Nickhil Ooriah 1

Unit 9B: Human Regulation and Reproduction

IntroductionHomeostasis is the dynamic maintenance of the body's internal

environment. Homeostasis is important as it keeps the body's internal condition stable
for cells to function efficiently and effectively. For example, one of the homeostasis
mechanisms is the regulation of the amount of blood glucose in our blood; another
mechanism includes the temperature at which various processes take place. Although the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) are among the
numerous systems that depend on homeostasis, it primarily happens in the endocrine or
exocrine systems. If the internal condition of the body is not stable, it most likely results
in enzymes denaturing or shrivelling up. As a result, chemical reactions in the body will
slow down, causing metabolic reactions to decrease.

How the hormonal systems help homeostasis: Both the endocrine and nervous
systems are vital for regulating homeostasis.

Endocrine system : The endocrine system is a network of glands in the body. The role
of the endocrine system is to regulate all biological processes in the body,and it is also
responsible for every function in the body. If the endocrine system isn’t healthy, it will
cause many problems for the body. Problems include weak bones, a lack of energy, and
gaining weight easily .

Hormones: The endocrine system uses hormones as chemical messengers to signal

the body to regulate the amount of hormone being produced or to produce more
hormone. Hormones work slowly compared to their electric signal counterparts. This is
because hormones are pumped into the bloodstream and travel via the circulatory
system. So they communicate with the body by heading towards their target cell to
bring about a particular change or effect on that cell.
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Glands
Pituitary Gland : The pituitary gland is also known as the master gland of the endocrine
system. This is because it controls various hormone glands in the body. The pituitary
gland is very important, as without it, the body wouldn't reproduce, wouldn't grow
properly, and many other bodily functions just wouldn't function. The pituitary gland is
located between the hypothalamus and the pineal gland,behind the bridge of the nose.
The pituitary gland is attached to the brain via a thin stem of blood vessels and nerve
cell projections.

The role of the pituitary gland (master gland) is that it’s responsible for the control of
many glands, including the thyroid gland, adrenal gland,ovaries,s and testicles. This is
achieved by the hypothalamus sending signals through hormones to the pituitary gland
. As a result, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal to the glands how much
hormone is needed . The pituitary gland also produces many hormones for multiple
organs in the body, such as oxytocin. The role of oxytocin is to stimulate contractions in
the uterus . This is beneficial as it affects birth and milk production. Another important
hormone that the pituitary gland produces is endorphin. Endorphins are produced in
response to pain or stress. This group of peptide hormones both relieves pain and
creates a general feeling of well-being. Endorphins are often referred to as the body's
natural painkillers due to their ability to block pain signals in the brain. Additionally, they
can also enhance mood and promote a sense of euphoria, similar to the effects of
certain drugs.

Thyroid Gland : The thyroid gland is a tiny, vital organ in the throat that resembles a
butterfly and is crucial to overall wellness. It is essential for controlling the body's
growth, development, and metabolism.

The thyroid gland also secretes hormones that regulate heart rhythm, body
temperature, and energy levels, among other physiological processes. The gland is
located beneath the voice box and extends over the front of the neck. It has two wings,
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termed lobes that wrap around the windpipe, just like a butterfly. The isthmus is the
narrow portion that connects the wings.

T4 is one of the hormones secreted by the thyroid. This hormone is essential for
controlling the body's energy production and metabolism. It assists in regulating how
quickly cells turn oxygen and calories into energy, which affects a number of biological
processes, including digestion, body temperature, and heart rate. enters the
bloodstream as calcitonin, T4 (thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine), and T3
(triiodothyronine). Hormones regulate how quickly nutrients are converted into energy
by cells and organs, as well as how much oxygen they take in.

The parathyroid gland : is made up of four glands with a mustard colour that work
together to form the parathyroids.

They are situated beneath the voice box, behind the thyroid, a gland that spans the front
of the neck. Every parathyroid gland has a diameter of 3 to 5 millimetres and a weight of
30 to 60 milligrammes, making it about the size of a pea.

The hormone parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is secreted by the parathyroid glands,
controls blood calcium levels. Calcium is essential for numerous reasons. Although
most people are aware that it strengthens bones, it also serves as energy in muscle
cells and conducts electrical impulses in the nervous system. Calcium that the body can
use is stored in the bones. The parathyroid glands alert the bones to release calcium
into the bloodstream when blood calcium levels are low .Bone deterioration may result
from the loss of calcium in the bones if it is not replaced by a nutritious diet.Additionally,
PTH instructs the kidneys and small intestine to retain calcium during digestion rather
than releasing it into the urine.
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Adrenal Glands : The immune system, sex hormones, blood pressure, metabolism,
and the body's reaction to stress are all impacted by the adrenal glands. There are two
adrenal glands in the human body. "A complex component of the HPA (hypothalamus,
pituitary, and adrenal) is the adrenal gland. The body's thermostat is located in the
hypothalamus. It detects the majority of critical physiological components involved in
maintaining homeostasis and issues signals to rectify deemed pathological deviations. It
has a direct connection to the pituitary gland, which functions as an organ-sensing
organ that receives orders from the hypothalamus and relays them to the adrenal gland
and other organs as needed. Then, a variety of hormones, such as cortisol, oestrogen,
and adrenalin, are produced by the adrenal glands.

One of cortisol's main functions is to break down protein and fat in the liver into glucose,
which increases the amount of glucose available to the nervous system." It aids in
preventing the uptake of glucose into tissues other than the central nervous system.The
fight-or-flight reaction is one of the adrenal gland's most critical jobs. Adrenaline and
cortisol are among the hormones released by the adrenal gland as a reaction to stress
or fear. In order to prepare the body for flight or combat, these hormones quicken the
heartbeat, raise blood pressure, increase energy levels, improve focus, and slow down
other bodily functions.

However, an excessive stress response is harmful. Excessive exposure to high levels of

adrenal hormones can lead to weight gain, anxiety, depression, headaches, heart
disease, digestive issues, insomnia, and memory and concentration issues.
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The pancreas is responsible for two main functions: digesting proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates in the intestines and producing the hormones insulin and glucagon. The
pancreas contains alpha and beta cells, which secrete glucagon and insulin. Type 1
diabetes patients lack beta cells, requiring insulin injections due to their inability to
produce them.

Insulin regulates blood sugar levels by allowing cells to absorb glucose from the
bloodstream. Insulin is responsible for regulating the body's blood sugar levels by
allowing cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream . Insulin also allows glucose to
enter muscle and other tissue, works with the liver to store glucose and synthesise fatty
acids, and "stimulates the uptake of amino acids by cells for protein synthesis. On the
other hand, glucagon works to increase blood sugar levels when they are too low by
signalling the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream. Insulin is released
after eating protein and especially after eating carbohydrates, which increase glucose
levels in the blood.

On the other hand, glucagon works to increase blood sugar levels when they are too
low by signalling the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream. Glucagon is
released when blood glucose concentration is low, inhibiting glucose conversion to
glycogen in the liver and activating an enzyme to convert glycogen to glucose,
increasing glucose availability to cells, and reducing respiration rate.
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Ovaries : Ovaries play three crucial roles in female reproductive health. They shelter
and protect the eggs a female is born with, produce female reproductive hormones like
oestrogen and progesterone, and produce the lesser hormones relaxin and inhibin.
Three types of oestrogen are estrone, estradiol, and estriol, which aid in developing
adult female characteristics and the reproduction cycle. Progesterone is also essential
for reproduction. Relaxin loosens pelvic ligaments during labour, while inhibin prevents
the pituitary gland from producing hormones. Ovaries release one egg or more each
menstrual cycle, with each ovary containing follicles and a dormant egg. A female
typically has 150,000 to 500,000 follicles when born and 34,000 by sexual maturity.

The follicle moves to the ovary wall when a specific egg is encouraged to mature by
hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. The follicle and the egg develop and grow
here. When they reach maturity, ovulation is prepared. Graafian follicles are mature
follicles that reach a maximum diameter of approximately 1.2 inches (30 millimetres).

The mature egg is released into the closest fallopian tube when the follicle containing it
ruptures. The egg then makes its way to the uterus from there. Progesterone is a
hormone that the body produces to thicken and prepare the uterine lining for the
incoming egg. In the ovary, where the old egg once was, new cells are growing to
produce this hormone. The corpus luteum is the name of these cells, which function as
temporary glands.

Approximately nine days after ovulation, the body stops producing progesterone if there
is no sperm or if the egg simply isn't fertilised. Then, during menstruation, the egg is
flushed out of the uterus. The average menstrual cycle lasts for 28 days. The uterine
lining sheds with the unfertilized egg during menstruation. The body's hormonal
fluctuations—more especially, a drop in progesterone levels—control this process.
Usually, the first day of menstruation marks the beginning of the menstrual cycle again.

Negative Feedback: Feedback control loops are when the body adjusts to change. For
example,if the level of something rises, control systems reduce it again. If the level of
something falls,control systems raise it again. This control loop consists of four main
components: Sensor mechanism: Glands and nerve cells can act as sensors. The
sensor transmits a signal to the integrator. Integrator/control centre: The integrator is the
control centre of the feedback loop; it is in an area of the brain. It gets a signal or
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variable and analyses and checks it with other signals or variables that it has received
from other sensors. It checks the value of variables. It has been received against the
normal set point range for those variables. it has received against the normal set point
range for those variables. If “action” is needed, it sends a signal to the effector
mechanism. Effector mechanism: organs like glands or muscles that provide the
response desired. The goal is to influence or change the values of the variables. Can be

positive or negative value change. Feedback: As the effectors make changes, variables
have new values and are sent back through the feedback controllers.

Positive feedback loops involve a series of events where the output, or end product,
of a process amplifies the initial stimulus, leading to an even greater response. Unlike
negative feedback that maintains stability and homeostasis, positive feedback drives
processes to completion. Take blood clotting as an example: When a vessel is injured,
platelets adhere to the exposed area, releasing chemicals that attract more platelets.
This initial step activates clotting factors, triggering a cascade of reactions. Each step
not only sustains the process but also amplifies it, causing more platelet aggregation
and clotting factor activation. This continues until a stable blood clot is formed, sealing
the wound. In positive feedback, there's a self-reinforcing cycle, and it's crucial for
specific physiological events like childbirth and blood clotting. However, it also poses the
risk of going out of control, emphasising the need for tight regulation in biological
systems.
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Constance temperature level:Another negative feedback mechanism is temperature

management. The hypothalamus receives information about body temperature from
nerve cells. The hypothalamus subsequently sends out signals to many effectors,
causing the body temperature to rise to

37 degrees Celsius (the set point). The effectors may cause sweat glands to secrete
more sweat and induce vasodilation, allowing the body to expel more heat. When the
body temperature falls below the set point, muscles shiver to generate heat, and blood
vessels constrict to help the body retain heat. Because the hypothalamus can modify
the body's temperature set point, such as by boosting it during a fever to help fight an
infection,

The example is somewhat complicated. Negative feedback systems can be triggered by

both internal and external factors. For example, if the body is exposed to extreme cold
temperatures, the hypothalamus may initiate a negative feedback response by
increasing the body's temperature set point to conserve heat. Similarly, if the body is
fighting an infection, the hypothalamus may raise the temperature set point to create an
unfavourable environment for pathogens. In both cases, the negative feedback system
helps maintain homeostasis by regulating body temperature.

Vasodilation may also take place; this is where blood vessels leading to skin capillaries
dilate and allow more blood to flow through the skin, thus again transferring heat energy
from the skin to the surrounding environment. To increase core body temperature, the
body will in turn do the opposite; instead of vasodilation, a process called
vasoconstriction takes place. This is where the blood vessels leading to the skin
constrict, allowing less blood to flow through the skin and conserving the core body
temperature. Additionally, skeletal muscles contract rapidly (shivering), and the
contractions need energy from respiration; some of this energy is released as heat.
Through such reversal processes, the body’s core temperature rises and returns to its
optimum temperature of 37 degrees Celsius.
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When the body's core temperature falls to 35 degrees Celsius or less, it is referred to as
hypothermia. Prolonged exposure to cold temperatures is typically the cause of
hypothermia. The majority of heat loss from being in cold weather occurs through the
skin, with the remaining portion coming from exhalation. Heat loss through the skin can
occur up to 25 times more quickly when someone is completely submerged in water
than when they are at the same air temperature.

Hypothermia : Hypothermia is a condition where the body's core temperature drops to

35 degrees Celsius or lower due to prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. Most heat
loss occurs through the skin, while the rest is lost through exhalation. Immersion in
water can cause up to 25 times faster heat loss in the skin than at the same air
temperature. The symptoms of hypeothermia include : shivering, confusion, slowed or
slurred speech, cold and/or pale skin, and losing coordination. The recommended
treatment for hypothermia is waiting for emergency services and immediately treating
with a first aid kit.

It is also recommended to treat hypothermia by taking an individual indoors and

removing any wet or damp clothing as it is contributing to the individual's temperature
dropping. And give them warm clothing or a blanket, and give them warm drinks. In the
hospital, the individual will receive warm fluids, monitor their heart rate, and potentially
receive oxygen to help them breathe.

Hyperthermia : Hyperthermia is a condition where the body's core temperature

exceeds 37 degrees due to failed thermoregulation. The body uses breathing, sweating,
and vasodilation to regulate its temperature; however, in an environment that is hotter,
the body finds it increasingly challenging to do so, which may end up resulting in
hyperthermia. The symptoms of hyperthermia includes : Excessive sweating , Muscle
cramps, spasms and pains Headaches and lightheadedness nausea and vomiting ,
Dizziness - Intense thirst; - Fainting or loss of consciousness .
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It is recommended to treat hypothermia by taking the person to a hospital, as they

would provide the individual with intravenous fluids to raise blood electrolyte levels; in
addition, chilled fluids may be administered to lower body temperature. If a hospital isn't
available, you should hydrate the individual with either a cool drink or a chilled sports
drink that contains electrolytes, have the individual take a cold bath or shower, and get
to a cool area

Hypothyroidism: The thyroid gland is a small organ located at the front of the neck and
is wrapped around the trachea. The role of the thyroid gland is to secrete hormones that
have multiple effects on the human body, including controlling your metabolism.

Thyroid disease is when the thyroid gland produces too many hormones, such as T4
(thyroxine, which contains four iodide atoms) and T3 (triiodothyronine, which contains
three iodide atoms).

As a result of the thyroid gland producing too many hormones, it causes the metabolism
to become unstable, which results in too much energy being used, causing you to be
tired, lose weight without trying, and even make you feel nervous. This is known as
hyperthyroidism. On the other hand, if the thyroid doesn’t produce enough hormones, it
results in feeling tired, gaining weight, and being unable to tolerate cold temperatures.
This is known as hypothyroidism.

The recommended treatment for hypothyroidism is medication, like levothyroxine.

Medication, such as levothyroxine, is the suggested course of treatment for
hypothyroidism. The synthetic hormone levothyroxine aids in supplementing or
replacing the body's inadequate synthesis of thyroid hormones. It improves symptoms
like fatigue, weight gain, and depression by bringing thyroid hormone levels back to
normal. It is normally taken orally once a day. In addition to taking medication, people
with hypothyroidism should see their doctor on a regular basis so that hormone levels
can be checked and medication dosage adjustments can be made as needed.
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Pituitary Gland Tumour :Pituitary gland tumours and cysts are common and affect
one-sixth of people. Most of these tumours are benign and do not spread. A tumour can
cause the pituitary gland to produce too little or too much hormone, leading to
hypopituitarism or both. This can cause organs that rely on pituitary hormones to
malfunction, causing disorders like gigantism, galactorrhea, erectile dysfunction, and
central diabetes insipidus.

Simple blood tests can diagnose pituitary gland issues, and computed tomography (CT)
or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to track the growth of tumours.
Surgical removal of a tumour and certain surrounding glands may be necessary in
certain circumstances, but this is typically not a big deal. It is possible to remove up to
95% of the pituitary gland without affecting its full function. Physicians may also wait
and assess the situation before acting, or they may treat tumours by regulating
hormones with medication. Pituitary gland tumours can be treated with radiation therapy
in addition to surgery.

Diabetes : Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition. Individuals with type 1 diabetes

attack the beta cells, which produce the hormone insulin. After the body mistakenly
destroys the necessary beta cells, it will be unable to produce insulin and therefore be
unable to regulate blood glucose level

Type 2 diabetes is a developed condition, unlike Type 1 diabetes. It is usually developed

later in life, around the 40s and 50s, but it can be developed earlier in life. With type 2
diabetes, individuals can produce insulin, but their bodies are unable to use the insulin
effectively. .When an individual develops type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces an
increased volume of insulin to compensate for the high glucose levels. As the body is
unable to effectively use insulin, glucose accumulates in the blood

To treat Type 2 diabetes, weight loss is recommended as it promotes lower blood

glucose levels In addition, many dietitians recommend that people who suffer from
diabetes have a diet low in refined sugars, saturated fats, and calories. Furthermore,
dietitians recommend that people who suffer from type 2 diabetes to eat a diet with
more fruits, as they provide natural sugars, vegetables, and foods with lots of fibre.
Including that, doctors recommend physical exercise, as it lowers blood sugar levels

Another treatment for type 1 and type 2 diabetes is insulin pumps or injections. Insulin
pumps deliver small doses of insulin through a cannula into a layer of fat under the skin,
allowing it to be absorbed into the blood.

Thirdly, doctors may prescribe tablets to patients who suffer from type 1 diabetes . Two
examples are metformin and SGL T2 inhibitors. Metformin reduces kidney insulin
production, improving insulin sensitivity, while SGL T2 inhibitors prevent kidney
resorption, allowing sugar to be secreted in urine.

Kidneys : The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs located below the ribcage
within the renal system. One of the primary roles of the kidneys is to filter waste
products from the blood, such as urea. Urea is a waste product produced in the liver
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when excess amino acids are broken down. Additionally, the kidneys are responsible for
carrying out osmoregulation.

Nephrons: Nephrons are long tubes that are parallel to the renal capsule or
perpendicular to it. Each portion of the tube has its own set of transport properties.
There are two basic kinds of nephrons: cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons.
Cortical nephrons have a glomerulus located nearer to the outer parts of the cortex, and
Henle loops are short. Juxtamjamedullaryons have a glomerulus near the junction of
the cortex and medulla, and they have Henle loops that penetrate deep into the
medulla. The role of the nephron is to produce urine in the process of removing waste
and excess substances from the blood.
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The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that is in charge of pee production. The loop
starts by taking in a filtrate, sending it through the thick ascending limb where sodium is
found, and then sending it back up the thin descending limb. Water is absorbed by
active transport and then exits the collecting duct by moving via osmosis in capillaries.
Blood in the Bowman's capsule needs to be under pressure in order for
ultrafiltration—the process by which tiny molecules are filtered out of the blood—to
occur. Blood passes through the renal artery and enters the kidney. It then splits off into
arterioles. Blood travels through the afferent arteriole to enter the Bowman's capsule.
The arterial system divides into a dense cluster of capillaries referred to as the
glomerulus and globulus. subsequently joins to create the efferent arteriole, which
removes blood from the capsule.

Fibrous Capsule: The fibrous capsule (fibrous tunic) is a firm, smooth covering of the
kidney. The tunic can be easily stripped off, but in doing so, numerous fine processes of
connective tissue and small blood vessels are torn through. Under this coat, a thin,
wide-meshed network of unstriped muscle fibre forms an incomplete covering for the
organ. When the capsule is stripped off, the surface of the kidney is found to be smooth,
even, and of a deep red colour.

Osmoregulation: Osmoregulation is a form of negative feedback that controls the

movement of water and potential body fluids. In addition, osmoregulation regulates the
osmotic pressure of fluids and electrolytes . Osmoregulation takes place in the kidneys .

The process of osmoregulation begins with either the water potential in the blood
increasing or decreasing. Then nerves in the hypothalamus send an impulse to the
pituitary gland, where the gland releases a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) .
If the water potential in the blood increases too much, the pituitary gland will secrete
less ADH. As a result, the distal tubule and collecting ducts within the nephron will
remain impermeable.This will lead to water being reabsorbed into the blood and a large
volume of dilute urine being released to assist in returning water potential back to
normal .

On the other hand, if the water potential decreases too low in the blood, the pituitary
gland is responsible for secreting ADH. The role of the ADH is to increase the
permeability of the distal tubule and collecting ducts within the nephron. As a result , the
water will be reabsorbed into the blood. Eventually, a small volume of hypertonic urine
will be secreted out of the body as waste, and the blood will return too normal.
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Antidiuretic Hormone (AHD ) - ADH is a hormone that is secreted by the pituitary

gland by the posterior pituitary gland in the hypothalamus of the brain. ADH is
responsible for the conservation and release of Inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic
hormone syndrome is a condition marked by excessive ADH production from the
pituitary gland or other body regions. This could lead to a buildup of fluids inside the
body. Additionally, because of the excess production of ADH, which leads to water
retention, electrolyte levels in the body decrease. The continuous release of ADH often
results in the frequent excretion of hypertonic urine, causing a drop in the levels of, for
instance, sodium in the body.

Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (or SIADH) can be caused by many

factors which include hereditary, cancer, and cystic fibrosis .SIADH can also be caused
by brain trauma, internal brain bleeding, or infections. Symptoms of SIADH include
nausea, muscle weakness, irritability and restlessness , suppurations, coughs, loss of
appetite and vomiting , and seizures.

To treat SIADH, individuals are recommended to limit fluid intake. To limit fluids in the
body and also raise electrolytes in the body. As a result of limiting fluid intake, it may
avoid further buildup of fluids in the body. Also its recommended to see a doctor so
you're eligible to be prescribed medications such as Lasix or demeclocycline . The role
of the medication is to reduce fluid retention caused by the condition.
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Homeostasis and temperature regulation