in 1-D
𝜕𝜌
= 0 − − − − − (𝛼)
𝜕𝑡
For all x (b/c 𝜌 is independent of time)
Probability current density
−𝒾ℏ ∗ 𝜕 𝜕 ∗
𝐽(𝑥) = (𝛹(𝑥) 𝛹(𝑥) − 𝛹(𝑥) 𝛹(𝑥) )
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

−𝒾ℏ 1 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)(0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) − 1 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)(0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| < 𝜋

= {
2𝑚 3𝜋 3𝜋
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
For all x
𝐽(𝑥) = 0 − − − − − (𝛽)

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐽(𝑥) = 𝛻⃗. 𝐽(𝑥) = 𝛻⃗. 0 = 0 − − − − − (𝛽)′

From (𝛼) and (𝛽)′ we get

𝜕𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 ⃗𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
Equation of continuity holds.
Problem # 13:
Draw the following wave functions
1) 𝛹 = 5𝐴
2) 𝛹 = −5𝐴
3) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥
4) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 2
5) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 −1
6) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 −2
7) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎 𝑥
2
8) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎 𝑥
9) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎−𝑥
2
10) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎−𝑥
11) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑎 + 𝑥)
12) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑎 − 𝑥)
13) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑎)
14) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥
15) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥
2
16) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥
2
17) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥
18) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎+𝑥)

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19) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎−𝑥)
20) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥−𝑎
2
21) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑥−𝑎)
2
22) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎−𝑥)
2
23) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎+𝑥)
2 2
24) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 +𝑎
25) 𝛹 = −𝐴𝑥
26) 𝛹 = −𝐴𝑥 2
Solution:
1) 𝛹 = 5𝐴

2) 𝛹 = −5𝐴

3) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥
It is just like y=mx + c with m=A and & c=0 (i.e. it passes through origin)

4) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 2

5) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 −1

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6) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 −2

7) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎 𝑥

2
8) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎 𝑥

9) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎−𝑥

2
10) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑎−𝑥

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11) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑎 + 𝑥) = 𝐴𝑎 + 𝐴𝑥
This is similar to y= mx + c

12) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝐴𝑎 − 𝐴𝑥 = −𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑎

This is similar to y= -mx + c (straight line not passing through origin & having –ve slope)

13) 𝛹 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐴𝑎
This is similar to y= mx - c (straight line not passing through origin & intersecting at –ve y-axis)

14) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥
Graph will be similar to that of 𝐴𝑎 𝑥

15) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥

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Graph will be similar to that of 𝐴𝑎 𝑥

2
16) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥
2
Graph will be similar to 𝐴𝑎 𝑥

2
17) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑥
2
Graph will be just like 𝐴𝑎−𝑥

18) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎+𝑥)

19) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎−𝑥)

20) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥−𝑎

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2
21) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑥−𝑎)

2
22) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎−𝑥)

2
23) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 (𝑎+𝑥)

2 +𝑎 2
24) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥

25) 𝛹 = −𝐴𝑥

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26) 𝛹 = −𝐴𝑥 2

27) 𝛹 = 𝐴𝑥 3

28) 𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

29) 𝛹 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

30) 𝛹 = |𝑥|

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31) 𝛹 = 𝑥 1/2

32) 𝛹 = −|𝑥|

33) 𝛹 = (𝑎2 −𝑥 2 )1/2

Problem # 14:
Are there functions linearly independent?
a) f(x) = x, g(x) = 3x
4
b) f(x) = −2x 2 , h(x) = − 3 x 2
c) f(x) = 3x, g(x) = 5x 2
Solution:
a) let a & b are constants
Now
𝑎𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥) = 0 − − − − − (1)
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏(3𝑥) = 0
If a=-3, b=1, then the equation is valid.
There exist a set of scales (which are not all zero) that makes true/valid. Hence f and g functions are
linearly dependent.

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Note if two functions are linearly dependent then either of them can be written as a linear combination or
multiple of other.
e.g. In above example
1
𝑓 = (𝑔) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = 3𝑓
3
b) Here
𝑎𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏ℎ(𝑥) = 0
4
𝑎(−2𝑥 2 ) + 𝑏 (− 𝑥 2 ) = 0
3
4
−2𝑥 2 𝑎 − 𝑥 2 𝑏 = 0
3
If we choose a=1, b=-3/2 then this equation becomes true/valid. f(x) and h(x) are linearly dependent.
c) Here
𝑎𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥) = 0

𝑎(3𝑥) + 𝑏(5𝑥 2 ) = 0
As this equation holds true only if we choose a=b=0 (& there is no other set of a and b which can make this
equation valid) so f(x) & g(x) are linearly independent (i.e. they cannot be written as a multiple of each
other).
Problem # 15:
If
12 m−1 )x−(7.0×1016 s−1 )t]
Ψ(x,t) = Ae−i[(1.58×10

Then determine
a) Momentum
b) Energy
c) Mass of particle
d) Velocity of particle
Solution:
The given wave function is the plane wave solution of SWE for a free particle 𝛹(𝑥,𝑡)=𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)

So by comparison, we get

K = (magnitude of wave vector) =1.58 × 1012 𝑚−1

And

𝜔 = 7.9 × 1016 𝑠 −1
Now
ℎ
a) Momentum of free particle = 𝑝 = ℏ𝐾 = 2𝜋 × 𝐾
6.62 × 10−34
=( ) (1.58 × 1012 )
2 × 3.14
= 1.67 × 10−22 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
ℎ
b) Energy of free particle= 𝐸 = ℏ 𝜔 = ×𝜔
2𝜋
6.62 × 10−34
=( ) (7.9 × 1016 )
2 × 3.14
= 8.35 × 10−18 𝐽
𝑝2
c) As K.E =2𝑚
𝑝2
m=2𝐾.𝐸
Now for a free particle, Total energy (E)=K. E + P.E
=K.E+0
E =K.E

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So for
𝑝2
𝑚=
2𝐸
(1.67×10−22 )2
=2(8.35×10−18 )
=1.67 × 10−27kg
(Which specifies that particle is either a proton or neutron)
𝑝
d) Velocity of a particle=𝑣 =
𝑚
1.67 × 10−22
=
1.67 × 10−27
𝑚
= 105
𝑠
Problem # 16:
An electron is found to be in a state given by
x−a 2
−[ ]
ψ(x) = Ae 2ϵ

Determine
a) A
b) Expectation value of position
c) Uncertainty in position

Solution:
a) Applying normalization condition
2
∫ |ψ(x) | = 1
𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞
or
∞
∫ ψ(x) ∗ ψ(x) dx = 1
−∞
∞ x−a 2
2 −2[ ]
A ∫ e 2ϵ dx =1
−∞
∞ (x−a)2
−
A2 ∫ e 2ϵ2 dx =1
−∞
Let us put
x−a=u dx = du
Also when x changes from −∞ to + ∞
u changes from −∞ to + ∞
∞ u2
2 −
A ∫ e 2ϵ2 du =1
−∞
Now using the integral

∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
𝑛 −𝛼𝑥 2 √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 − − −
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 𝑛/2! (4𝛼)𝑛/2
−∞
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, 7 − − −

1
We get x = u , n = 0 & α = 2ϵ2
∞
−(
1
)u2 π 2 0! 1
∫ u0 e 2ϵ2 du = ( 2
) . . = √2πϵ2
−∞ 1/2ϵ 0/2! (4(1/2ϵ2 ))0/2
So it gives
A2 √2πϵ2 = 1
1
A= 1
(2πϵ2 )4
1
Normalization constant = A =
(2πϵ2 )1/4
b) To get the expectation value of position (i.e. 〈x〉 ), we first get
Normalized wave function

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1 x−a 2
−[ ]
ψ(x) = e 2ϵ
(2πϵ2 )1/4
Now
Expectation value of position
∞
〈x〉 = ∫ ψ(x) ∗ x̂ψ(x) dx
−∞
∞ x−a 2 ∞ 1
1 −2[ ] − (x−a)2
〈x〉 = ∫ xe 2ϵ dx = A2 ∫ xe 2ϵ2 dx
2
(2πϵ )1/2
−∞ −∞
Let us put x − a = u dx = du
And Also when x changes from −∞ to + ∞
Then u also changes from −∞ to + ∞.
So that
∞ 1 2
2 − u
〈x〉 = A ∫ (u + a) e 2ϵ2 du
−∞
∞ 1 2 ∞ 1 2
− u − u
= A2 [∫ u e 2ϵ2 du + a ∫ u0 e 2ϵ2 du]
−∞ −∞
Now using the integral

∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
𝑛 −𝛼𝑥 2 √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 − − −
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 𝑛/2! (4𝛼)𝑛/2
−∞
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, 7 − − −

1
with (n = 1, α = 2ϵ2 for 1st integral)

&
1
with (n = 0, α = for 2nd integral)
2ϵ2
We get

π 0! 1
〈x〉 = A2 0 + a
. .
√ 1 0 0
2 2 ! 1 2
2ϵ (4 ( 2 ))
[ ( 2ϵ )]
1
= . [a√2πϵ2 ]
(2πϵ2 )1/2
〈x〉 = a = expactation value of position.
c) Uncertainty in position
∆x = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2
Here 〈x〉 is already known and to get uncertainty we have to find 〈x 2 〉 first.
So, now let us calculate.
∞
〈x 2 〉 = ∫ ψ(x) ∗ (x̂)2 ψ(x) dx
−∞
∞ x−a 2 ∞ 1
1 2 −2[ 2ϵ ] 2 −2ϵ2 (x−a)
2
〈x 2 〉 = ∫ x e dx = A2
∫ x e dx
(2πϵ2 )1/2 −∞ −∞
Put x − a = u so that dx = du
Also when x = −∞, u = −∞
x = +∞, u = +∞
∞ 1
− 2 u2
〈x 2 〉 = A2 ∫ (u + a)2 e 2ϵ du
−∞
∞ 1 2 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 2
− u − 2 u2 − u
= A2 [∫ u2 e 2ϵ2 du + a2 ∫ u0 e 2ϵ du + 2a ∫ u e 2ϵ2 du]
−∞ −∞ −∞
Now using the Integral

∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
𝑛 −𝛼𝑥 2 √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 − − −
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 𝑛/2! (4𝛼)𝑛/2
−∞
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, 7 − − −
1
We get with α = 2ϵ2

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π 2! 1 π 0! 1
〈x 2 〉 = A2 . . + a2 . . 0 + 2a(0)
√ 1 2/2! 2 √ 1 0/2!
2 2
2ϵ2 1 2ϵ2 1
(4 ( 2 )) (4 ( 2 ))
[( 2ϵ ) ( 2ϵ ) ]
ϵ2
〈x 2 〉 = A2 [(√2πϵ2 . 2. ) + a2 (√2πϵ2 )]
2

1 ϵ2
〈x 2 〉 = [(√2πϵ2 . 2. ) + a2 (√2πϵ2 )]
√2πϵ2 2

〈x 2 〉 = ϵ2 + a2

Here Uncertainty in position =∆x = √〈x 2 〉 − 〈x〉2

=√(ϵ2 + a2 ) − a2

=√ϵ2 + a2 − a2
=ϵ
Problem # 17:
Normalize the wave function
2
ψ(x) = Ae−ax

mk
which is a Gaussian centered at origin. Here a = √ 4ℏ

Solution:
Applying the normalization condition.
2
∫𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞|ψ(x) | =1
∞
∫ ψ(x) ∗ ψ(x) dx = 1
−∞
∞
2
A2 ∫ e−2ax dx = 1
−∞

Now using the integral

∞ 𝜋 𝑛! 1
2 √ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,2,4,6 − − −
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = { 𝛼 𝑛/2! (4𝛼)𝑛/2
−∞
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, 7 − − −

We get for α = 2a & n=0

π 0! 1
1 = A2 [(√ . . 0 )]
2a 0/2!
(4(2a))2
π
1 = A2 (√ )
2a
1
2
2a
A = (√ )
π

2a 1/4
A=( )
π
1/4
2 mk
A=( √ )
π 4ℏ
1/4
4mk
A=(√4ℏ2 π2 )

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mk 1/8
A = ( 2 2)
ℏ π
Hence Normalized wave function

mk 1/8 2
ψ(x) = ( 2 2 ) e−ax
ℏ π
Problem # 18:
Check whether the following sets of functions are linearly independent or dependent on x-axis.

a) f(x) = 4, g(x) = x 2 , h(x) = e2x

b) f(x) = x, g(x) = x 2 , h(x) = x 3
c) f(x) = x, g(x) = 5x, h(x) = x 2
d) f(x) = 2 + x 2 , g(x) = 3 − x + 4x 3 , h(x) = 3x + 3x 2 − 8x 3

Solution:
a) If a, b & c are constants then consider
a f(x) + b g(x) + c h(x) = 0 − − − − − (1)
a (4) + b (x 2 ) + c (e2x ) = 0
Now we get the coefficients of different powers of x.
(4a)x 0 + (b)x 2 + (c)e2x = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of different powers of x are separately equal to
zero, so
(4a = 0) (b = 0) (c = 0)
a=0 b=0 c=0
As the only possible set of a, b, c is 0, 0, 0 which satisfies equation (1) so the given functions are linearly
independent of each other.
b) If a, b & c are constants then consider
a f(x) + b g(x) + c h(x) = 0 − − − − − (1)
a (x) + b (x 2 ) + c (x 3 ) = 0
This equation will be true only if the coefficients of different powers of x are separately equal to zero, so
a=0 b=0 c=0
As the only possible set of a, b, c is 0, 0, 0 which satisfies equation (1) so the given functions are linearly
independent of each other.
c)
If a, b & c are constants then consider
a f(x) + b g(x) + c h(x) = 0 − − − − − (1)
a (x) + b (5x) + c (x 2 ) = 0
(a + 5b)x + c (x 2 ) = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of different powers of x are separately equal to
zero, so
a + 5b = 0 c=0
a = −5b c=0
Which means we can choose any set of a & b which obeys a = −5b if
If b=1, a=-5
If b=2, a=-10 etc.
Hence one set of a, b, c which satisfies (1) is -5, 1, 0
Another set of a, b, c which satisfies (1) is -10, 2, 0 and so on
Hence the given functions are linearly dependent.
d) If a, b & c are constants then consider
a f(x) + b g(x) + c h(x) = 0 − − − − − (1)
a (2 + x 2 ) + b (3 − x + 4x 3 ) + c (3x + 3x 2 − 8x 3 ) = 0
(2a + 3b)x 0 + (−b + 2c)x + (a + 3c)x 2 + (4b − 8c)x 3 = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of different powers of x are separately equal to
zero, so
2a + 3b = 0 − − − − − (A)
−b + 2c = 0 − − − − − (B)
a + 3c = 0 − − − − − (C)
4b − 8c = 0 − − − − − (D)

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Taking vale of b from (B) b = +2c and putting in (D) we get 4 (2c) − 8c = 0
8c = 8c
We can choose any value of c because all values of c will satisfy this equation 8c = 8c
For simplicity we choose c=1
Then b = 2c b=2
Now(C) gives a = −3c a = −3
Hence one possible set of a, b, c which satisfies (1) is −3,2,1
(other possible sets can be obtianed by choosing other non-zero values of c)
The given functions are linearly dependent.
Problem # 19:
Are the following sets of vectors (in the three-dimensional Euclidean space) linearly dependent or
independent?

a) ⃗A = (3,0,0), ⃗B = (0,-2,0), ⃗C = (0,0,-1)

b) ⃗A = (6,-9,0), ⃗B = (-2,3,0)
c) ⃗A = (2,3,-1), ⃗B = (0,1,2), ⃗C = (0,0,-5)
d) A⃗ = (1,-2,3), B⃗ = (-4,1,7), C⃗ = (0,10,11), and D
⃗ = (14,3,-4)

Solution:
a) If a, b & c are constants then consider
⃗ + b ⃗B + c ⃗C = 0 − − − − − (1)
aA
a(3î) + b(−2ĵ) + c(−k̂) = 0
(3a)î + (−2b)ĵ + (−c)k̂ = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of î, ĵ, k̂are separately equal to zero, so
3a = 0 − 2b = 0 −c=0
a=0 b=0 c=0
As the only possible sets/combinations of a, b, c which satisfies (1) is 0, 0, 0 so the vectors ⃗A, ⃗B, and ⃗C are
linearly independent.
b) If a, b are constants then consider
⃗ +bB
aA ⃗ = 0 − − − − − (1)
a(6î − 9ĵ) + b(−2î + 3ĵ) = 0
(6a − 2b)î + (−9a + 3b)ĵ = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of î & ĵare separately equal to zero, so
6a − 2b = 0 − − − − − (A)
−9a + 3b = 0 − − − − − (B)
b = 3a
putting it in (B) we get
−9a + 3(3a) = 0 or −9a = −9a
9a = 9a
Which will be true for all values of a we can choose any value of a.
Let we choose a = 1, then b = 3a= 3
Hence one possible combination of a & b which satisfies (1) is (1,3)
(other possible sets can be obtianed by choosing other non-zero values of a)
Hence the given vectors are linearly dependent.
c) If a, b & c are constants then consider
aA⃗ + b ⃗B + c ⃗C = 0 − − − − − (1)
a(2î + 3ĵ − k̂) + b(ĵ − 2k̂) + c(−5k̂) = 0
(2a)î + (3a + b)ĵ + (−a − 2b − 5c)k̂ = 0
Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of î, ĵ, k̂are separately equal to zero, so
2a = 0 3a + b = 0 − 5c = 0
a=0 b=0 c=0
As the only possible sets/combinations of a, b, c which satisfies (1) is 0, 0, 0 , so the vectors c
d) If a, b, c & d are constants then consider
⃗ + b ⃗B + c ⃗C + dD
aA ⃗ = 0 − − − − − (1)
a(î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) + b(−4î + ĵ + 7k̂) + c(10ĵ + 11k̂) + d(14î + 3ĵ − 4k̂) = 0
(a − 4b + 11d)î + (−2a + b + 10c + 3d)ĵ + (3a + 7b + 11c − 4d)k̂ = 0

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Clearly this equation will be true only if the coefficients of î, ĵ, k̂ are separately equal to zero, so
a − 4b + 14d = 0 − − − − − (A)
−2a + b + 10c + 3d = 0 − − − − − (B)
3a + 7b + 11c − 4d = 0 − − − − − (c)
As for four unknowns a, b, c, d cannot be determined from 3 equations (A), (B) & (C) , So must choose an
arbitrary value for one of them & then determine the values of the remaining three.For simplicity , one set
d=1, then
(A) Gives a − 4b = −14 (A)′
(B) Gives −2a + b + 10c = −3 (B)′
(C) Gives 3a + 7b + 11c = 4 (C)′
′
(11(B) ) + (−10(C) ) Gives ′

−22a + 11b + 110c = −33

− 30a − 70b − 110c = −40
−52a − 59b = −73 (D)
′
Taking the value of (a = 4b − 14) from (A) and putting into (D) we get
−52(4b − 14) − 59b = −73
−208b + 728 − 59b = −73
−267b = −728 − 73
−267b = −80
b=3
Putting the value of b in a
a = 4b − 14
a = 4(3) − 14
a = −2
′
So from (B) − 2(−2) + 3 + 10c = −3
−3 − 4 − 3
c= = −1
10
c = −1
Hence one possible combination of a, b, c & d which makes (1) true is −2, −3, −1, 1 .
Hence A ⃗ ,B ⃗ and D
⃗ ,C ⃗ are linearly dependent functions.

Problem # 20:

Consider the following two Kets:

−3i̇ 2
|ψ⟩ = (2 + i) , |ϕ⟩ = ( −i )
4 2 − 3i
a) Find the bra ⟨ϕ|.
b) Evaluate the scalar product ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩.
c) Examine why the products |ψ⟩|ϕ⟩ and ⟨ϕ|⟨ψ| do not make sense.

Solution:
a) To get bra from ket (or vice versa) use always following two steps.
1. Take transpose of the matrix.
2. Take complex conjugate of all elements
∗
−3i̇ −3i̇ T
|ψ⟩ = [2 + i] ⟨ψ| = [[2 + i] ]
4 4

⟨ψ| = [−3i 2 + i 4]∗

⟨ψ| = [3i 2 − i 4]
b)
Scalar product=⟨ϕ|ψ⟩
= ⟨ϕ| |ψ⟩
−3i̇
= [2 i 2 + 3i] [2 + i]
4
= (2)(−3i) + (i)(2 + i) + (2 + 3i)(4)
= −6i + 2i − 1 + 8 + 12i

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⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = 7 + 8i
c)
−3i̇ 2
|ψ⟩|ϕ⟩ = [2 + i] [ −i ]
4 2 − 3i
R1 × C1 R 2 × C2
3×1 3×1
As R 2 ≠ C1
So the two column matrices cannot be multiplied. The product |ψ⟩|ϕ⟩ is not possible and is meaningless.
Similarly,
⟨ϕ|⟨ψ| = [2 i 2 + 3i] [3i 2 − i 4]
R1 × C1 R 2 × C2
1×3 1×3
As R 2 ≠ C1
So the two row matrices cannot be multiplied. The product ⟨ϕ|⟨ψ| is not possible and is meaningless.
Problem # 21:
Consider the states |ψ⟩ = 3i |ϕ1 ⟩ − 7i |ϕ2 ⟩ and |χ⟩ = −|ϕ1 ⟩ + 2i |ϕ2 ⟩. Where |ϕ1 ⟩ and |ϕ2 ⟩ are
orthonormal.
a. Calculate |ψ + χ⟩ and ⟨ψ + χ|.
b. Calculate the scalar products ⟨ ψ | χ ⟩ and ⟨ χ | ψ ⟩. Are they equal?
c. Show that the states |ψ⟩ and |χ⟩ satisfy the Schwarz inequality.
d. Show that the states |ψ⟩ and |χ⟩ satisfy the triangle inequality.

Solution:
a) |ψ + χ⟩ = |ψ⟩ + |χ⟩
= 3i |ϕ1 ⟩ − 7i |ϕ2 ⟩ − |ϕ1 ⟩ + 2i |ϕ2 ⟩
= (3i − 1)|ϕ1 ⟩ + (2i − 7i)|ϕ2 ⟩
|ψ + χ⟩ = (−1 + 3i)|ϕ1 ⟩ − 5i|ϕ2 ⟩
And
⟨ψ + χ| = ⟨ψ| + ⟨χ|

To get bra ⟨ψ| from ket |ψ⟩ we follow two steps

1. Change all bras into kets and all kets into bras
2. Take complex conjugates of their coefficients

So
⟨ψ| = −3i⟨ϕ1 | + 7i⟨ϕ2 |

&
⟨χ| = −⟨ϕ1 | − 2i⟨ϕ2 |

So
⟨ψ + χ| = ⟨ψ| + ⟨χ|

= −3i⟨ϕ1 | + 7i⟨ϕ2 | − ⟨ϕ1 | − 2i⟨ϕ2 |

= (−1 − 3i)⟨ϕ1 | + 5i⟨ϕ2 |
Alternate:
⟨ψ + χ| can also be obtained from |ψ + χ⟩ by these two steps needed to convert ket into bra
As
|ψ + χ⟩ = (−1 + 3i)|ϕ1 ⟩ − 5i|ϕ2 ⟩
⟨ψ + χ| = (−1 − 3i)⟨ϕ1 | + 5i⟨ϕ2 |
b)
i. ⟨ ψ | χ ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |χ⟩

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= (−3i⟨ϕ1 | + 7i⟨ϕ2 |) ( − |ϕ1 ⟩ + 2i |ϕ2 ⟩)

= 3i⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ + 6⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ − 7i⟨ϕ2 |ϕ1 ⟩ − 14⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩
but as |ϕ1 ⟩ nd|ϕ2 ⟩ are orthonormal (i. e they are individualy normalized and are mutualy orthogonal
⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ = 1 & ⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩ = 1
⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = 0 & ⟨ϕ2 |ϕ1 ⟩ = 0
So using these values we get
⟨ ψ | χ ⟩ = 3i − 14 (α)
ii. Also
⟨ χ | ψ ⟩ = ⟨χ| |ψ⟩

= (−⟨ϕ1 | − 2i⟨ϕ2 |)( 3i |ϕ1 ⟩ − 7i |ϕ2 ⟩)

= −3i⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ − 14⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩
(The other two terms vanish because ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = 0 & ⟨ϕ2 |ϕ1 ⟩ = 0.)
⟨ χ | ψ ⟩ = −3i − 14 (β)
From (α) and (β) we see that
⟨ψ|χ⟩ ≠ ⟨χ|ψ⟩
However
⟨ ψ | χ ⟩ = ⟨ χ | ψ ⟩∗
c) Schwarz Inequality
|⟨ ψ | χ ⟩|2 ≤ ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ ⟨χ|χ⟩
Now
|⟨ ψ | χ ⟩|2 = ⟨ψ|χ⟩ ⟨ψ|χ⟩∗
= (3i − 14)(3i − 14)∗
= −9i2 − 42i + 42i + 196
|⟨ ψ | χ ⟩|2 = 9 + 196 = 205
And
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |ψ⟩
= (−3i⟨ϕ1 | + 7i⟨ϕ2 |) ( 3i |ϕ1 ⟩ − 7i |ϕ2 ⟩)
= −3i⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ − 14⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 9 + 49 = 58
And
⟨χ|χ⟩ = ⟨χ| |χ⟩
= (−⟨ϕ1 | − 2i⟨ϕ2 |)( −|ϕ1 ⟩ + 2i |ϕ2 ⟩)
= +⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ + 4⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩
⟨χ|χ⟩ = 1 + 4 = 5
As 205 < (58)(5)
Thus Schwarz inequality is verified

d) Triangle inequality
√⟨ψ + χ | ψ + χ⟩ < √⟨ψ|ψ⟩ + √⟨χ|χ⟩
Now

√⟨ψ + χ | ψ + χ⟩ = √⟨ψ + χ| |ψ + χ⟩

= √((−1 − 3i)⟨ϕ1 | + 5i⟨ϕ2 | )( (−1 + 3i)|ϕ1 ⟩ − 5i|ϕ2 ⟩ )

= √((−1)2 − (3i)2 )⟨ϕ1 |ϕ1 ⟩ − (5i)2 ⟨ϕ2 |ϕ2 ⟩

= √(1 + 9) − (−25) = √35

Also

√⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = √58 & √⟨χ|χ⟩ = √5

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Now

As √35 < √58 + √5

Hence triangle inequality is verified.
Problem # 22:
Consider two states |ψ1 ⟩ = 2i|ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩ − a|ϕ3 ⟩ + 4|ϕ4 ⟩ and |ψ2 ⟩ = 3|ϕ1 ⟩ − i|ϕ2 ⟩ + 5|ϕ3 ⟩ − |ϕ4 ⟩
where |ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩ , |ϕ3 ⟩ and |ϕ4 ⟩ are orthonormal kets and where a is a constant. Find the value of a so that
|ψ1 ⟩ and |ψ2 ⟩ are orthonormal.

Solution:
If |𝜓1 ⟩ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜓2 ⟩ are orthonormal then
⟨𝜓1 |𝜓2 ⟩ = 0 & ⟨𝜓2 |𝜓1 ⟩ = 0

As |𝜓1 ⟩ = 2𝑖|𝜙1 ⟩ + |𝜙2 ⟩ − 𝑎|𝜙3 ⟩ + 4|𝜙4 ⟩

So ⟨𝜓1 | = −2𝑖⟨𝜙1 | + ⟨𝜙2 | − 𝑎⟨𝜙3 | + 4⟨𝜙4 |

So we get
⟨𝜓1 |𝜓2 ⟩ = (−2𝑖⟨𝜙1 | + ⟨𝜙2 | − 𝑎⟨𝜙3 | + 4⟨𝜙4 |) (3|𝜙1 ⟩ − 𝑖|𝜙2 ⟩ + 5|𝜙3 ⟩ − |𝜙4 ⟩)=0

Now keeping in mind the given fact that |𝜙1 ⟩ , |𝜙2 ⟩ , |𝜙3 ⟩ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜙4 ⟩ are orthonormal kets so
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑗
⟨𝜙𝑖 |𝜙𝑗 ⟩ = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
We get
0 = (−2𝑖)(3) + (1)(−𝑖) + (−9)(5) + (4)(−1)
−4 7
0 = −6𝑖 − 𝑖 − 5𝑎 − 4 If 𝑎 =
5
− 𝑖
5
then
−5𝑎 = 4 + 7𝑖 |𝜓1 ⟩&|𝜓2 ⟩ will
−4−7𝑖 be
𝑎= 5 orthonormal

−4 7
𝑎= − 𝑖
5 5
Problem # 23:
̂+A
a) Discuss the hermiticity of the operators (A ̂t ). i(A
̂+Ât ). And i(A
̂+A ̂t ).
̂ ) = (1 + iA
b) Find the hermitian adjoint of f(A ̂ + 3Â2 )(1 − 2i − 9Â2 )/(5 + 7 ).
c) Show that the expectation value of a hermitian operator is real and that of an anti-
hermitian operator is imaginary.

Solution:

a) By using the “adjoint”(∗) of sum is equal

to the sum of adjoints (*) here adjoint means
̂+B ̂ )t = A
̂t + B
̂t hermitian adjoint.
(A
We get
̂+A
(A ̂t )t = A ̂t + (Ât )t
=A ̂t + Â ∴Â = (A ̂t )t
t
̂+A
(A ̂t ) = A ̂+A ̂t
̂+A
(A ̂t ) is a hermitiam operator because its adjoint is equal to the operator itself.
t
̂+A
b) Consider (i(A ̂t )) = (A ̂t )t . (i)t
̂+A
(Because adjoint of product is equal to the product of adjoints in reverse order)
= (A ̂+A ̂t )t . (−i)
̂t )t )t (−i)
̂t + (A
= (A

(Because adjoint of sum is equal to the sum of adjoint)

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{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = −𝒾(A

̂+A ̂+A
̂t )
b
̂t )t = A
( c (A ̂t

So
{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = −𝒾(A
̂+A ̂+A
̂t )

̂+A
As the adjoint (I-e Hermitian adjoint of the operator 𝒾(A ̂t ) is not equal to the operator itself, so 𝒾(A
̂+
̂t ) is not a Hermitian operator.
A
Also as
{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = −𝒾(A
̂+A ̂+A
̂t )

̂+A
The operator 𝒾((A ̂t ) is an anti-Hermitian or skew Hermitian operator.

Let us consider

{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = it (A
̂−A ̂−A
̂t )

{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = it (A
̂−A ̂−A
̂t )

̂t -A
=(A ̂ )(−𝒾)

{𝒾(A ̂t )}t = 𝒾(A

̂−A ̂−A
̂t )

̂t )}t is equal to the operator itself. So it is a

̂−A
As the Hermitian adjoint of the given operator {𝒾(A
Hermitian operator.
b)
̂ ̂2 ̂ ̂ 2)
̂ )=(1+𝒾A+3A )(1−2𝒾A−9A
f(A (5+7Â)

Taking adjoint on both sides, we get

̂ 2 )(1−2𝒾A
̂ +3A
(1+𝒾A ̂ 2) t
̂ −9A
̂ )=(
f t (A )
(5+7A) ̂

̂ 2 )(1−2𝒾A
̂ +3A
{(1+𝒾A ̂ 2 )}t
̂ −9A
= (5+7A ̂ )t

̂ 2 )t (1−2𝒾A
̂ +3A
(1+𝒾A ̂ 2 )t
̂ −9A
= ̂ t
(5+7A)

̂ )t +(3A
(1+(𝒾A ̂ 2 )t )(1−(2𝒾A
̂ )t −(9A
̂ 2 )t )
= ̂ )t
(5+7A

̂ 2 t )(1+2𝒾A
̂ t +3A
(1−𝒾A ̂ 2t)
̂ t −9A
= ̂t
5+7A

c)
̂ is represented byA
The Hermitian adjoint of an operator A ̂t and is defined as

̂t |Φ >=< Φ|A
< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ is Hermitian then A
Now if A ̂t = A
̂ so we get

̂ |Φ >=< Φ|A
< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ is given as
Now expectation value of an operator A
̂ |Ψ >=expectation value of A
< Ψ|A ̂

But if Ψ >= Ψ > then it gives

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̂ |Φ >=< Φ|A
< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ |Ψ > is equal to < Ψ|A

The complex conjugate of < Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ > itself.

̂ |Ψ > Is a real number.

< Ψ|A
̂ |Ψ > of a Hermitian operator is a real value.
Expectation value < Ψ|A

C’)
̂ is represented byA
The Hermitian adjoint of an operator A ̂t and is defined as

̂t |Φ >=< Φ|A
< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ is Anti-Hermitian then A
Now if A ̂t = A
̂ so we get

̂ |Φ >=< Φ|A
-< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ is given as
Now expectation value of an operator A
̂ |Ψ >=expectation value of A
< Ψ|A ̂

But if Ψ >= φ > then it gives

̂ |Φ >=< Φ|A
-< Ψ|A ̂ |Ψ >∗

̂ |Ψ > is equal to negative of it

The complex conjugate of < Ψ|A
̂ |Ψ > is purely imaginary.
< Ψ|A
̂ |Ψ > of an Anti- Hermitian operator is purely a negative value.
Expectation value < Ψ|A

Problem # 24:
Show that if |Ψ > is normalized then the operator |Ψ >< Ψ|(obtained by taking product of the |Ψ > and
<Ψ| is also a projection 0perator).
Answer:
By definition operator is said to be a projection.
Operator if
̂t = A
(i) it is Hermitian i-e A ̂ and (ii) its square is equal to itself A
̂2 = A
̂

Then|Ψ >< Ψ|t =|Ψ >< Ψ|

➢ |Ψ >< Ψ| is a Hermitian operator.

Now |Ψ >< Ψ|2 = (|Ψ >< Ψ|)(|Ψ >< Ψ|)

=|Ψ >< Ψ|Ψ >< Ψ|
If |Ψ > is normalized then < Ψ|Ψ >=1, so that
|Ψ >< Ψ|2 =|Ψ >< Ψ|
From equation 1 and 2 we conclude that |Ψ >< Ψ| is a projection operator if |Ψ > is normalized.
Problem # 25:
a) Show that commutative of two Hermitian operators is anti-Hermitian.
b) Evaluate the commutative

̂ ,(B
(A ̂,Ĉ)D
̂)

Answer:
̂t = A
a) Let A and B are Hermitian operators i-eA ̂ and B
̂t = B
̂

NOW
̂ and B
Commutative of A ̂ ,B
̂=(A ̂B
̂)= A ̂-B
̂Â Taking Hermitian adjoint on both sides

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̂, B
(A ̂B
̂)t = (A ̂−B
̂Â )t =(A
̂B̂)t − (B
̂Â )t

̂t B
=A ̂ t -B ̂t
̂tA

(Hermitian adjoint of product is equal to product of adjoint in series order ĈD

̂ t =Ĉ t D
̂t

̂t = A
But A ̂ and B
̂t = B
̂

̂, B
So (A ̂)t = (B
̂Â−A
̂B ̂B
̂)=−(A ̂−B
̂Â)

̂, B
(A ̂, B
̂)t = −(A ̂)

̂, B
(A ̂) is anti-Hermitian hence that the commutative of the Hermitian operator is anti-Hermitian.

̂ ,(B
b) (A ̂,Ĉ)D
̂ =?

̂,Ĉ)=B
First we see that (B ̂Ĉ-ĈB
̂

̂,Ĉ) D
(B ̂Ĉ-ĈB
̂ =( B ̂) D
̂

̂ĈD
=B ̂ -ĈB
̂D̂

̂ ,(B
(A ̂,Ĉ)D ̂B
̂ )=(A ̂ĈD
̂ -ĈB
̂D̂)

̂B
=(A ̂ĈD ̂ ĈB
̂ -A ̂D ̂ĈD
̂ )-( B ̂Â -ĈB
̂D ̂)
̂A

̂B
=A ̂ ĈD ̂ ĈB
̂ -A ̂D ̂ĈD
̂- B ̂Â +ĈB
̂D ̂
̂A

Problem # 26:
Evaluate the uncertainty relation between components of position and momentum operators.
Answer:
̂ and B
In general if A ̂ are two Hermitian operators and ∆A and ∆B are the uncertainty in there
corresponding observable then,
1
̂ ,B
∆A. ∆B≥ 2 |〈[A ̂ ]〉|------------ (1)

Hence for x̂ and p

̂(1)
x gives
1
̂x ]〉|
∆x. ∆px ≥ |〈[x̂ , p
2
But x̂ , p
̂=𝒾ℏ
x

❖ [x̂ , p
̂y ] Ψ= [x̂p
̂y − p
̂y x̂ ]Ψ
∂ ∂
=[(x) (𝒾ℏ ∂y) − (y) (−𝒾ℏ ∂y)] Ψ (x=x and p=−𝒾ℏ∇)
∂ ∂
=−𝒾ℏ [[(x) (∂x) − x (∂x)] Ψ]
∂Ψ ∂x ∂Ψ
=−𝒾ℏ [[(x) ( ∂y ) − (Ψ) (∂x − x ∂x )] ]

=−𝒾ℏΨ
1
So ∆x. ∆px ≥ |〈𝒾ℏ〉|
2

ℏ
∆x. ∆px ≥ 2 (because |〈𝒾ℏ〉|= ℏ)
ℏ
∆y. ∆py ≥ 2
ℏ
∆z. ∆pz ≥ 2

Also
1
∆x. ∆py ≥ |〈[x̂ , p
̂y ]〉|
2
But [x̂ , p
̂y ]=0

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So ∆x. ∆py=0

Similarly
∆x. ∆pz = 0
∆y. ∆px = 0
∆y. ∆pz = 0
∆z. ∆px = 0
∆z. ∆py = 0

❖ [x̂ , p
̂y ] Ψ= [x̂p
̂y , p
̂y x̂ ]Ψ
∂ ∂
=[(x) (𝒾ℏ ∂y) − (y) (−𝒾ℏ ∂y)] Ψ
∂ ∂
=−𝒾ℏ [[(x) (∂y) − (y) (∂y)] Ψ]

∂x ∂x ∂Ψ
=−𝒾ℏ [[(Ψ) ( ) x ( ) Ψ − (y) ( )] ]
∂y ∂y ∂y

∂x
=−𝒾ℏ(0)=0 (( ) Ψ=0)
∂y

Generalization
If we represent x, y, z by x1 , x2 , x3 & px , py , pz by p1 , p2 , p3 then α and β can be written in
combined form.
∆xi . ∆pj ≥ ιℏδij

Where
1 if i = j
δij = {
0 if i ≠ j
➢ Position along x-axis and momentum along x-axis cannot be measured simultaneously (&
similar case for y-axis and z-axis)
&
➢ Position along x-axis and momentum along y-axis (or z-axis) can be measured
simultaneously.
Problem # 27:

What conditions must the parameters Ɛ and Ĝ satisfy so that Û = eiƐĜ is unitary?
Solution:
By definition

An Operator Ȃ will be unitary if its Hermitian adjoint / conjugate Ȃ+ is equal to its inverse Ȃ−1
if Ȃ+ = Ȃ−1

Given that Û = eiƐĜ

+ +
Now by using the property [f(Ȃ)] = f ∗ (Ȃ)
+
We get, Û+ = (eiƐĜ )
+
= (e−iƐĜ )
−1
= (eiƐĜ+ )
−1 +
Clearly, Û+ will be equal to (eiƐĜ+ ) orÛ−1, if Ɛ is real and Ĝ is Hermitian (Ĝ = Ĝ)

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

̂ t =G
If ∈ is real and G is Hermitian (G ̂)

Problem # 28:
̂ of A
Show that if minus A ̂ exist then the eigenvalues of A
̂ −1are just the inverses of A
̂.

Solution:
̂ −1 of A
Let the A ̂ exist, as that

̂ −1 A
A ̂ = Î

Now as

Î|ψ〉 = |ψ〉
̂ −1 A
A ̂ |ψ〉 = |ψ〉 − − − − − (1)

Also
̂ −1 A
A ̂ |ψ〉 = A
̂ −1 (A
̂ |ψ〉)

̂ −1 (a|ψ〉)
=A
̂ −1 |ψ〉 − − − − − (2)
= aA
Comparing (1) and (2) we get
̂ −1 |ψ〉 = |ψ〉
aA
1
̂ −1 |ψ〉 = |ψ〉
A
a
̂ −1 |ψ〉 = a−1 |ψ〉
A
̂ corresponding to the eigenvector |ψ〉 (i.e A
Hence proved that if a is the eigenvalue of A ̂ |ψ〉 = a|ψ〉)

̂ −1 corresponding to the same eigenvector |ψ〉 will be a−1

Then the eigenvalue of A
̂ −1 |ψ〉 = a−1 |ψ〉)
(A
Problem # 29:
Consider two kets
−𝑖 5𝑖
|𝜓〉 = [ 2 ] |𝜙〉 = [ 0 ]
−3 −𝑖
a) Find |𝜓〉∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜓〉.
b) Is |𝜓〉 normalized.
c) Are |𝜓〉 and |𝜙〉 orthogonal.

Solution:
−i −i ∗ i
∗
a) As |ψ〉 = [ 2 ] then |ψ〉 = [ 2 ] = [ 2 ]
−3 −3 −3

&
∗
−i T
|ψ〉 = [[ 2 ] ] = [−i 2 −3]∗
−3

= [−i 2 −3]
b) As
−i
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |ψ⟩ = [i 2 −3] [ 2 ]
−3
=1+4+9
= 14

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

⟨ψ|ψ⟩ ≠ 1

So |ψ⟩ is not normalized

c)
5i
⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |ϕ⟩ = [i 2 −3] [ 0 ]
−i
= −5 + 0 + 3i ≠ 0
So ⟨ψ| and |ϕ⟩ are not orthogonal.
Problem # 30:
Consider 2 kets
5i 3
|ψ⟩ = [ 2 ] & |ϕ⟩ = [ 8i ]
−i −9i
∗
a) Find |ψ⟩ and ⟨ψ|.
b) Is |ψ⟩ normalized? -------normalize it if it is not normalized.
c) Are |ψ⟩ and |ϕ⟩ orthogonal to each other means linearly independent to each other?

Solution:
a) As

5i
|ψ⟩ = [ 2 ]
−i
5i ∗ −5i
∗
|ψ⟩ = [ 2 ] = [ 2 ]
−i i
∗
⟨ψ| = [|ψ⟩T ]

∗
−5i T
= [[ 2 ] ] = [5i 2 −i]∗
i
⟨ψ| = [−5i 2 i]
b) As
5i
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |ψ⟩ = [−5i 2 i] [ 2 ]
−i
= 25 + 4 + 1
= 30
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ ≠ 1

So |ψ⟩ is not normalized.

Now to normalize it we must multiply it with normalization constant (N & A) given by
1 1
N= =
√⟨ψ|ψ⟩ √30
5i
1
So normalized |ψ⟩ = N|ψ⟩ = [ 2]
√30
−i
5i
√30
2
=
√30
−i
[√30]
c) ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ⟨ψ| |ϕ⟩

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3
= [−5i 2 i] [ 8i ]
−9i
=i+9≠0
As ⟨Ψ|Ψ⟩ ≠ 0 . So ⟨ψ| and |ϕ⟩ are not orthogonal or linearly independent of each other.
Problem # 31:
The Hamiltonian matrix of a particle is
2 i 0
H = [−i 1 1]
0 1 1
i
a) Is |ψ⟩ = [ 7i ] an eigenvector/eigenstate/eigenfunction of H?
−2
b) Is H hermition?

Solution:
a) Definitely |ψ⟩ will be an eigenvalue of H if it satisfies the eigenvalue equation

H|Ψ > = a|Ψ >

Where a is constant.
2 𝒾 0 𝒾
H|Ψ > = [−𝒾 1 1] [ 7𝒾 ]
0 1 0 −2
2𝒾 − 7 + 0
= [1 + 7𝒾 − 2]
0 + 7𝒾 + 0
2𝒾 − 7
H|Ψ > = [7𝒾 − 1]
7𝒾
𝒾
H|Ψ >≠ a [ 7𝒾 ]
−2
H|Ψ >≠ a|Ψ >
𝒾
H|Ψ > = [ 7𝒾 ] is not an eigenvector/eigenstate/eigenfunction of H.
−2
b) By definition
A matrix is said to be Hermitian if its Hermitian conjugate /adjoint is equal to the matrix itself i.e. H t =H
then H is a Hermitian matrix.
Now
∗
2 𝒾 0 t 2 𝒾 0 ∗
H t = [H t ]∗ = [[−𝒾 1 1] ] = [−𝒾 1 1]
0 1 0 0 1 0
2 𝒾 0
H t = [−𝒾 1 1] = H
0 1 0
H t =H so H is a Hermitian matrix.

Problem # 32:
a) How is a het vector |Ψ> and line vector represented by a matrix?
b) How is an operator represented by a matrix?
c) When a matrix is said to be? i) real ii) imaginary iii) symmetric iv) anti-
symmetric v) Hermitian vi) anti Hermitian vii) orthogonal viii) unitary
Solution:

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 Quantum Mechanics Numericals Prof. Usman Danish

a) A het is represented by a column matrix for example, in n dimensional space

a1
a2
|Ψ >= a 3.
..
.
[ an ]

b) An operator is represented by a square matrix

For example, in N-dimensional space , an operator is represented by N× N
A11 A12 A13 … … … . . A1N
A = [A21 A22 A23 … … … … … A2N ]
A31 A32 A33………………………… A3N
c) (i) A matrix is said to be real if At =A
(ii) A matrix is said to be imaginary if At =-A

(iii) A matrix is said to be symmetric if At =A orAnm =Amn

(iv) A matrix is said to be anti-symmetric if At =-A or Anm =−Amn
Anm =o (i.e. diagonal elements are zero)
(v) A matrix is said to be Hermitian if At =A andAnm ∗=Amn
(vi) A matrix is said to be anti- Hermitian if At = - A and Anm ∗=−Amn

(vii) A matrix is said to be orthogonal if At = A−1

Written By: Compiled By: Maham Tahir

Prof. Usman Danish 6th Semester
Physics Lecturer BS Physics
Govt. Graduate College, Gojra Govt. Graduate College, Gojra

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