Title Page

Approval Sheet
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures

What’s On Your Mind?: Analyzing Media Representation of Filipino Female Politicians in

Facebook News Articles

by

Comedia, Fendi Anne P.

De Guzman, Claugine S.
Navarra, Angel Mae
Puno, Pamela Abegail A.
Untalan, Dhea Justine A.

April 2024
 ABSTRACT

Politics in the Philippines has historically been controlled by men, with women taking

part in resistance activities against injustice and colonialism during the Spanish period. During

American colonization, women were granted the right to an education and the ability to take on

tasks outside of the home. As politics evolved, women began to show an interest in higher-level

municipal and national political roles. Further, women's rights to participate in politics go

beyond voting rights, as society encourages them to exercise important political and governance

abilities. However, despite the rising interest in women entering politics, there remains a

considerable gender representation gap. Social standards favor men, portraying women as reliant

and helpless. That inhibits women from seeking government jobs. Irrevocably, media misogyny

and sexism in government institutions stifle women's political engagement; hence, emphasizing

the need for change.

To accomplish the objectives of this research, qualitative thematic analysis will be

implemented. That reinforces identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns of meaning or

themes within qualitative data. This approach hinges on qualitative data sources such as

interview transcripts, news stories, publications, and other written literature, all of which can be

used in one study. Finally, the research study will focus on Facebook posts, particularly news

articles that contain news stories on Filipina politicians and their activities, as well as problems

that arise during the election campaign time.

 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

In the Philippines, politics has always been highly dominated by male even during the

Spanish period when women actively participated in resistance movements that were conducted

in secret to strengthen their fight against injustices and colonialism. Despite the assumed roles of

their gender as primary caregivers and housewives during the patriarchal period, some women

were able to take a significant stand for the revolution against the Spaniards. Back then, they

were not expected to take on higher roles in these movements, while their right to education was

limited and deemed unimportant. During American colonization, few female individuals, mostly

those who come from well-endowed families, were given their right to education. Women were

able to take on responsibilities that were beyond the four corners of their homes. They were

allowed to join organizations that were facilitated by the same gender. The interest of women to

actively involve themselves in essential aspects of government and politics flourished.

Consequently, as the politics in the Philippines proliferated, women started to take an interest in

higher local and national government positions (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2001).

Women’s right towards their participation in politics is not confined to their right to vote

but the society also encourages women to exercise relevant skills in politics and governance,

which effectively empower women to stand as impactful leaders of the greater generations

(Garcia & Ramachandran, 2023). Geronima Tomelden-Pecson was regarded as the first Filipina

to ever run in senatorial position in the Philippines during the 1947 election. Before running for
senatorial position, she worked as a teacher, social worker, and private secretary of previous

presidents, Jose P. Laurel, and Manuel Roxas. During her service in the Senate, she focused on

several areas of senatorial committees such as education, health, and public welfare. After

Tomelden-Pecson’s term in the Senate, 21 women pursued positions in the Senate of the

Philippines. This marked an increase in the number of women in these essential positions in the

government. The 16th Congress of the Philippines represented 6 different Filipina senators. The

first Filipina congresswoman was Elisa Rosales-Ochoa who participated in the 1941 elections of

the congress representing her native province. Before her term, she worked as a nurse during

World War II. Her term in Congress ended in 1946, wherein her major contribution lies in her

authorship of Commonwealth Act 704. This act was spearheaded with the intent to prioritize free

maternity clinics to effectively lessen the mortality of both mothers and infants, especially in

remote areas (Tan, 2014).

Aside from Tomelden-Pecson and Rosales-Ochoa, a Filipina pursued her career as a city

councilor and was considered the first woman to ever be elected in that position. In 1937,

Carmen Planas won the Manila municipal elections. She was then known as the ‘Manila Darling’

as she strived for the establishment of nurseries, health centers, housing projects, and other

significant health assistance that benefited numerous less fortunate individuals in the city. On a

larger scale, the first Filipina president was Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino who won in the 1986

presidential elections. She was known for her democratic movements as well as the restoration of

democratic institutions (Tan, 2014).

 Despite the increase in the number of women who are interested in exerting efforts to

take over essential political positions, there is still a perceivable gap in the political

representations of women and men, making the former underrepresented. Consequently, social

norms projecting patriarchy and gender stereotypes favoring male individuals are still prevalent.

Regardless of their contribution to society, women are still subject to gender stereotyping which

labels them as dependent, emotionally sensitive, and weaker than men. This often discourages

women from pursuing their careers in government as they highly rely on encouraging the voting

members of society to trust that they are competent enough to achieve their targeted goals for the

betterment of society. Without their support, this puts criticality on the balance between specified

binary genders in government positions, favoring the male aspirants to occupy those already

male-dominated positions (Philippine Commission on Women, n.d.).

Meriem Trabelsi (2023) wrote an intriguing article that shed light on the inequality

between male and female politicians on how these two different genders are represented in

media. She argued that women, Filipina politicians, are often victimized by circulating online

ridicule and false information, often perpetuated by unfair assumptions. These online and

traditional news outlets are filled with biased judgments on their capabilities and gender

stereotypes that discourage minorities from looking at these candidates beyond their gender. It

often creates an unfair consequence of running for a government position as a woman. This issue

seeks to be addressed as there is a limitation on men’s end on representing the interest and

intentions of women in serving the public, as there are clear differences in their perspectives and

experiences. Misogynistic and sexism reigning in important government institutions and society

must be properly acknowledged to raise the demand for those to be progressively addressed by
informing the current and future generations of the impact of this mentality on the quality of their

culture (Caballero, 2023). This study aims to explore how women are represented through

modern news outlets on social media platforms like Facebook and to evaluate the projection of

negative and positive representations of these women. It aims to understand how the media

exercise women's representation, to embrace their opportunities to be politically active and

possibly, to be a significant contributor to a better future.

Statement of the Problem

This study intends to mainly focus on exploring the current state of media representation

of women in politics, to essentially understand how these female individuals in the field of

politics are being represented based on published narratives detailing positive and negative

representations reflecting their contributions and how society sees them.

Specifically, this study intends to support the following research question to essentially

guide the thorough discussion of the analysis:

1. How are female politicians commonly represented in various Facebook news

outlets such as:

1.1 GMA News Online

1.2 ABS-CBN News Online

1.3 Philippine Daily Inquirer Online

2. What are the themes of the written articles about female politicians that these

internet news outlets publish?

3. How do online news outlets cover female politicians in relation to campaigns and

platforms?
 4. Based on the findings of the study, what is the prominent media representation of

female politicians?

4.1 Positive Media Representation

4.2 Negative Media Representation

Significance of the Study

This research will focus on providing appropriate and concise information based on the

implications of the results of this study. The researchers genuinely believe that the following

bodies will benefit from the foremost premise and outcome of this study.

To Online Media News Outlets, the premise of this study intends to highlight how the

presentation of Filipino female politicians are portrayed and described in the narratives that are

posted on various online news pages, specifically on Facebook. It will emphasize how negative

and positive media presentations of these women, who fall under these demographics, affect the

current state of inequality and normalization of women in such male-dominated fields of work.

To News Writers, this study may highlight the significance of an adequate level of

sensitivity in choosing words and constructing articles regarding Filipino female politicians, to

elevate any expression of a sense of bias and inequality.

To Female Politicians, this research may raise awareness among female politicians to

put significance on how they are represented through online news outlets as it may affect their

overall publicity. Understanding the current state of their media representation may trigger a shift

in their strategies in public relations.

 To Filipino Women, this study may also raise awareness among Filipino women on how

their gender is being represented in the media. Appropriate representations feed empowerment

among these women as they continuously strive for equality in all aspects of the community,

especially in areas that are male-dominated.

To Future Researchers, this research may serve as an additional source of information

and reliable literature that may inspire other researchers in the future who intend to explore

similar constructs.

Scope and Limitation

The purpose of this study is to determine and explore the current state of media

presentation of women relevant to politics, to essentially understand how these female

individuals in the field of politics are being negatively and positively portrayed and observed

based on published narratives. It will only focus on exploring the media representation of

Filipina women in politics who run for government positions in the year 2022, through social

media posts in news outlets on Facebook such as GMA News Online, ABS-CBN News Online,

and Philippine Daily Inquirer Online. The researcher will put emphasis on the new articles that

are posted from February 8 to May 7, 2022 as it is the considered period of the election

campaign. It will only include relevant news posts from the official Facebook pages of the

aforementioned news outlets. Other representations that are expressed by other news outlets will

not be considered nor deemed as input to the discussion of this study.

 Chapter II

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Review of Related Studies

This section includes a thorough discussion of the historical accounts of related studies

and literature relevant to the purpose of this study, the theory that will serve as the guideline for

meaningful discussion, the conceptual framework, and the terms that will be used throughout the

study along with its definition.

A. Representation of Filipina Women in Politics

Lundgren & Petrosiute (2017) conducted a study that aimed to evaluate how Filipina

women, who pursued their careers in government and politics, are generally represented and

allowed to freely maximize their capabilities and opportunities to involve themselves in bigger

aspects of society. In addition, it also explored the difference on how women and men are

represented in politics, and how this perceived difference limits the propagation of societal

expansion. The researcher conducted a series of qualitative interviews with various Filipino

politicians, both male and female, from Manila City, Philippines. The primary respondents

involved three (3) senators; Senator Antonio "Sonny" Fuentes Trillanes IV, Senator Loren

Legarda, and Risa Hontiveros, six (6) members of the House of Representatives;

Congresswoman Gwendolyn Garcia, Congresswoman Vilma Santos-Recto, Congresswoman

Marisol “Sol” Castillo Aragones-Sampelo, Congresswoman Arlene Brosas, Congressman

Romero Federico "Miro" Saenz Quimbo, and Congressman Cesar V. Sarmiento. Each of these
politicians has a strong background in politics, which presumably allows them to perceive such

delicate issues within the nature of their work. The results of the study were presented based on

three (3) major points; the current status of gender equality in politics, possible prospects for

women to exercise their career in politics, and the perpendicular segregations. Most of the

interviewed politicians believed that the participation of women in politics has been a big leap in

terms of the development of the culture as it shows how Filipino society embraces equality. They

believe that compared to other Asian countries, women in the Philippines have wider career

opportunities which strengthens the confidence among these women that contributes to their

competence and empowerment. There is a need for an additional number of women to fill up

certain positions to widen the career opportunities for other female aspirants, as well as to open

new perspectives in the government by courageously acknowledging underlying issues.

However, some politicians argue that despite the increasing number of women participating in

politics, women are still left out in various decision-making meetings and there are some cases of

conflict of interest between male and female politicians, and that contributing ideas and

arguments from women are typically evaluated more than men’s. A career should not emphasize

one’s gender orientation, nor should it be mirrored, instead it should acknowledge one’s potential

and genuine interest for the greater population.

Similarly, Valente & Moreno (2014) published a paper evaluating the quality of the

representation of female politicians in the Philippines, as well as the level of their representations

on local and national government scales. In addition, it identified the relevant policies pertaining

to how the national government encourages leadership among women and how these policies

affect the quality of female politician representation. By 2013, there were approximately 140
female individuals who won the elections and were elected to various positions in ninety-eight

(98) local barangay units of Zamboanga City. This study adopted the Policy Feedback Model to

present how national policies affect the representation of women in politics. Public policies

inflict interpretative and resource effects that contribute to how people perceive these women as

leaders and their responsibilities to actively promote and elect competent women in positions.

These contexts consequently affect the outcome of the elections. The results emphasized that in

2022, out of 784 elected officials, 18.75% of them are women which is significantly higher than

previous years. From 2022 to 2023, statistics showed that the number of men elected to these

positions is slowly decreasing. This, in turn, paved the way for the increase in the number of

women occupying such positions. It also highlighted the law that promotes the right of women to

participate in the establishment and implementation of policies that encompass local, regional,

and national scales. This law describes the right of women to share 50% of government positions

with the opposite gender. They reserve the right for an unbiased and non-discriminant work

environment, especially in male-dominated work spaces in government offices such as the

military, police, and more. They hold equal rights for education and training relevant to their

career choice. This law does not limit any right for the population of men in the Philippines,

instead, it aims to put balance on how these gender groups exercise their right for pursuing their

aspirations and genuine intent to contribute to the improvement of work environment with

government offices to alleviate, and eventually eradicate any form of discrimination, bias,

sexism, and misogyny (Puh et. al., 2022).

 B. Representation of Female Politicians in Social Media Platforms

The media has been instrumental in shaping perceptions of women's societal

advancements and struggles for equality. However, it often fails to adequately depict the

complexities of women's roles and challenges in various domains, including their homes,

workplaces, and communities. Nowadays, due to the advancement of technology that offered

ease in communication and freedom of expression, this act of against women is typically

expressed through various social media posts. Through this, they were able to convey their

support towards a specific candidate during the campaign period, and their disapproval against

those politicians who are beyond their interest (Tabassum & Nayak, 2021).

Due to the favored number of male politicians, misogyny and all of its forms are typically

observed by the opposite gender. In relation, a study aimed to explore various questionable social

media posts and comments from Facebook concerning the campaign of then presidential

candidate in May 2022 presidential elections. It focused on Facebook posts and comments that

suggested misinformation about the female candidate’s gender orientation and assumptions about

her based on negative stereotypes. Instead of portraying women as active and engaged

participants in society, politics, and the media, they are frequently depicted as passive and silent

observers, lacking agency and influence (O’Brien, 2015). Furthermore, research suggests that

men are typically portrayed as authoritative figures with power, while women are often relegated

to traditional roles characterized by fragility and softness. Despite occasional portrayals of

women politicians as courageous and confident, they are still perceived as outsiders or "others."

In news coverage, women politicians are often defined by their gender roles, such as mother or

daughter, rather than being recognized for their political skills and experience (O’Neill, 2015).
 To conduct the analysis, the researchers opted to implement Norman Fairclough’s

Critical Analysis and Corpus-based Discourse Analysis as the discussion of the results heavily

rely on the written narratives regarding the background and progress of the campaign of the

politician, as well as shortcomings that may have been hinted by these Facebook posts and

comments. The analysis showed that the gathered set of data from these Facebook posts and

comments laid out a particular pattern of inflicting shame on Leni Robredo and discredits her.

Most of these posts are connected to common misconceptions about the capabilities of women,

limitations of their gender, assumptions that they are generally weak, emotional, dependent,

inferior, and less intellectual compared to men. Unfortunately, there is a strong need for the

society to address such issues as it becomes a huge part of campaigns for male candidates as it

increases their publicity when their competition’s image is being dragged into unwanted threat,

bias, and violence (Coronel & Dela Cruz., 2023).

Licudo et. al. (2022) worked on a paper that aimed to examine the nature of the news

coverage regarding Filipina politicians during the pandemic through social media platforms and

to determine the difference in the media coverage of male and female politicians. Similarly, the

study also used content analysis to carefully conduct the analysis on the gathered secondary data.

Eighteen (18) local news outlets from social media platforms were selected through purposive

and random sampling. The common themes of women portrayed through online news outlets are

focused on their innate characteristics such as strongly intuitive and perceptive, dependable,

emotional sensitive, good communication skills, good penmanship, and mother instincts, despite

being childless. These aspects are commonly pointed out whenever a single Filipina politician is

being praised for positive campaigns and propaganda. On the other hand, they are also subject to
articles filled with gender stereotypes, discrimination, and sexist notes. Philippine Daily

Inquirer, simply known as [Link], has the highest number of published articles regarding

Filipina politicians who run for respective positions during May 2022 elections. Compared to

other Filipina politicians, there were more articles written based on Leni Robredo focusing on

her campaign and background as a public servant. The study unveiled the difference between the

manner of how articles with the subject of male and female politicians differ from one another.

When an article pertains to male politicians, the article comes off as simple and plain. But when

it comes to female politicians, most of the time, these articles are soft and yielding. Men

generally outnumber women in government, therefore, there are more articles by these news

outlets written about the former. The often yielding and misleading contents relevant to female

politicians are often overshadowed by simple and plain articles about male politicians. The

proliferation of misinformation in various social media platforms is seemingly increasing despite

the efforts of the majority of the public to educate one another about the risk of exposure to this

political propaganda and its effects to the communities and the future generation. This

manipulation is often masked with misleading information that increases the engagement of the

audience while inculcating propagation of dishonesty within their understanding (Ireton &

Posetti, 2018).

The May 2022 presidential election shed light on the positive impact of the increase in

the number of women participating in political movements and pursuing careers related to

politics. Studies showed that women promote democracy better than offices that are mainly male

dominated. Women are seen as better at decision making and being intuitive, which constitutes

to their capability of handling aspects of the government such as social welfare, health, and
women and child protection better than men as they have the edge to understand the needs of the

public that depends on these institutions. In addition, the proliferation of touch of women in

government offices garners trust among the public that their needs are being taken care of and

their concerns are being well-heard. The inclusion of women in campaigns put balance in the

harmony of the groups which increases their appeal to the public. Beyond these, appointed

women still face unfair judgment from their workplace and worse enough, to the media to reach

the public. It often shakes the perception of the public towards such politicians in issue; simply

signifying the power of media manipulation (Encinas-Franco, 2021).

There is a conception that any publicity, positive or not, is still beneficial if some ways,

however, analysis suggests that most of news articles about women includes how they are

dressed and more about how they presented themselves to the public, who they are with, and

what they did throughout the coverage, putting less emphasis on their contributions to the

politics and public service. Many politicians, even outside the Philippines, recognize this

disproportion and strive, through their own ways to fight against it (Political Parity, n.d.). A

meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of media on the presentation of female

and male public servants to the public through news articles. Audiences or the public is not

inherently biased, which means that their favored thoughts and perception towards a specific

candidate or politician is inculcated through a source of information. Media has its power to

sustain gender stereotypes by highlighting the assumptions about each gender group, in which

females are more caring and emotional, while male are goal-oriented and focused. More often

than never, news articles posted in social media platforms are often written from a subjective
perspective that directly mirrors the emotion and personal judgment of the author, diminishing

the objectivity on the portrayal of the topic (Adetunji, 2023).

Media has its power to sustain gender stereotypes by highlighting the assumptions about

each gender group, in which females are more caring and emotional, while male are goal-

oriented and focused. Due to this, constant gender gaps between men and women in political

office holding and mass political participation puts women's equal representation in politics in

jeopardy. (Broockman, 2014). Another study by Aririguzoh (2014) proposed that exposure to

broadcast media has affected the voter’s knowledge regarding national elections and its political

candidates as well as influencing their voting decisions; increasing the public’s engagement with

politics. As wide as the influence of the media in various aspects seems, the effect on people’s

voting decisions is not as evident as shown in the study of Alotaibi (2013). The media is simply

one of many factors that determine a person's priorities in relation to its political standpoint. The

"audience effects" developed by Erbring et al. (1980) proceed to explain how media performs as

a "trigger" in the audience’s pre-existing political beliefs. "People have different notions of what

is important to them, and they tune in and out accordingly" (Erbring et al., 1980).

The prevalence of manipulation of news content and articles was strongly observed when

the Philippines was under Martial Law that silenced and apparently controlled major news

outlets back then. Due to the conflict between the interest of the government and the public, the

majority of the people feared the media and did not trust its credibility when the democratic

movement captured their interest. However, long before this movement transpired, Martial Law

hindered the freedom of speech and impeded the development of Filipino in terms of its

acceptance of women’s rights beyond the four corners of their homes (Forbes, 2015). Nowadays,

the stigma associated with gender stereotypes and sexist notes on women is continuously
acknowledged by these women, who are just trying to contribute by asserting their knowledge

and expertise, to effectively stand as an asset to the national or local government (Masad, 2020).

C. Media Representation of Women in Politics Outside Philippines

Much like the status of the representation of women in politics in the Philippines,

unfortunately, a similar situation is widely perceived by different nations such as Asian countries

and the United States of America. Female politicians are subject to wrongful information and

abuse that inflict harm in various aspects of their well-being, which is not limited to traditional

media, it is also prevalent in social media platforms through online news outlets. These women

often feel discouraged and at a disadvantage whenever they stumble upon this upsetting media

coverage, despite their efforts to genuinely contribute to the community to contribute as

competent women of society. The media describes these women as dependent, generally weak,

and centered on their emotions. These modern news outlets fail to save these women from the

poor choice of pictures to use for media coverage. More often than not, the images used to

display the news are distracting and informal (iKnow Politics, 2022). In return, society

unreluctantly embraces the misconception that women should be portrayed based on the societal

stereotypes relevant to their roles in society, assuming that their capabilities are limited due to

this style of representation. This fosters objectification and wrong impressions towards these

public servants often weakens their opportunity to focus on bigger pictures involving existing

issues in the government such as corruption, political dynasties, weak women and children

protection, and economic issues. Some women who fell victim to these unfair treatments, often

experience physical and mental health concerns (Santoniccolo et al., 2023).

 A particular experience of Jacinda Ardern as prime minister of New Zealand just proves

how women politicians are treated. It is indisputable that her exceptional expertise and credibility

have been cultivated over years of dedicated service, refined by extensive experience.

Unfortunately, in spite of her credentials, they called her inadequate to perform in a government

position. Moreover, instead of focusing on her as a leader, the media focused on her pregnancy

during the first 100 days of her term (Djerf-Pierre & Edström, 2020). However, in Israel, media

and publications represent female politicians in a gender-neutral way which influences the public

to have a healthier view regarding women being in politics and becoming a public servant.

Through this media strategy, audiences are provided with different yet balanced and truthful

information about female politicians hence, they can be recognized as credible political figures.

(Raicheva-Stover & Ibroscheva, 2015). Another study by Singh (2018) suggests that women's

representation is getting more prevalent in the media landscape, providing exposure to females

and gender-related issues. It was stated in the study, in India, women were previously viewed as

lowly human beings; they were locked up within their own homes and solely treated as a wife

and daughter who should serve men. But as the media consistently represents women with a

gender sensitive approach, the status of women in India is constantly improving. As of now,

many Indian women can be seen having high positions and being well-respected in male-

dominated fields, may it be in education, science, business, and politics.

D. Positive Media Representation of Female Politicians

In this day and age, people have been persistent when it comes to eradicating gender

inequalities through raising awareness and educating others. As a result, equal treatment to men

and women is gradually manifesting in society. In the study of Dutta (2020), it has been argued
that progress for women allows them to participate in various industries and have their voices

heard such as in business and politics. Women are today viewed as having boldness and power.

Indeed, women have risen to prominence in recent years, and perhaps gender prejudice has

decreased in comparison to previous decades.

In lieu of that, media is utilized strategically on this end. During election campaigns,

women are more visible than men; they attract media attention quickly and are observed and

remembered for considerably longer than men. As a result, if they are strong media operators and

perform effectively, they can leverage the media to generate positive images. That concludes

women, furtherly navigating the means of media to their advantage (Van Acker, 2003). The

emergence of women in positions of responsibility in new media contexts coincides with the

production of more diversified images of women in media content. More so, women in

leadership positions in media organizations are no longer considered oddities. And essentially, a

transcendent probe can also be reflected in terms of media governance, as conferred by the

Council of Europe (2013). Utter an apparent shift in perspective in the workplace.

Additionally, as a result of an integrated international movement to empower women,

there has been an increasing global presence of women in politics. In comparison to other nearby

countries, the Philippines has a more welcoming political culture for women. From the year 1998

to 2013, the Philippines saw a steady increase in the number of elected officials, rising from

16.15% in 1998 to 19.92% in 2013. Two of the five presidential contenders in the 2016 elections

were women, which is seen as a positive indicator of increased female political participation in

the country. Women legislators hold seats in the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Women, on the other hand, fall behind in local government elective positions, accounting for

only 20%-25% of the total. However, in a recent study by the GGGI in 2017, the Philippines
ranks tenth among 144 economies in terms of gender equality. Which further deduced that

Filipinas have become more politically involved in the past few years. Having a stronger

presence in Philippine bureaucracy in successfully campaigning for the passage of more gender-

sensitive policies and services (Necosia, 2020). Conveys correlative progress in light of women

in the political vantage.

E. Negative Media Representation of Female Politicians

Through the years, women have strived to have a place in male-dominated settings such

as corporate, media, and politics. In the business domain, from 1995 to 2019, there has been an

increase in the number of women CEOs, according to Fortune 500 (2019). Although it sounds

promising, out of the 500 CEOs, only 7% are women. In the field of journalism and media,

growth is also apparent. The statistics gathered from "The Global Media Monitoring Project"

reflects a period from 2000, when women were visible to 18% of the public, to 2015, with a 24%

rate of exposure in the news. while still leaving an approximately 50%+ gap in comparison to

men's exposure. Among the 22 countries used in the data gathered by the Inter-Parliamentary

Union from the Report of the UN Secretary-General, the initial rate of women in politics of

11.7% in 1997 has doubled to 24.9% in 2020 (UN Women, 2020).

Despite these improvements in numbers, there still exists discrimination,

misrepresentation, and sexist and misogynistic perceptions towards women. This affects

women’s political participation in the Philippines. Dating back to 1986, when the country had the

first woman to sit in the highest political office, former president Corazon Aquino was put on a

pedestal as she became the "rallying figure" of the people who were against the Marcoses

(Suryanarayana, 2009). Clearly, her overall performance as a female political leader did not
correspond to the ideal that was set for her. Thus, the faults and inefficiencies made were to

blame for her being a woman, which if compared to a male politician, other accounts were to

blame and not their sexuality (Iwanaga, 2008).

Furthermore, female politicians experience stereotypical roles in society and are provided

secondary roles in the media. Whenever women are highlighted in the news, there are concerns

about a more negative tone and narrative emphasis. When female politicians make the news, the

news frames to which they are linked are substantially different from those of their male

counterparts; they are frequently more negative, more style-focused than substance-focused, and

more personal than political. In fact, Haraldsson & Wängnerud (2018) contend that how women

are portrayed in the news media affects their propensity to consider pursuing a political career,

which is immensely detrimental in a democratic country. Several studies have revealed that

female politicians are less likely to be invited to be featured in news articles, while male

politicians' wives are more frequently consulted for news articles (Harmer et al., 2017). Despite

the media exposure of female politicians, their opinions are not being heard or given enough

recognition since their male coworkers are talking over them, which reduces their airtime during

debates aired on television. Women made up about one-third of appearances on Prime Time, the

show's flagship current affairs program, but only received 10% of the airtime (O’Brien, 2014).

Media perpetuates a patriarchal perspective of politics, and the notion of the general

audience that women are incompetent in the field of politics is caused by the relative dearth of

female presence in news discourse (Ette, 2017). When they are successful, their

accomplishments are frequently linked to their familial "benefactor." The news media typically

refer to female candidates who are aiming for high positions in government as a prominent man's

wife or daughter, with the negative connotation that they are being controlled or that they are
taking advantage of their connections for personal gain (Donkor, 2016). Gendered frames in the

media are often observed and consistent over a period of time (Marloes et al., 2020). Journalists

frequently use stereotypical representations of female politicians. Consequently, it will

promulgate gender scripts that obscure differences that elicit unfavorable expectations based on a

society's standards that revolve around male politicians. Female politicians and candidates are

commonly characterized as having poor leadership skills, being naive, incompetent, too

emotional, and lacking relevant experience.

Synthesis

As stated in the aforementioned studies, women's involvement in Philippine politics has

been rising significantly, indicating a wider acceptance of gender equality in society. Compared

to other Asian countries, Filipino women appear to have wider career opportunities in the

political sphere, which has strengthened their confidence and competence. However, it was also

stated that women still face obstacles, such as being excluded from certain decision-making

processes and having their contributions scrutinized more than their male counterparts (Lundgren

& Petrosiute, 2017). This reveals that deep-seated biases and discriminatory attitudes persist -

entrenching the nature of gender inequities in the Philippine political sphere, where patriarchal

norms and power structures remain resistant to change. Hence, it is crucial to continue pushing

for policies and societal shifts that would empower women to guarantee their equal participation

in politics and other fields.

In connection with that, empowering women can be done through media representation.

Media can give exposure to women which can help them to show off their skills and prove how

competent they are. In this way, females, especially politicians, can have a good image and
positive media representation by promoting empowerment and exhibiting women’s skills and

career diversity. However, despite the attempt to put women in a good light, the media still fails

to represent them correctly due to the existing biases and inequalities; constantly portraying

women as weak and emotional human beings (Donkor, 2016). Misogynistic and sexist content

targeting women politicians, especially on social media, is common, with women frequently

portrayed through the lens of traditional gender stereotypes (O’Brien, 2015). This subjects

female politicians to a barrage of abuse that no doubt takes a significant psychological and

emotional toll. Due to this, women may be discouraged to pursue political careers.

Aside from that, this may also affect voting behaviors as it can indirectly affect public

opinion and attitudes towards female politicians. Challenges faced by women in politics are not

unique to the Philippines, but prevalent across various countries, particularly in Asia and the

United States. Female politicians in these regions are often subject to widespread

misinformation, abuse, and unfair treatment by the media, both in traditional outlets and on

social media (iKnow Politics, 2022). However, positive examples from countries like Israel and

India show that more gender-sensitive media representation helps shape healthier public

perceptions of women in positions of political power as the status of women in the said countries

are constantly improving. Thus, this only proves that increasing women's representation is not

just about numbers, but about fundamentally transforming the political culture to be more

inclusive, fair, and reflective of the diversity of the Philippine populace.

Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored to Agenda Setting Theory of Maxwell McCombs and Donald L.

Shaw in 1972. This theory relevant to mass communication suggests that any form of media that
contains any sort of presentation, positive or negative, in the form of a report can influence and

alter the perspective of the public. The presentation of the report alters the reader’s cognitive

processing, especially when some reports are repeatedly taken as a topic of a certain news outlet.

It inflicts a sense of significance on that specific matter. New reports that are highlighted in news

outlets such as television, social media platforms, radio, newspapers, magazines, and other forms

are often deemed as highly considerable compared to other content. In the past, the editorial team

of newspaper outlets put the most impactful news on the front page, its title is often printed in

bold and larger scale compared to other topics inside the newspaper, which intends to shape the

perception of the readers regarding the events or news (Chenkhinwee, 2014). This phenomenon

on which this theory relies is known as “Accessibility”. This theory includes two (2) levels to

ultimately apply it. The first level focuses on the occurrence of the effects of various media

outlets on its readers, and the impact of the exposure to each content on the public mind. The

second level includes the perception of the audience regarding the apparent tone or nature of the

broadcast news.

There are three (3) types of agenda-setting that are widely used by public relations of

government and big companies. First is the public, which predicts the significance of a particular

news story. Second is the media which highlights specific news to the public with an intent to

control which story to tell and how it is going to be told. Third is the policy that is often

influenced by the perception of the public and the agenda of the news. This theory provides a

strong guideline for meaningful discussion of this research as it points out how mainstream

media can influence the perspectives of their audience by manipulating the contents of their

articles, which can either help or hurt the image of politicians.

Conceptual Framework

Reality Media Reality

Perception of the
public to this
media reality

Figure 1. Agenda Setting Theory

The figure above presents the framework explaining the Agenda Setting Theory by

McCombs and Shaw. Applying the theory to the topic of this study, the phenomena starts with a

reality that involves the actions of a single Filipina politician constituting her campaigns,

propaganda, and proposed projects for the public once she gets elected to the position she is

currently aiming for. It includes all her genuine ambitions and displayed character to the public,

her involvement in activities that benefit the public interest. Aside from this, this reality may also

include all issues to which this individual got involved that may hinder the success of her

campaign. The media reality involves the representation of the mainstream media to all of these

coverable backgrounds which may be adjusted or manipulated to alter the perception of the

public. Lastly, the perception of the people to the media reality that they have received through

posted articles about women in politics. This consequently affects their voting behavior.
Operational Definition of Terms

This section includes the terms that are to be used by the researchers throughout this

study, along with their definitions based on how each term is used.

Filipino Politicians - this refers to the citizens of the Philippines who actively ran for a specific

government position at the local, regional, and national levels.

Media Representation - this pertains to the portrayals of specific individuals based on written

narratives.

Misogyny - it refers to any form of expressed hatred towards a female individual or group.

Negative Media Representation - pertains to the representation of women made by the media

that views women in a pessimistic way, specifically female politicians that puts their political

career and aspirations in jeopardy.

News Articles - these refer to the written literature that accounts for the reports of significant

current events that transpired nationwide, which are posted online or printed in a newspaper.

Online News Outlets - this pertains to the Facebook pages that are dedicated to posting news

articles relevant to the current events in the country.

Positive Media Representation - it pertains to the representation of women made by media that

put women in a good light, specifically female politicians to eliminate biases and gender

stereotypes.
 Chapter III

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Methodology

This research will implement qualitative content analysis to effectively support the

objectives of this study. Content analysis is commonly used in qualitative studies to highlight

important words and themes relevant to the topic being discussed. These will then be analyzed to

comprehend their meanings and possible relations to one another, which is done to thoroughly

evaluate the implications of these concepts. This method relies on the qualitative form of data

such as interview transcripts, news articles, publications, and other written literature, which can

all be used in a single study. This study will focus on Facebook posts that are news articles about

Filipina politicians and their activities as well as issues during the election campaign period.

Research Instruments

This research will use secondary research materials, specifically Facebook news articles

from GMA News Online, ABS-CBN News Online, Philippine Daily Inquirer Online. Each

gathered news article from Facebook should be evaluated to ensure its relevance to the study.

Data and Their Sources

This research will rely on qualitative data from online news outlets from Facebook such

as GMA News Online, ABS-CBN News Online, Philippine Daily Inquirer Online. It includes

online Facebook posts containing articles from the aforementioned news outlets that are relevant
to the female politicians who ran for government positions in the 2022 presidential elections. To

gather such data, the researcher must filter the Facebook posts of GMA News Online, ABS-CBN

News Online, Philippine Daily Inquirer Online throughout the election campaign period. The

filtered contents of these news outlets that contain applicable news articles, regardless of their

nature and theme, must be considered as significant pieces of literature.

Data Gathering Procedure

The data collection procedure will begin with gathering of necessary news articles that

are relevant to the Filipina politicians who ran during the May 2022 presidential elections. The

selection of appropriate news articles should be intricately conducted to ensure that all related

contents are considered. These articles will be thoroughly examined and comprehended based on

the emerging themes that will support the objectives of this study. Each emergent theme should

be accurately defined by its final theme as well as the categories and codes. These themes will be

the key points of the analysis, guiding the discussion of the results of the study.
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