PATNA university, patna

(Ph. D. Course Work-2023)

TOPIC: MEASURMENTS
AND
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Gupta

Assistant Professor, Department of Physics
Patna University, Patna
Email: [email protected]
1
 Introduction

In our daily life we need to measure several quantities

Physical object:
u Height
u Weight Volume
uDensity and other features

Abstract concept :
q Social conformity,
q Intelligence,
q Marital adjustment
q Musical judgment
q Motivation to succeed
q Ability to stand stress

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 Measurement
• The process of assigning numbers to objects in such a way
that specific properties of the objects are faithfully
represented by specific properties of the numbers.

• Such ways of assigning numbers do not attempt to

measure the total phenomenon, but only a specific set of
attributes.
Technically measurement is a process of mapping aspect of a
domain on to other aspect of a range according to some rule of
correspondence.
Example : Male to female attendance ratio in a show (Domain)
Sex Classification ( Range)
Rule of Correspondence: If the object in the domain appears to be
male, assign 0 and for female assigned 1
Marital Status: 1,2,3,or 4 for Single, Married, Widowed, Divorced
Yes and No for 0 and 1 respectively.

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 Measurement (cont.)
•Measurement is used to capture some “construct”
- For example, if research is needed on the construct of
“depression”, it is likely that some systematic
measurement tool will be needed to assess depression.

4
 Measurement

n Measurement--defined as application of rules to

assign numbers to objects (or attributes).

n Measurement rules--the procedures used to

transform the qualities of attributes into
numbers (e.g., type of scale used).

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 Why bother assigning numbers?

n quantifying something that is expected to vary.

n individual differences -- premise that people will

vary (get different scores) on the attribute

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 Scales of measurement
n Three important properties:

n Magnitude--property of “moreness”. Higher

score refers to more of something.
n Equal intervals--is the difference between any
two adjacent numbers referring to the same
amount of difference on the attribute ?
n Absolute zero--does the scale have a zero point
that refers to having none of that attribute ?

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 Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal :
Nominal data are numerical in name only
Ex. Marital status-1,2,3 and 4 for single, married,
widowed, and divorced respectively.
3-1= 4-2 or 2+2=3+1 ( we can not write as such)

2. Ordinal:
we can not do any thing accept set up inequality
Ex. To measure the hardness ( 1 to 10 assigned) of the
mineral such as talc, gypsum, quartz, sapphire, diamond
etc.
5>2 or 6<8 but we can not write 10-9=6-5

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3. Interval
In addition to setting up inequality we can also form
differences.

Ex.- Temperature reading

Following temperature readings (in degrees Fahrenheit)

such as 580, 630,700, 950, 1100,1260 and 1350
1000> 70 0 90 0 < 135 0 ( we can write)
95 0-70 0=135 0-1100 (we can write)
i.e., same amount of heat is required to change the same
temp.)
But we can not write as
126 is twice of 63 ( Not true even 126/63=2)
Reason : Change the temperature in centigrade scale
5/9 (126-32)= 52 0 and 5/9 ((63-32) =17 0 ( not twice) 9
4. Ratio :
When we can perform all the customary operations of
mathematics we refer such data as ratio data.
It includes all -
• Length
• Pressure
• Volume
• Height
• Money amount
• Weight
• Area

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Levels of Measurement
Nominal Scales - there must be distinct classes but these classes
have no quantitative properties. Therefore, no comparison can be made
in terms of one category being higher than the other.

For example - there are two classes for the variable gender -- males and
females. There are no quantitative properties for this variable or these
classes and, therefore, gender is a nominal variable.

Other Examples:
country of origin
biological sex (male or female)
animal or non-animal
married vs. single

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 Nominal Scale
n Sometimes numbers are used to designate
category membership

n Example:
Country of Origin
1 = United States 3 = Canada
2 = Mexico 4 = Other

n However, in this case, it is important to keep in

mind that the numbers do not have intrinsic
meaning 12
Levels of Measurement
Ordinal Scales - there are distinct classes but these
classes have a natural ordering or ranking. The
differences can be ordered on the basis of magnitude.

For example - final position of horses in a

thoroughbred race is an ordinal variable. The horses
finish first, second, third, fourth, and so on. The
difference between first and second is not necessarily
equivalent to the difference between second and third,
or between third and fourth.

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 Ordinal Scales
n Does not assume that the intervals between numbers are equal

Example:
finishing place in a race (first place, second place)

1st place 2nd place 3rd place 4th place

1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6 hours 7 hours 8 hours

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 Levels of Measurement (cont.)
Interval Scales - it is possible to compare differences in magnitude,
but importantly the zero point does not have a natural meaning. It
captures the properties of nominal and ordinal scales -- used by most
psychological tests.

Designates an equal-interval ordering - The distance between, for

example, a 1 and a 2 is the same as the distance between a 4 and a 5

Example - Celsius temperature is an interval variable. It is meaningful to

say that 25 degrees Celsius is 3 degrees hotter than 22 degrees Celsius,
and that 17 degrees Celsius is the same amount hotter (3 degrees) than 14
degrees Celsius. Notice, however, that 0 degrees Celsius does not have a
natural meaning. That is, 0 degrees Celsius does not mean the absence
of heat!

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 Levels of Measurement (cont.)
Ratio Scales - captures the properties of the other types of
scales, but also contains a true zero, which represents the
absence of the quality being measured.

For example - heart beats per minute has a very natural zero
point. Zero means no heart beats. Weight (in grams) is also a
ratio variable. Again, the zero value is meaningful, zero grams
means the absence of weight.

Example:
the number of intimate relationships a person has had
0 quite literally means none
a person who has had 4 relationships has had twice as
many as someone who has had 2 16
 Levels of Measurement Scales (cont.)

• Each of these scales have different properties (i.e.,

difference, magnitude, equal intervals, or a true zero point)
and allows for different interpretations.

• The scales are listed in hierarchical order. Nominal scales

have the fewest measurement properties and ratio having the
most properties including the properties of all the scales
beneath it on the hierarchy.

• The goal is to be able to identify the type of measurement

scale, and to understand proper use and interpretation of the
scale.
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Some Important facts of Types of scales
n Nominal scales--qualitative, not quantitative
distinction (no absolute zero, not equal intervals,
not magnitude)
n Ordinal scales--ranking individuals (magnitude,
but not equal intervals or absolute zero)
n Interval scales--scales that have magnitude and
equal intervals but not absolute zero
n Ratio scales--have magnitude, equal intervals,
and absolute zero (so can compute ratios)

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 Type of Scale Numerical Operation Descriptive Statistics

Nominal Counting Frequency in each

category, percentage in
each category, mode
Ordinal Rank Ordering Median, range,
percentile ranking

Interval Arithmetic Operations on Mean, standard

Intervals between deviation, variance
numbers
Ratio Arithmetic Operations on Geometric mean,
actual quantities coefficient of variation

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 Sources of Error in measurement
n In research measurement should be precise
& unambiguous.
n We must know the sources of the error in the
measurement.
Sources of error:
(i) Respondent:

(ii) Situation:

(iii) Measurer:

(iv) Instrument:

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TEST OF SOUND MEASUREMENT
1. Test of Validity
n (i) Content validity:
Ø adequate coverage of the topic under study
Ø No numerical way to express.
Ø Primarily judgmental and intuitive.
n (ii) Criterion related validity:
Ø Related to our ability to predict some outcome or estimation
for the existence of current conditions.
n (iii) Construct validity:
Ø Most complex and abstract
Ø It validates to the degree that it confirms to the predicted
correlations with other theoretical propositions. 21
 TEST OF SOUND MEASUREMENT cont...............

2. Test of Reliability
Ø A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides
consistent result.
Ø Reliable measuring instrument does not contribute to the
validity but reliable instrument need not to be a valid
instrument.
Ø Overweight object by 6 kg is a reliable scale but it does
not give a valid result.

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 TEST OF SOUND MEASUREMENT cont...............

3. Test of Practicality:
Ø Operational convenience
Ø Economy consideration
Ø Interpretability consideration

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TECHNIQUES FOR DEVELOPING
MEASURMENT TOOLS
n Four Stage Process
(i) Concept development
(ii) Specification of concept dimension
(iii) Selection of indicators
(iv) Formation of Index

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 SCALING
n Meaning of Scaling
n Scale Construction techniques:

Using Following techniques scale can be

developed
Ø Arbitrary approach: Ad hoc basis scale
Ø Consensus approach: Panel of judges
Ø Item analysis approach : Scoring and analysis base of a
group of respondent
Ø Cumulative scale :Confirming to some ranking of items with
ascending and descending order
Ø Factor Scale : Based on inter correlation of items which
indicate a common factor accounts for the relationship
between items. 25
 Rating Scales for Measurement

n A scale represents a composite measure of

a variable;
n it is based on more than one item.
n Scales are generally used with complex
variables that do not easily lend
themselves to single-item or single-
indicator measurements.

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 Rating Techniques for
Measurement
n Some items, such as age, newspaper
circulation, or number of radios in the
house, can be adequately measured
without scaling techniques.
n Measurement of other variables, such as
attitude toward TV news or gratification
received from going to a movie theater,
generally requires the use of scales.
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 Simple Rating Scales
n Rating scales are common in mass
media research.
n Researchers frequently ask respondents to
rate a list of items such as a list of
programming elements that can be included
in a radio station’s weekday morning show,
n or to rate how much respondents like radio
or TV on-air personalities.

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 Simple Rating Scales
n The researcher’s decision is to decide
which type of scale to use: 1 to 3? 1 to 5?
1 to 7?
n 1 to 10? 1 to 100? Or even a 0 to 9 scale,
which is commonly used by researchers
who don’t have computer software to
accept double-digit numbers (like 10).
n Selecting a type of scale is largely a matter
of personal preference,

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 SPECIALIZED RATING SCALES
Thurstone Scales
n Thurstone scales are also called equal
appearing interval scales because of the
technique used to develop them and are
typically used to measure the attitude of
respondent towards a variable or a given
concept or construct.
n Statements are ranked by the the degree
of agreement of disagreement.

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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n Reserahcer first collects a large number of
statements (Thurstone recommends at
least 100) that relate to the concept or
construct to be measured.
n Next, judges rate these statements along
an 11-category scale in which each
category expresses a different degree of
favorableness toward the concept.
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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n Reserahcer first collects a large number of
statements (Thurstone recommends at
least 100) that relate to the concept or
construct to be measured.
n Next, judges rate these statements along
an 11-category scale in which each
category expresses a different degree of
favorableness toward the concept.
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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n The items are then ranked according to
the mean or median ratings assigned by
the judges and are used to construct a
questionnaire of 20 to 30 items that are
chosen more or less evenly from across
the range of ratings.
n The statements are worded so that a
person can agree or disagree with them.
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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n The scale is then administered to a sample
of respondents whose scores are
determined by computing the mean or
median value of the items agreed with.
n A person who disagrees with all the items
has a score of zero.
n Thurstone scales are not often used in mass
media research, but they are common in
psychology and education research.
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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
Guttman Scaling
n Guttman scaling is a scaling technique that
use to measure the degree to which
respondents agree or disagree with a
variable.
n It consist of series of statement that
arrange in hierarchal order

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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n a hypothetical four-item Guttman scale:
1. Indecent programming on TV is
harmful to society.
2. Children should not be allowed to
watch indecent TV shows.
3. Television station managers should
not allow indecent programs on their
stations.
4. The government should ban indecent
programming from TV. 36
 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n A Guttman scale requires a great deal of
time and energy to develop.
n Although they do not appear often in mass
media research,
n Guttman scales are common in political
science, sociology, public opinion research,
and anthropology.

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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
Likert Scales:
Ø Perhaps the most commonly used scale
used to measure attitudes and opinion.
Ø Mass media research is the Likert scale,
also called the summated rating approach
such as 1 t0 5 0r 1 to 7
n A number of statements are developed with
respect to a topic, and respondents can
strongly agree, agree, be neutral, disagree,
or strongly disagree with the statements 38
SPECIALIZED RATING SCALES
n Each response option is weighted, and each
subject’s responses are added to produce a
single score on the topic.
n 1. Only U.S. citizens should be allowed to own
broadcasting stations.
n Strongly agree 5
n Agree 4
n Neutral 3
n Disagree 2
n Strongly disagree 1 39
 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n 2. Prohibiting foreign ownership of
broadcasting stations is bad for business.
n Strongly agree 1
n Agree 2
n Neutral 3
n Disagree 4
n Strongly disagree 5

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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
Semantic Differential Scales
Ø Another commonly used scaling procedure
is the semantic differential technique.
Ø It consist of a series of bipolar adjectives such as
good-bad or friendly-unfriendly
Ø Respondent rate on numerical scale and data can
be analyze using statistical techniques such as
factor analysis.

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 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n To use the technique, a name or a concept
n is placed at the top of a series of seven-point
scales anchored by bipolar attitudes.
n The bipolar adjectives that typically “anchor”
such evaluative scales are pleasant/
unpleasant, valuable/worthless, honest/
dishonest, nice/awful, clean/dirty, fair/unfair,
and good/bad.
n Unique set of anchoring adjectives be
developed for each particular measurement 42
 SPECIALIZED RATING
SCALES
n Time Magazine
n Biased : : : : : : Unbiased
n Trustworthy : : : : : : Untrustworthy
n Valuable : : : : : : Worthless
n Unfair : : : : : : Fair

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 SPECIALIZED RATING SCALES

Magnitude Estimation Scale

Ø It is used to measure the subjective
intensity of a variables.
Ø It rate on a numerical scale.
Ø Magnitude estimation scale data is ration
and can be analyze using statistical
techniques such as regression analysis.

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 Methods of Data Collection
1. Observation method
2. Interview method

3. Collection of data through questioner

4. Collection of data through

schedules(proforma containing of set of
questions) filled by research worker
5. Survey( for descriptive large sample) and
experiment ( for small samples and
particular case)
.....and so many other methods can
be adopted for data collection. 45
 Some scientific Measurements
Growth profile

How the bacteria will look if a solution

(nearly 1ml ) spread on a glass slide
By eye or the Microscope?

Bacteria in this picture observed by

microscope looks like filament.

It Contains Acinomicid/Streptomyces.

75% antibiotics produces from this

group.

Fragrance in the soil is also due to

presence of this acinomicid.

Filamentous bacteria under microscope

(400x); Streptomyces griseus.
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Growth profile of four bacterial isolates

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 Estimation of enzyme activities and protein
production during growth of 3 bacterial isolates.

48
Gel Electrophoresis of native DNA and Restriction Enzyme
(RE) digested DNA.
ECO R1= R E isolated from Escherichia coli,
Hind 3 = Haemophilous influenza

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 PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) of DNA fragment
that synthesizes 16S rRNA of Ribosomes.

Electrophoresis of
DNA
Kb= Kilo base pare

Measurement of the
size of the DNA
(negatively charged)
is measured on the
basis of the distance
travelled by the DNA
leveled in the marker
marker. 50
 Lane1 & 2: DNA ladder of RE digested bacterial DNA,
Comparison with marker and Lane 3& 4: Plasmid (extra
chromosomal) DNA
DNA breaking by
Restriction enzyme.
Extra chromosomal DNA
( indicated 3 and 4 )

In each bacteria 1 or 2
extra chromosomal DNA
exists.
Using Electrophoresis we
determine the dynamics
and other physical
propertied of DNA
51
 Inhibitory activities of Plant (Oroxylem indicum) extract in
ethanol on Cancer Cell lines (SiHa & Hep2). A & C= plant
extract from naturally grown (in vivo) and B & D= plant
extract from test tube grown (in vitro).

Cancer cells are incubated

with extract of Oroxylem
indicum plant and the growth
observation of A,B, C, D Plants
are indicated using bar
diagramme.

A & C = Naturally Grown plants

B & D = Test tube plant

52
Measurement of angle of prism

53
Measurement of wavelength of
light by plane grating

54
Energy gap of a semiconductor

2.303×2!×! !=
!"#$
!! = !!"
!" 1/!
1.601×10

55
Developing and solving equations in
Theoretical Research

56
Developing and solving equations in
Theoretical Research
In the real world, equations and inequalities
are not usually given to us. Instead, we must
determine what need to be solved and then
create equations ourselves.
q Single variable: 12+ x= 230

(equations, inequalities, absolute value,

quadratic.)
q Multiple variable: x + y=120

0.90x+0.11y=110 57
 Single variable

12-x=8
If you had dozen eggs and now have eight,
how many have been used?
Or
Y+7≤10
Come up with possible real life problem, that
this inequality could represent.

58
 Expression and Equation

n 4(6-x)+2x-1
n 4(6-x)+2x-1=-15
n Which is expression and which is
equation?

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Steps for creating and solving the equations
Ø Write down all information.
Ø Identify and read what the problem is
asking for.
Ø Draw a picture or diagram if possible to
visualize the problem.
Ø Set a variable and define it.
Ø If applicable, make sure units are all in
same measurements.
Ø Solve for the variable.
60
1. Solving a geometry problem.
2. Solving Natural science related problems
3. Solving Physical science problems
4. And many more......

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