Lesson 5 in UCSP: Social, Cultural, and Political Changes
Change is an essential aspect of culture hence dynamic and never static. Not even one culture
escapes the occurrence of change for it is inevitable and outright expected. The discourse then in
this chapter evaluates the factors causing social, cultural and political changes. To start with, one
must indulge to grasp the concepts used. There is a need to agree on the meanings of Social,
Cultural and Political Changes.
Social change is any significant alteration, modification, or transformation in the way social
activities and relationships are organized (Ferrante 2015:343). It includes permutation of the
patterns manifested in social institutions, organizations and structures of a society.
Cultural change, according to renowned sociologists Horton and Hunt, is the changes in the
culture of the society. David Dressler and Donald Caens, also remarkable sociologists, defined
cultural change as the modification or discontinuance of existing "tried" and "tested" procedures
transmitted to us from the culture of the past, as well as the introduction of new procedures
([Link]).
To note, cultural change is broader in scope than social change. All social changes can be
considered cultural changes but not all cultural changes are social changes. A new style of
writing songs and a trendy gadget are cultural changes but not social changes.
Social change involves an existing pattern of interactions or social relationships among members
of the society. Social and cultural changes, HOWEVER, can be treated as THE SAME for some
sociologists like Dawson and Gettys in which according to them, "cultural change is social
change, since all culture is social in its origin, meaning and usage."
Political change is the modification or establishment of a new leadership or policies brought
about by any significant disruption in a government (Nowaczyk 2013: Political Change). It
includes formation, reformation and transformation of operations in government to satisfy the
call of change voiced by sufficient number of people deemed significant. The usual outcomes of
the society whenever political change occurs are a change in policies and a change in leadership
hence the importance of active participation among citizens or members of the society since
government controls many different aspects of people's lives.
Having defined the social, cultural and political change with their distinct characteristics, one
must understand that these concepts are interconnected since all of which tackle the inherent
aspect of culture CHANGE that is, hence taken in this context as SOCIAL CHANGE to be the
head term. Social change then includes the alteration of any significant social relationships, the
modification or discontinuance of material or non-material culture and the reformation or
establishment of new leadership or policies. This change is an on-going process may it be
manifest or latent.
Why could there be change?
There are sociological theories to explain change in the society. Two of which theories are most
common viz: Evolutionary theory pioneered by Herbert Spencer, a theoretical perspective in
which society like organisms undergo change in a gradual and natural series of stages based on
increasing complexity which equates to a more advanced society as time goes on. Rate of change
is expected to increase as society becomes modern. The Marxist Theory (also known as Conflict
Theory) proposed by Karl Marx, stands conflict as normal and inevitable cause of change. His
notable example is the existence of class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners/ capitalists)
and the proletariats (working class) which causes change.
Aside from the theoretical perspectives mentioned above to explain the occurrence of change,
Joel M. Charon, a sociologist, shares six guiding principles that most sociologists tend to believe
about change in the society to wit (Charon 2013:194-206).
1. Change exists in all social organizations.
2. Change depends on social power.
3. Change arises from social conflict.
4. Change is most likely when the social situation favors it.
5. Most lasting change results from social trends.
6. Societies change, but social patterns persist.
It is also believed that socio-cultural and even political change exist because of economic aspect
- with its state, nature and structure, clinched to be a barometer of the rate of change the society
may experience.
Other Sources of Social, Cultural and Political Changes
Below are the other factors or sources which trigger change:
1. Innovation is drawing new creative ideas which results to a change whether manifest or latent
form. It is the invention or discovery of something such as a new idea, process, practice, device,
or tool (Ferrante 2015:350). Innovation be classified into two viz: may
a. Invention in which according to Farooq (2013) in his lecture notes "What is Cultural Change,
Definition and Sources of Cultural change refers to the combination or new use of existing
knowledge to produce something that did not exist before,
b. Discovery defined as "a new perception of an aspect of reality that already exists" (Farooq,
2013).
Invention and discovery are two terms capable of revolutionizing the world such as the invention
of steam engine in 1792 that paved the way to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, the
philosophy of Marxism that influences countries to follow a communist ideology and Internet
that makes communication, information and research more accessible and easier in just one
click.
Then and now, change demands innovation and vice versa. This is so true with business sectors
encouraging to create innovation in their system of employment, management style and the
goods and services produced for growth and economic development. The rate of change whether
economic-related or not heavily depends on the collective effort of people embracing and
supporting the innovation made.
Through innovations of material culture, technological change is highly evident on attitudes,
habits, lifestyle and even social patterns. Innovations, however, deemed to be technologically
superior may not necessarily be utilized due to its "cost-benefit relationship."
Innovation on immaterial culture like the "accidental discovery" of aldub phenomenon (of actor
Alden Richards and Dubsmash queen Maine Mendoza a.k.a Yaya Dub) of Eat Bulaga which
brought to the Filipinos' awareness a sense cultural revival (e.g. to revive the traditional practice
of courtship and the belief of true love which mirrors the popular line "..sa tamang panahon"
hence paradigm shifting on attitude and values possible be expected especially for those who are
hooked).
Innovation can be viewed as positive or negative depending on space and time But most perhaps
would agree that innovation that makes work or life easier engages oneself to be more productive
and offers economic development. This will always be a positive catalyst of change. The
downside however of innovation on countries subscribing to a specific "model culture" is culture
loss.
2. Diffusion. The process where one group or society borrows elements of culture from another
group or society and incorporates it as their own is called diffusion. This, according to many
sociologists, is selective instead of automatic since "receiving group or society" chooses only the
cultural elements being borrowed and eventually modifies to suit their favor or comfort.
Other definitions of diffusion include: the spreading of cultural traits from one group to another
group (Farooq 2013); the gradual sharing and incorporation of a diversity of cultures into the
dominant culture (Neubeck & Glasberg 2005:134); Transcultural Diffusion (as Ferrante termed
it) is the process by which an idea, an invention, or some other cultural item is borrowed from a
foreign source (Ferrante 2015:57-58).
Many elements and traits of cultural diffusion can be displayed in mainstream or dominant
culture. The Philippines for example adopts a clothing apparel influenced by the Saris of India,
embraced KPop fashion by Koreans, whilst Hip-hop dance, Heavy metal music, planking,
rapping among others are introduced and popularized by the "role model" of many Filipinos, the
Americans.
3. Acculturation. The incorporation of cultural elements by one group or society derived from
"others" or "outsiders" is acculturation. Two parties are involved: the society or group deemed to
be powerful and the group or society considered less powerful. The latter adopts the elements or
traits of culture of the former integrating it with the original culture practiced by them. The
public instruction or public school system was introduced among the Filipinos by the Americans
when the Philippines was under the American sovereignty. Acculturation is the education
(usually selective) by foreign culture to the local culture. The process comes into bad light if
structures or institutions are imposed to be practiced to the "weakling group like the years of
colonization of Spaniards, Americans and Japanese in the Philippines. Tribute or tax, a system
imposed among the Filipinos long time ago, is used until today. Even the use of English
language in the Philippines is something essential in Philippine culture.
4. Assimilation It is a process of accepting the minority groups by the
majority or dominant population in which the new group subscribes to mainstream culture. Other
definition of assimilation includes the process of combination of two cultures in to one culture
with comprising cultural traits (Farooq 2013). Kornblum (2012:45-46) delineates it as a process
where culturally distinct groups within a larger civilization adopt the language, values, and
norms of the host civilization and their acculturation enables them to assume equal statuses in the
social groups and institutions of that civilization. Ferrante, on the other hand, has his Absorption
Assimilation (Ferrante 2015.185-186) describing it as the process by which racial and ethnic
minorities adapt to the point where they are completely "absorbed" into the dominant culture.
Notice that assimilation is a process and indeed unavoidable to a small group immersed and
exposed to a dominant group. A group of Koreans in the country exposed vividly and constantly
to the culture of Filipinos learns to adapt and practice the cultural elements, traits and perhaps
social patterns of the country.
There is a need to practice the host's culture to be accepted by the host country. This is very true
if the small group comes from an underdeveloped or developing country and migrates to a
developed country. One of which is Philippines. Nestor Castro in his article (2011), "The Social-
Cultural Situation in the Philippines," described Filipinos not bringing their culture to a foreign
setting. "Many migrant parents," according to Castro, "discourage their children from speaking
their native tongue with the belief that they could not easily adjust in their new setting if they
continue to cling to Filipino language and identity. Filipinos might be successfully "absorbed" by
the host country but culture loss is inevitable. Castro, in addition said:
When these overseas Filipinos go back to the Philippines, they carry with them the culture that
they have learned abroad. For example, Filipinos who have worked in Italy would create "Italian
towns" (houses made of Italian architecture) in rural communities in the Philippines. Because of
domestic poverty and political instability, many Filipinos become ashamed of being Filipinos
and tend to think that the culture of foreigners is more superior to their own culture.
Through assimilation inspired by "wrong belief," Filipinos change. Filipinos go gaga on being
"Americanized," a phenomenon that is saddening but true. The same process happens with ethnic
minorities in the Philippines whenever exposed constantly to the majority population hence the
probability of losing their identity as an ethnic group.
Three Models of Ethnic Integration
According to Anthony Giddens there are three Models of Ethnic Integration (Giddens et al 2007-
338):
1. Assimilation refers to new immigrant groups assuming the attitudes and language of the
dominant group. Assimilation for him is the process by which different cultures are absorbed
into a single mainstream. It means acknowledging the "others" or "outsiders" to assume the
language, attitudes and other salient elements of dominant or host culture.
2. Melting pot is the merging of different cultures and outlooks by stirring them together.
3. Pluralism is deemed to be a recent model of ethnic relations wherein ethnic cultures are given
full validity to exist separately but participate in larger society's economic and political life.
Multiculturalism is an offshoot of pluralism in which ethnic groups exist separately and equally.
A society experiencing social contradictions and tensions mirrors its kind of political and
economic structure The weakening of the government to implement laws governing such social
instability gives an opportunity for groups-with the intent to destabilize social order-
strengthened, and worst, if government is behind the conflicts as a conspiracy plot to serve the
nature of their interest. Allegations about the Philippine government selling armaments to
fundamentalist or militant groups to government officials as masterminds of abduction or
altercations among others cast doubt on the country's political institution, structure and operation
to overcome situations such as inter-ethnic conflicts, class struggle, armed conflict, terrorism,
protests and gender issues. Due to a certain rise of conflict, a change in the society is
unavoidable whether social, cultural, political and economic. Alvin W Gouldner (1980:168-173),
writer of the "The Two Marxisms" described social contradictions as:
Contradictions are thus constraint-generating, inhibitory situations, they provide satisfaction of
one alternative only at the cost of losing the alternative or some part of it. Thus, while all courses
of action entail costs, those undertaken in the face of contradictions entail further costs
implicated in alternatives foregone-however successful the pursuit of the chosen alternative.
Contradictions are thus courses of action that limit compromises between several courses. They
entail the inhibition of one course as the price of opting for another.
Forms of Social Contradictions and Tensions
1. Inter-ethnic Conflict refers to any tension or altercation between or among involving
members of two or more ethnic groups. It may also refer to armed conflict between or among
ethnic groups using forms of violence as a means to an end resulting to looting, death,
homelessness and the flight of large population to neighboring communities. Refugees are
people who flee to a foreign land or country to escape or seek refuge from war, political
oppression, religious persecution, economic reasons or natural disaster.
An example of an inter-ethnic conflict can be read below originally taken in the book of
Gourevitch but also used in the book of Bradshaw et al (2001-205):
The killing began in 1994. The President of Rwanda, a member of the Hutu Tribe, was killed
when his plane was shot down near the capital city. Some said that rebels, members of the Tutsi
tribe, fired the fatal rocket. Others suspected extremist Hutus who resented the President's
conciliatory overtures to the Tutsis. Either way, the incident sent shock waves through the tiny
African country and then through the world. Hutus reacted by attacking their Tutsi neighbors. In
the weeks and months that followed, 800,000 people - perhaps many more - died in the killing
fields, and millions fled to neighboring nations.
In the Philippine history, before nationalism is introduced and intensified, early Filipinos termed
as katutubo or natives, clashed or waged battle against each other. This was depicted more when
Spaniards colonized the country using a scheme "divide-and-conquer" thus using ethnic groups
as an ally to overthrow another ethnic group not conforming to them such as what happened to
Ilocanos vs Visayans, Kapampangans vs Tagalogs among others. Today, ethnic wars are just
stories of the past. A possible ethnic conflict may arise, however, if ethnic racism, prejudice and
oppression of one's ethnic group are just tolerated by the country's governing body hence careful
planning, operation and decision-making are indispensable to alleviate inter-ethnic groups.
In Mindanao, Rido is being practiced by Muslims among the feuding clans or families. This type
of conflict to the extent involves a retaliatory violence between clans or families. If one family or
family member is engaged in an act of violence against another family or family member, expect
vengeance from the latter to the former. This goes on until two families or clans are pacified to a
certain mutual agreement or settled by blood money that has been agreed upon. Clan, by the
way, is smaller in scope than ethnic.
2. Class Struggle or class conflict by Karl Marx, the father of Communism, is the continuous
conflict between the capitalist class and working class for economic and political gains or power;
a conflict between the employer employee relationships. According to Marxist perspective, class
struggle or class conflicts are inevitable in societies utilizing a capitalist system because the
economic goals of these two parties are contrasting. Owners or capitalists accumulate wealth
through workers being exploited whilst workers gain economic stability and advancement
without the exploitation of owners or capitalists. Marx upholds then the call of revolution if
capitalists ignore the rights of the workers. When revolution is staged, a major if not complete
change will happen. Company workers of significant number whenever displeased or felt
exploited within the system or new policy of their company may picket, rally, boycott, sabotage
and abandon their work and the like to show unity and power. The capitalists, on the other hand,
do not like situations like these because it curtails production. Less production means less profit.
To solve as such then, one probable remedy is collective bargaining agreement between these
two parties. Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) however is possible if in a business
establishment there is an official union, or group of employees recognized by the company and
the state.
3. Armed Conflict refers to armed resistance of non-governmental armed group/s against
governmental forces. According to United Nations, armed conflicts within States are political in
nature involving citizens fighting for internal change. Some of which are secessionist groups like
in the case of the Philippines - the existence of Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF), to which
initiated by a small group usually considered minority group within a community who take up
arms to fight for self determination or for the establishment of either an autonomous entity
within an existing state or an entirely new and independent state of their own. MNLF
spearheaded the existence of Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) and may come
to an end if the Bangsamoro Basic Law (BBL) initiated by MILF, be approved by the Congress.
If approved, ARMM will be changed to Bangsamoro Region as well as policies and powers of
the region will drastically be changed. Power and economic sharing are some of the salient
points stipulated in the proposed law. Alarming and disturbing nowadays are children becoming
soldiers. Instead of playing or learning in school, children are taught to fire a gun or any
armament possible. They are also taught to create improvised bomb, execute, assassinate, spy or
any activity deemed important to the group. These young soldiers are at most recruited, some
abducted and others are forced into fighting in exchange to the protection of their family.
Armed conflict manifests the inability of the government to provide good governance and basic
social services and protection among the population. A weak government invites a strengthened
armed conflict.
4. Terrorism, to many, is an organized crime to create fear in order to pressure authorities for
political change. Martha Crenshaw on the other hand who is a leading expert on terrorism argues
that defining terrorism is difficult because the concept is a social construct relative to time and
place (Payne 2011:101). According to her, acts of terrorism occur within a political context
hence terrorism is a political label.
Philippines in its Republic Act No. 10168 defines a terrorist to any natural person who:
a. Commits, or attempts, or conspires to commit terrorist acts by any means, directly or
indirectly, unlawfully and willfully,
b. Participates, as a principal or as an accomplice, in terrorist acts
c. Organizes or directs others to commit terrorist attacks
d. Contributes to the commission of terrorist acts by a group of persons acting with a common
purpose where the contribution is made intentionally and with the aim of furthering the terrorist
act or with the knowledge of the intention of the group to commit a terrorist group
The descriptions above are also qualifiers of a terrorist organization, association or a group of
persons or entity owned and controlled by any terrorist or group of terrorists.
Al-Qaeda group can be considered the most popular and dreaded terrorist group in the world
especially when Osama Bin Laden heads the group (nonetheless conditioned by US). In local
setting, the Abu Sayyaf is perhaps the most popular group, but others like Alex Boncayao
Brigade (ABB) Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and the Pentagon gang are also active lurking in the
western parts of Mindanao specifically in Sulu islands and South-Central Mindanao or ARMM
region. To end this form of social conflict relation is an extract from the literature written by
Payne (2011) describing it as:
All acts of terrorism are designed to create fear, to cause people to tremble. Our example of the
hostages in Iraq points to another element of terrorism: communication with an audience that is
far from the scene of violence. By using the most advanced technologies of global
communication, terrorists seek to frighten people in distant places in order to exert pressure on
governments. Terrorism is essentially a form of psychological warfare
There are many forms of social contradictions or tensions aside from the four mentioned above.
Gender issues or concerns on gender inequality can also be one of the many outgrowths of
social conflict as a catalyst of social change. United States today recognized same-sex marriage,
a by-product of the efforts made by LGBT there.
Protests coming from different sectors especially religious-driven cannot be ignored easily by
Political institution. The event that Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC) members and ministers staged their
open disappointment against Justice Secretary Leila de Lima last August of 2015 in EDSA was
just one of many events that government officials cannot ignore. That event, however, angers the
majority (non-INC members) since staging a rally in EDSA paralyzed the movement of vehicles;
their anger was addressed to INC community, a minority group in terms of religious
membership.
