COUNTERPOINT FOURTH EDITION nae pu, cee a ec ect ou = Fe oo oars ela = eee eee ee ee L tom Jt i} rena vm = eerie a . aa @ oa aw $ ao = 5 aaa Oi oo wee Sonesta arr Sd ee ee reas ne, Pee eeey Se le a ro oT = eS ees Se prea Perreees ree ae = fu eet CMI SS _ ee lox, sesso pees = fcrsMead| v7 aS ae ssa KENT KENNANCOUNTERPOINT Based on Eighteenth-Century Practice FOURTH EDITION Kent Kennan Professor Emeritus of Music The University of Texas at Austin PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publcation Data Kexway, Ker WHEELER (date) ‘Counterpoint : based on eighteenth-century practice Kent Kennan —athed. pom Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-13-090746-X 1, Counterpoint—18th century, Tile MTS5.KS3._ 1999) 781.286—de21 9e-22174 cP MN Acquisitions editor: Bud Therien Editorial assistant; Mary Amon, Exitorial/production editor: B. Christenberry Art Director: Jayne Conte Manufacturing buyer: Bob Anderson All rights reserved, No part ofthis book may be ‘reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 9876 ISBN 0-13-08074b-x Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Py. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall of Canada, Inc, Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A. Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc, Tokyo Prentice-Hall Asia Pte. Lid, Singapore Ezitora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lida., Rio de Janeiro Contents PREFACE ix Suggestions for use of this book, x Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Objectives, 1 The nature of counterpoint, 3 The stylistic approach, 2 “Siri” versus “free” counterpoint, 3 Historical perspective, 2 Chapter 2. THE SINGLE MELODIC LINE 5 Melodic contour, 5 The compound line, 10 Relative importance of notes, 8 Range, 11 Harmonic implications, 9 Other considerations, 11 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 18 Chapter 3. PRINCIPLES OF TWO-VOICE COUNTERPOINT 19 Quality of individual lines, 20 Harmonic implications, 22 Independence between the lines, 20 Consonance versus dissonance, 30 Unity, 21 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 33 ‘SELP-TEST, 34 aiv Contems Chapter 4 TWO-VOICE EXERCISES, 1:1, 2:1 35 Two notes against one (2:1). 38 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 49 Note against note (1:1), 35 Chapter 5. CHROMATICISM (TWO VOICES) 50 Melodic versus harmonic usage, 50 Cross relations, 55 Modulation, 53 Concerning two-voice chromatic Chromatic spelling, 55 exercises, 56 SUGGESTED ASSIONMENTS, 59 Chapter 6 TWO-VOICE EXERCISES (Concluded) 60 Three notes against one (3:1), 60 Fifth species, 75 Four notes against one (4:1), 63 Rhythmic activity divided between the ‘Syncopation (fourth species), 65 voices, 77 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 78, see-vest, 78 Chapter 7 WRITING OF SHORT TWO-VOICE PIECES 79 Form, 79 Varied repetition, 86 Reducing or increasing the number of voices, 83 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 90 SeLE-TEST, 90 Chapter 8 CANON 91 The two-voice canon at the octave, 91 ‘The accompanied canon, 103 Two-voice canons at other Canons in three or more voices, 105 ‘harmonic intervals, 94 The perpetual canon, 108 Concerning the writing of The double canon, 111 ‘nvo-voice canons, 96 The enigma canon, 112 Canons using special devices, 97 The spiral canon, 114 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 114 seue-rest, 114 Contents Chapter 9 INVERTIBLE COUNTERPOINT 115 Invertible counterpoint involving three or more voices, 123 Inversion at the octave, 115 Inversion at intervals other than the octave, 118 General principles involved in writing invertible counterpoint, 121 SUGGESTED ASSIONMENTS, 123 SELF-TEST, 123 Chapter 10 THE TWO-PART INVENTION; MOTIVE DEVELOPMENT 126 The motive, 127 Episodes, 134 The imitation: the countermotive, 128 Middle entries, 138 The accompanying line, 129 The final statements, 139 Possible plans ofthe intial Overall construction, 139 ‘announcements, 130 Analysis of inventions, 140 Development through special devices, 133 SUGOESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 144 seLF Test, 144 Chapter 11 THREE-VOICE COUNTERPOINT 145 Rhythmic relationships, 145 Exercises in three-voice Relative importance of voices, 149 counterpoint, 156 Harmonic considerations, 149 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 162 SELF-TEST, 162, Chapter 12 WRITING OF SHORT PIECES, THREE VOICES 164 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 169 Chapter 13 IMITATION IN THREE VOICES 170 Real imitation, 171 Tonal imitation, 174 The writing of answers, 183 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 185 SELE-TEST, 185vi Contents Chapter 14. THE THREE-PART INVENTION; THE TRIO SONATA 186 Exceptional features, 190 Analysis of an entire invention, 190 The trio sonata, 192 Baroque duo sonatas of similar design, 198 SUGGESTED AsstonMENTS, 200 SeLE-TEST, 201 Chapter 15 FUGUE 202 The subject, 203 The subject as related to the answer; The answer, 206 the stretio fugue, 216 The three-voice fugue exposition. 206 Special devices as used in the Four-voice counterpoint, 209 exposition, 217 The four-voice fugue exposition, 210 The subject as related 10 the material that follows it, 214 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 218 The counterexposition, 218 Chapter 16 FUGUE (Continued) 220 Episodes, 220 The final portion, 225 Middle entries, 222 The fugue as a whole, 228 Special devices as applied to the The scholastic fugue, 234 ‘middle entries, 223 Other types of fugal design, 235 SUGGESTED ASSIONMENTS, 236 Chapter 17 FUGUE (Concluded) 238 The five-voice fugue, 238 Fugues of six or more voices, 239 The two-voice fugue, 240 The double fugue, 240 The group fugue, 247 The triple fugue, 244 Fugue writing as affected by the Fugues with more than three ‘medium, 248 subjects, 246 The fughetta and the fugato, 246 The concert fugue, 246 The fugue fantasia, 247 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 249 seLe-TEST, 249 Contents vit Chapter 18 FORMS BASED ON THE CHORALE 250 ‘The chorale prelude, 250 Chorale variations, 265 Use of the chorale melody in various The chorale fantasia, 268 woices, 264 The chorale fugue, 268 SUSIOESTED ASSIONMENTS, 269 seLe-rest, 270 Chapter 19 CONTRAPUNTAL VARIATION FORMS 271 Cantus firmus variation types: the ‘ground, the passacaglia, and the chaconne, 271 Theme and variations, 277 SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS, 278 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 279 INDEX 281Preface This fourth edition of Counterpoint retains the overall organization of the third, which appeared some twelve years ago. The print has been enlarged slightly for greater ease in reading; a number of “Self-Tests” formerly in the Counterpoint Work- book have been transferred to the text and reorganized so as to apply to specific chap- ters; the bibliography has been updated; and some of the Suggested Assignments have been revised. The activities connected with this book fall into two broad categories: analysis based on aural and visual acquaintance with contrapuntal music of the Baroque period (roughly 1600 to 1750); and writing, first of exercises and then of music involving forms or techniques characteristic of the period, such as canons, dance-suite move- ‘ments, inventions, fugues, chorale preludes, and passacaglias. It is assumed that stu- dents will already have had courses in basic theory, harmony, ear training, and sight singing, In the exercises mentioned above, a modified species approach is employed “species” in the sense that basic rhythmic rations are specified at frst, “modified” in that whole-note cantus firmi have been replaced by melodies that are metrically orga- nized and that often carry strong harmonic implications. Also, some of the more stringent restrictions of strict counterpoint (especially those derived from sixteenth century practice) are waived, Fifth (florid) species is not undertaken as such because it resembles the free counterpoint that students will write in later assignments. The C clefs, traditionally employed in earlier counterpoint texts (and even some recent ones) have not been used here, since most students do not have a real working com- mand of them and since it seems doubtful that the problem of learning to use them Should be coupled with the process of learning counterpoint. Given the wide influence of Schenker theory on musical analysis today, the ques- tion arose as to whether there should be an attempt to incorporate that approach in this book. After considerable discussion with Schenker specialists and other teachers, it was decided that that was inadvisable, for several reasons: (1) a wholesale revamping of the book to include a proper explanation of Schenker theory and the application ofx Preface it to the musical examples was obviously unfeasible, and it was felt that the sporadic inctusion of Schenker concepts might amount to a superficial treatment of the subject and perhaps prove more confusing than helpful; (2) counterpoint books with a strong Schenkerian orientation are already available (see the bibliography); (3) unless stu- dents have had a Schenkerian background in their first two years of theory, it seems doubtful that they would be ready to absorb Schenker principles in their junior year—the time when most students take counterpoint. Schools with Schenker courses generally offer them at the graduate level. The author is indebted to many persons who have made valuable suggestions in connection with this book since its first edition appeared in 1959. Among these are Dr. Donald Grantham, Dr. Patrick MeCreless, Mrs. Janet MoGaughey, Dr. John Rothgeb, Dr. William Thomson, the late Dr. Richard Hoppin and the late Dr. Paul Pisk. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF THIS BOOK Presumably all classes will cover the first six chapters (on basic contrapuntal rela- tionships) and will do some of the exercises suggested in connection with them. From that point on there is likely to be some variation in procedure from school to school, depending on the amount of time allotted to the course, on the emphasis, and on the backgrounds ofthe students involved. Following are some possible departures, from a consecutive and complete coverage of the book. 1. After two-voice exercises in the various species have been done, the instructor may elect to have students use a passacaglia theme from the Workbook (page 36) as a CE, against which another voice is to be added, using, in turn, 2:1, 3:1 and 4:1. In that case, Chapter 19 should be read first. (It is placed relatively late in the book because actual passacaglias normally involve at least four voices.) 2. Chapter 10 (The Two-Part Invention; Motive Development) may be taken up before Chapter 7 (Writing of Short Two- Voice Pieces), Chapter 8 (Canon), and Chap- ter 9 (Invertible Counterpoint) if desired. However, the author's experience has been that students often find the short freer-form pieces easier vehicles for their first com- positional efforts than the invention, with its prescribed features. 3. Chapters 8 and 9 on Canon and on Invertible Counterpoint contain some of the ‘more esoteric material in the book; the instructor may find it sufficient to go over this ‘material in class—or have students read the chapters but not attempt to do writing exercises based on them. 4, The material on the three-part invention (sinfonia) in Chapter 14 may be bypassed and three-voice fugues studied next, The two genres involve essentially the same principles, and since musical literature includes many fugues but few three-part inventions, it would seem more important to move on to a study of fugue if time is limited. In either case, students should read Chapter 13 (Imitation in Three Voices) firs; itis organized as a separate chapter precisely so that it can serve as preparation for work on the three-part invention, the trio sonata, or the three-voice fugue. Preface xi 5. Chapter 18, concerning forms based on the chorale, may be studied earlier (before fugue) if desired. In that case, it is advisable to provide some basic informa- tion on fugal procedure in order that chorale-based works involving that element will bbe understandable, Atthe end of each chapter a list of suggested assignments is given, Certain of these involve exercises contained in Counterpoint Workbook, 4th ed. (Prentice Hall, 1999), In such cases the appropriate page numbers in the Workbook are cited. It is not intended that all the suggested assignments be done by any one student or class. Proj- ects of varying difficulty and scope have been included with a view to meeting the needs of different teaching situations. Itis strongly recommended that students be given the opportunity to hear (in class or through recordings on library reserve) as many examples as possible of the forms they are studying, While pianists and organists are likely to have considerable acquain- tance with Baroque music (especially J. S, Bach's inventions and fugues), other stu- dents often do not, And itis obviously unreasonable to expect a student to imitate a style that is unfamiliar, Furthermore, performance, in class, of music under study can do much to stimulate interestChapter 1 Introduction OBJECTIVES ‘The chief objective of counterpoint study, in the author's view, is to awaken or sharpen in students a feeling for the contrapuntal element that is present to some degree in virtually all music; to make them sensitive to the forces of opposition and agreement, tension and relaxation, ditection, climax, and the like, that operate when- ever two or more voices are sounded simultaneously. While a limited understanding of these elements may be gained through analysis alone, experience has shown that they come alive and are grasped in a more intimate way through the actual writing of contrapuntal examples. Furthermore, students (including those who protest that they have no compositional ability) often discover the special satisfaction that can come from creating music. For student composers, the writing aspect is acknowledged to be a valuable part of their training, Even though the styles oftheir own compositions will presumably be far removed from much earlier styles, the technical control gained in working with linear relationships has been found to carry over into composition using contemporary idioms. Theory majots, though less likely to be involved in the creative aspect, must know the Subject thoroughly, not only because it is important from an analytical standpoint but because they may well be called upon to teach it in their future work. For all students, ‘counterpoint study gives added insight into the workings of the style involved—and pethaps an acquaintance with music they might not get to know otherwise. A question might arise as to whether students in jazz programs and those planning to work with music for mass media should take counterpoint. Teachers in these areas ‘who were questioned on this point responded strongly in the affirmative. They stress the fact that arrangers, in particular, need this training, The late Robert Russell Ben- nett, long considered the top arranger for Broadway shows, once commented that Counterpoint is she indispensable element in arranging; if it is missing, the audience's enjoyment of the music will be lessened, even though they will not identify the miss- ing feature2 Introduction THE STYLISTIC APPROACH ‘A further question that counterpoint students might well ask (and should ask) is this Why do we go back to the eighteenth century for models to emulate? The most com pelling answer would be that the principles of eighteenth-century counterpoint apply in a broad sense to contrapuntal music—and even much homophonic music—clear through Brahms’s day. That is, in spite of the many changes and stylistic innovations in music during the past three hundred years or so, the fundamental approach to polyphony remained more or less constant until the late nineteenth century. At that time impressionism, dodecaphony, and other trends brought about major changes in musical techniques. Thus, in studying “Bach-style” or “Baroque” counterpoint we are not limiting our interest to music of the eighteenth century; rather, we are concen- trating on models from that period because they afford the clearest examples of a contrapuntal approach that underlies the music of nearly three centuries. In line with this view, a few musical examples by composers of later periods (Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schumann, Brahms, Franck) are included in the book The choice of the eighteenth-century style as the basis for this text does not imply any lack of regard for the beauties of sixteenth-century counterpoint or any sugges- tion that one style is more worthwhile than the other as an object of study. An inti- mate acquaintance with both is part of the background of every well-trained musician, The author does feel, however, that the eighteenth-century style is best taught first, simply because it underlies the great body of music that is most familiar to students. Because the styles of these two periods differ in spirit, technical con- struction, and (generally) the use of a text, they call for different courses, or atleast separate parts of the same course. An aitempt to fuse them into one composite style will only produce a synthetic result that has no counterpart in actual music. The case for the stylistic approach is nicely stated by Professor Glen Haydon in his introduc- tion to Jeppeson’ Counterpoint, The Polyphonic Vocal-Style of the Sixteenth Cen- tury: “More and more, thoughtful musicians have come to realize that one cannot teach counterpoint ‘in general’ without inviting endless controversy as to what is per- missible and what is not.” Also, Jeppeson’s book (despite its title) includes an “Out- line History of Contrapuntal Theory” that comments at length on “Bach-style” counterpoint and gives an excellent explanation of the relationship between that and “Palestrina-style” counterpoint, in terms of musical structure, historical perspective, and pedagogical approach. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Ever since music has utilized independent lines ot voices, composers and theorists, have concerned themselves with the principles involved in setting one voice against another effectively. One of the earliest treatises on the subject—and probably the best known—is contained in Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps fo Parnassus) by Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741), which was published in 1725. Actually, the book was thought of by its author as a composition text, and it included material on intervals, Introduction — 3 scales, fugue, and various stylistic trends of Fux’s day. But the greatest portion was devoted to basic lessons in counterpoint, and that section is fortunately, available in a translation by Alfred Mann entitled The Study of Counterpoint. (Mann has also writ- ten illuminating articles on Haydn's and Beethoven's counterpoint study.) About the Gradus Ernest Newman says, “Directly or indirectly, itis the foundation of practi- cally all the methods of teaching counterpoint during the last two hundred years.” Written originally in Latin and sine translated into many languages, it isin the form of adialogue between the teacher, Aloysius (intended by Fux to represent Palestrina), and Josephus, the pupil who wishes to learn composition, We know that Mozart used itas both student and teacher; that Haydn ang Albrechtsberger absorbed its contents, as did their counterpoint pupil, Beethoven; and that most of the outstanding com- posers of the nineteenth century studied counterpoint according to Fux’s principles, as passed on by Albrechtsberger and Cherubini, among others. Unfortunately, he monumental contribution of J, 8. Bach and other Baroque mas- ters was largely ignored by teachers of that era. Thus there existed a curious situation in which a system of counterpoint instruction widely accepted as the only authentic one persisted even though it failed to take into account the important contrapuntal music of a full century earlier. THE NATURE OF COUNTERPOINT Inthe process of explaining the meaning of the term counterpoint to his student Jose~ phus, Fux's Aloysius says, “It is necessary for you ¢o know that in earlier times, instead of our modern notes, dots or points were used, Thus, one used to call a com- position in which point was set against or counter to point, ‘counterpoint’.” As a tec! nique, this might be defined as the art of combining two or more melodic lines in a ‘musically satisfying way. included in this definition is the assumption that each line is good in itself; and the phrase “a musically satisfying way” implies among other things that the lines will be independent yet coordinate in feeling. While eighteenth-century counterpoint puts considerable emphasis on the linear or horizontal aspect of music, itis also very much concerned with the vertical combi- nation of tones; that is, the lines heard together must outline clear-cut and strong hat- monic progressions. As Oldroyd puts it in his book The Technique and Spirit of Fugue, “Counterpoint is the flight of melodic tracery between one harmony and another” And R. O. Morris, in his Foundations of Practical Harmony and Counter- Point, sums up the vertical-horizontal relationship neatly: “Harmony and counter- Point are not two diferent things but merely two diferent Ways of regarding the same thing” “STRICT” VERSUS “FREE” COUNTERPOINT Although there is not universal agreement as to the exact meaning of these terms, ‘strict counterpoint” normally refers to an approach essentially like Fux’: there is a4 Introduction ccantus firmus (fixed voice) in whole notes, against which another voice is written, using one of the various “species” (note against note, two notes against the given note, and so on). The basic exercises are not intended to involve a mettical pulse, and harmonic implications do not enter in. The emphasis is rather on vertical intervals, and on the motion of the added voice in relation to the cantus firmus; about these aspects there are rather severe restrictions. Some teachers retain the modal approach, ala Fux, while others discard it in favor of the “major-minor” system. There may or may not be an examination of sixteenth-century counterpoint, Asarule, “free counterpoint” is based on eighteenth-century instrumental models and consequently is not concerned with those restrictions that apply specifically to the sixteenth-century style. It often makes use of exercises in the species—but gener- ally in a modified way that involves a sense of meter and harmonic implications (as in this book). The beginnings of the free-counterpoint concept can be traced back as far as the writings of Johann Philipp Kimberger (1721-1783). Although in time that approach gained adherents (such as Jadassohn, Riemann, and Kurth), actual teaching in that fashion did not become widespread until the late nineteenth century. Strict and free counterpoint have long coexisted and will probably continue to do soa situation reflecting the divergence of opinion about their respective merits among theorists. Persuasive arguments in favor of each can be advanced, Chapter 2 The Single Melodic Line MELODIC CONTOUR Since counterpoint concems the character of individual lines as well asthe principles involved in combining two or more of them, our first consideration will be the quali- ties that make for a good melodic line. Among the most important of these are a sense of direction and a climax point, both of which contribute toa clear-cut and interesting melodic contour. (Others concern such matters as a pleasing balance between con- junct and disjunct motion and between ascending and descending motion.) Because of the many different possibilities for melodic contour, it is impractical to attempt a complete cataloguing of them; but certain broad types will be mentioned next. ‘The most common is the one in which the line ascends to the highest point and then descends. In Example 1a the high point is about a third ofthe way through, in 1b slightly beyond the midpoint, and in Ie closer to the end, Placement of it somewhere in the second half is the most usual arrangement, since that allows for a sense of buildup to the high point and sustains interest most effectively. Examplela BACH: Example th GOTTLIEB MUFFAT: Fugue in G Minor, for Organ6 The Single Melodic Line BACH: — W.T.C,! Book II, Fugue 8 Example te The opposite pattern, one that moves downward and then returns to the original pitch area, is shown in Example 2. Concerto for Two Violins Example2 BACH: Spat Ste oa 2 SS This shape (Example 2) is seen only rarely, probably because a sense of pitch elimax is difficult to achieve with it. However, the very absence of that element in this pas- sage contributes to its beautifully serene quality Ifa line first descends, then rises to a point higher than that of the beginning, a clear sense of pitch climax can result (Example 3). The Single Melodic Line 7 Bxample4b BACH: The Art of Fugue, No.8 ft - oF ie», - Example 46 illustrates the fact that a certain sense of pitch climax ean be achieved by basie downward motion to a low pitch, the reverse of the moze frequent procedure; at least there is a strong feeling of direction toward the bottom D and a sense of arrival ata desired destination when itis reached. A feeling of climax in a melodic line is of eourse not dependent on pitch alone Other factors such as duration, dynamic level, and placement of notes within the melody enter in. For example, a note which, in terms of pitch, would not command particular attention may be made more important by means of a longer value (agogic accent) or a dynamic accent while a relatively high pitch that is passed over quickly may not have the climactic effect it would have if sustained, In case a pitch climax is desired, it is generally best to avoid having the line move to the same high point or the same low point (whichever is involved) more than once. Some melodies involve a kind of pivotal pattern, in which the line centers around particular note or area (the note D in Example Sa, C in 5b). Example3) HANDE Judas Maccabeus (“To Our Great God”) ExampleSa = BUXTEHUDE: — Fugue inG Al T 1 FS ere Si phe oa ‘The type of curve that begins with its lowest point and ends with its highest is seen in Example 4a, and the reverse of that in 44, Both types are seen relatively infte- quently. Example4a BACH: Duet in F (from Clavier-Ubung, Part 11) Ease Ae This abbreviation is used in examples throughout this book to refer to Bach's The Hell-Tempered Clavier Example Sb BACH: —-WET.C, Book 1, Fugue 2 ESS te Notice, though, that in such cases the intentional nature of the return to the pivotal Note is obvious to the ear. Unless such a clearly planned pattern is apparent, a melody that keeps doubling back over the same notes will sound pointlessly repetitious. Also to be noted is the fact that melodies of the pivotal variety generally contain, in addi- tion to the recurring pitches, elements that give a sense of progression and direction. For instance, in Examples Sa and Sh certain notes (indicated by beamed arrows) form lines that move by step (step-progressions). This feature will receive further com- "ment in the next section.8 The Single Metodic Line RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF NOTES In most tonal melodies certain notes are heard as being more important than others. This may occur when those notes are: (1) the highest or the lowest in a phrase or a longer segment; (2) the first and/or the last; (3) longer in value; (4) repeated, either immediately or later; (5) in a strong metric position; (6) accented dynamically; (7) harmonic as opposed to nonharmonic; (8) in a step-progression, (Any or all of these conditions might apply.) The first seven of these situations are either discussed elsewhere in this book or are self-evident. But the last may call for some explanation here. A step-progtession is a series of (usually) nonadjacent notes in a melody that form a stepwise succes- sion; the strong melodic relationship of a second causes those notes to be heard as a line even though other notes intervene. Some melodies, such as the ones shown in Examples 5b and 26, contain a single step-progression. Others involve several that start and stop at different points.% Example 6 shows an instance of the latter type Example6 BACH: _ Sonata IV for Flute and Harpsichord Adagio [ 1 a (hue) ; > Further illustrations of the same situation can be seen in Examples Sa and 25. Obvi- ‘ously, the presence of a step-progression helps to give a melodic line a clear sense of direction. When, as happens rarely, there is a single step-progression that continues through the whole phrase as in Example 7, it outlines the overall skeletal structure of the phrase Some systems of theory refer to these as “basic” pitches. That label has been avoided here because efinve decisions as to what notes are “basic” are sometimes hard to arrive at given the many factors involved and the element of subjective judgment that necessarily enters in. Ao, there are degrees of asicness,” and thus it seems questionable to speak of any given set of notes as the base form of a melody. Hindemiths The Craf of Musical Composition includes examples in which as many a sx different step.progressions are operating at once. The Single Melodic Line 9 Example7 HANDEL: — Messiah allegeo v Qe Re-joice, te = jee, res jowe ——___great- ty, re-joice, But since few melodies are so constructed and since many contain several concurrent step-progressions, it would be a mistake to conclude that skeletal structure can nor- mally be deduced simply from step-progressions. And of course we must remember that many fine melodies make no use at all of step-progression, HARMONIC IMPLICATIONS Most melodies of the Baroque period suggest a harmonic background to some degree. In certain cases (e.g., Example 8), complete chord outlines within the melody tmake the implied harmonies quite explicit. But note that even in such apparently har- monic settings, clear linear elements are usually present; two step-progressions have been indicated in Example 8, and two more in the “inner voices” might have been shown, Example 8 In other melodies (Examples 9 and 12a, for instance), the harmonic implications are less definite. Sometimes the latter are even capable of being construed in two or ‘more different ways until they are clearly defined by the presence of another voice. The three harmonic successions listed below the music in Example 9 illustrate this, point10 The Single Melodic Line Example9 BACH: ==> WIG, Book 1, Fugue 1 The term “harmonic rhythm” is commonly used to describe the pattern of har- monic change in music. Although a harmonic basis is likely to be most definite when two or more lines are involved, harmonic rhythm is apparent even in a single melodic line that suggests a specific chordal background In the style we are considering, the tonality is invariably established at or near the beginning of a melody. Fugue subjects and invention motives nearly always begin on either the tonic or the dominant note, occasionally on the leading tone or the super- tonic as an anacrusis. Tonic harmony occurring at the end of a subject or phrase nor~ mally falls on a strong beat (the first or third in a measure of four beats, the first in a measure of two or three beats). THE COMPOUND LINE The type of line shown in Example 10 (consisting, in effect, of two or more lines heard alternately) occurs frequently in works for unaccompanied stringed instru- ments, where a Sense of harmonic completeness would be difficult to achieve other- wise. Such lines obviously involve a compound contour. Chaconne Example10— BACH: _— > If the three lines implied in this passage were written as such, they would look approximately like this: Example 11 ven The Single Melodic Line. 11 RANGE ‘asa general rule, melodies of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries tend to stay «within the range of a 12th, and many are considerably narrower in span. Fugue sub- jects, in particular, most often confine themselves to a range of an octave; of those in The Well-Tempered Clavier, only a few involve ranges as large as a 10th, and none exceed that, Example 12 shows melodies with narrow and wide ranges, respec- tively—a Sth in @ and an 11th in, fxample 12a BACH: ~—-WéT.G, Book 1, Fugue OTHER CONSIDERATIONS So far we have done no more than to touch briefly on some of the many possibilities in melodic contour and on some factors in melodic construction. We should now review certain specific points involved in successful melody writing: 1. The fourth, sixth, and seventh scale steps (sometimes called “active steps”), have particular directional tendencies in relation to the tonic harmony and in certain other harmonic contexts as well. Example 11 shows the tendencies of the active steps in C major. Example 1312 The Single Melodie Line The fourth degree, being only a half step above the third, most often moves in that direction rather than a whole step in the opposite direction. Similarly, the seventh degree tends to move to the closest scale tone, the tonic a half step above. Although the half-step relationship does not apply in the case of the sixth scale degree (in major, that is), the tendency of that note is normally downward to the fifth of the scale, since the note above is itself an active tone However, if approached as in Example 14a, these same tones may convincingly ‘move in the direction opposite to that shown above, Sometimes they leap to another active tone, in which case the tendency of the first note is waived or its resolution is taken over by another voice. In any case, the manner of resolution derives from the tendency of the /ast note in a series of active tones (Example 146). Example 14 a 45 The second scale degree is sometimes considered active as well, but it has less sense of gravitational pull than the fourth, sixth, or seventh degrees. Its most basic tendency is down to the tonic note, though it often moves up to the third of the scale instead In minor, the harmonic minor scale (Example 15) is normally the basis for implied vertical harmonies in this style, in order that the dominant chord will be major, the subdominant, minor. Example 15 In this scale, the tendencies of active steps are the same as those in major, even though different interval relationships are involved in two cases; that is, the fourth degree is a whole step above the third and the sixth degree a halfstep above the fifth. The melodic minor scale (Example 16) is most often used for melodies, to avoid the augmented 2nd that would occur between scale steps 6 and 7 if both were not either raised or left in their “natural minor” form. Example 16 bes The Single Melodic Line 13 ‘As.a very general rule, ascending lines employ the ascending form of this scale, descending lines the descending form. But harmonic background also plays an jmportant part in the choice of one or the other. There are times when the ascending form must be used in a descending passage in order to imply the (major) dominant chord (Example 17a); and the descending form is sometimes seen in an ascending. passage when the (minor) subdominant is to be implied (Example 17b). Example 17a BACH: aes aries bee Book I, Fugue 2 It should be apparent, however, that in the case of the melodic minor scale the normal tendency of the raised sixth and seventh degrees is upward, that of the lowered sixth and seventh degrees, downward In any case, the awkward and unvocal interval of an augmented 2nd that occurs between the unaltered sixth scale step and the raised seventh step (A-flat to B-natural in C minor) is generally avoided in melodic lines. The exceptions are chiefly in pas- sages that outline a diminished seventh chord (Example 18). Example 18 BACH: Two-Part Invention No. 13 = _ — ieee ‘Aug. 2nds ceasionally the augmented 2nd is intentionally played up as recurring charateris= te feature in a passage, asin Example 19.14 TheSingle Melodic Line Example 19 BACH: —_Duetin F (from Clavier-Clbung, Part 111) In such cases, the corroboration of the unusual interval through repetition (and canonic imitation in Example 19) gives it special validity and keeps it from sounding merely haphazard Unlike the augmented 2nd, the melodic interval of a diminished 7th between the unaltered sixth scale step and the raised seventh step of the octave below is entirely usable and is found frequently in music of the Baroque and Classical periods (see Examples 3 and 4 in Chapter 17). 2. Even in a single melodic line certain tones may be heard as nonharmonic to implied harmonies and should be resolved. Since this point is much more likely to arise as a problem in connection with two-voice exercises to be done later, further discussion of itis being reserved for Chapter 4 3. When two or more leaps are made in the same direction, the ear interprets all the notes as belonging to the same harmony, assuming that none of them is clearly nonharmonic. Therefore, consecutive leaps should involve only notes that form a har- mony acceptable in the style being used. In the idiom we are studying, such sueces- sions as the following are generally ruled out for this reason: Example 20 ath ath Sed 7th 4h Th sth Sth The Single Melodic Line 15 If, however, the last note in each case is heard as being nonharmonic and is then resolved, most such successions become usable. Reversing the direction of the sec ‘ond interval in each succession in Example 20 would make them all acceptable, since the sense of an implied harmony involving all three notes would then be canceled out 4, Even when they fit into the same implied harmony, two large leaps (say ofa 6th ‘or more each) in the same direction should be avoided, since they would tend to take the line too far in one direction too suddenly, and would bring about a lack of melodic balance (Examples 21a,6,c). After a large leap it is usually best to have the melody turn in the opposite direction (Examples 214.2). Example 21 5. As a very general rule, a leap followed by stepwise motion is preferable to stepwise motion followed by a leap (Example 22). Example 22 Good Doubs Good Poor ala > 3 ‘he faster the movement of the notes involved, and the wider the leap, the more objectionable is this step-leap succession. It tends to crop up most often (in student counterpoint) with the leap between the last fraction of one beat and the first note of the next, as in Examples 22h and d. In slower-moving note values the result is slightly better, hough still weak, especially ifthe leap is over the bar line, as in Example 23a. The sudden introduction of a leap after stepwise motion seems to call attention to itself more at that point, possibly because there is normally a harmonic change there. ‘When the leap is from a strong beat to a weak beat, as in Examples 23h and c, the result is more likely to be acceptable sample 23 gt Weak b Bete; usable SS St SS _€ Stil better: usable Sa eS16 The Single Melodic Line 6. There should be some corroboration of musical elements, melodic or rhythmic or both, Melodic corroboration may be achieved by the actual repetition of an ele- ‘ment—anything from a small figure toan entire phrase or section. The repetition may occur successively, xs in Example 24, or after intervening material Example24 SCARLATT Sequence. in which a melodie element recurs on another seale step, is much more frequent than literal repetition in this style, and is an extremely common and impor tant device in contrapuntal music of the tonal period. It iy illustrated in Example 25, Example25 BACH: Sinfonia No.3 ways conceived with some harmonic objective in mind—either a progression within single harmonic area of a connection of two such areas. In addition, most sequences have a linear function, For instance, in Example 25 note the step-progressions within the upper voice. (Only the top one is indicated here.) An interesting point in connection with sequence is that it offen justifies the use of some unusual feature which, if stated only once, might sound improbable and accidental, ‘The immediate corroboration not ony assures the ear that the unexpected feature was intentional, but ereates a pattern that gives point and logic to the music. For instance, in Example 26 the upward leap of a 7th (D to C) with an unexpectedly long value on the top note is entirely convincing because of its confirmation in the sequence and because of the parallel resolutions of active tones (C to B and E to D). The step-leap succession in the first b segment is also exceptional. Observe that the line rises from G to B to D, the notes of the tonic triad. The Single Melodic Line 7 Example26 BACH: —_#.T.G, Book I, Fugue 15 In Example 27, the repetition of pitches in the lower voice would have sounded merely eccentric and awkward if it had occurred only once. ax part of the pattern hheard here, itis logical and satistying, Example27 BACH: WTC, Book 1, Fugue 14 However, there is a limit to what sequence will justify. A feature that is actually objectionable rather than merely unusual will not become any more acceptable with restatement, Also, it is important to remember that too many consecutive appear ances ofa pattern in a sequence make for « monotonous and over-obvious effect. AS a rule, three may be considered a safe limit. Sequences of the rhythm alone are also possible, but rhythmic corroboration is ‘more often achicved merely by means of a characteristic pattern, such as that of the dotted sixteenth note followed by a thirty-second note in the following: Example2B BACH: 1G, Book 11, Prelude 16, ‘There must not be too many different rhythmic patterns nor too widely divergent val- es in the melody itself if unity and coherence are to be maintained, 7. Abrupt halts in the rhythmiie motion are to be avoided. Where there isa choice between motion on a sirong beat and motion on a weak beat, the latter arrangement 's generally preferable, so that there will be a Sense of propulsion into the strong al, and so that the length of the note and the strength of the beat will be mutually18 The Single Melodic Line supportive. For example, J Jd J dis normally more satisfactory then TZ LSD J. putts principte must not be wken too literally, for exceptions are frequently brought about by special considerations in the musical pattern. Nor does it apply when there is another voice that can maintain the rhythmic flow at points where the first voice pauses. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS Page in Workbook 1, Exercises in error detection. 1 2. Write five melodies (or as many as specified by the instructor) about four to eight measures in length, ‘These should demonstrate various types of melodic contour. Have some melodies in major, some in minor, and use different meter signatures and tempos. 3. Bring in three examples of step-progression in music, of the Baroque or Classical period. Ifthe instructor so specifies, the notes involved in the step-progressions should be indicated with arrows, as in the text, Chapter 3 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint If we were to analyze a large body of contrapuntal music of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries, we would find that certain broad principles prevail in it. These need tobe examined before actual exercises in two-voice writing are undertaken. The most important are the following: 1, Each line must be good in itself 2. There must be sufficient independence between the voices in terms of direction and rhythmic motion. 3. On the other hand, they must have enough in common, stylistically and other ‘wise, so that they will fuse into a convineing whole when combined. 4, The lines must imply a good harmonic succession. At any given point, the ear hears not only the horizontal lines but the vertical results of combining them; these vertical sounds must represent a satisfactory harmonic progression. 5. In this style, the voices must be primarily consonant with each other, disso- nance being present, but in smaller quantities than consonance, Let us go back now and consider each of these points separately, applying them to the excerpt given in Example 1 Examplel BACH: ‘Two-Part Invention No. 11 920 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint QUALITY OF INDIVIDUAL LINES In Example | each of the melodic lines is pleasing in itself. Each has a definite sense of direction, an interesting curve. The upper voice is the better in this respect, since it ascends to a more clearly defined climax point. Each line maintains a good balance between stepwise motion and skips. A sequence in each voice at the beginning of the second measure corroborates the patterns just heard and gives added interest. INDEPENDENCE BETWEEN THE LINES Rhythmically, the two voices in Example I exhibit a fair degree of independence. For the most part, the motion is distributed between them. The only exceptions occur on the third and fifth beats, where both voices move in sixteenth notes at once—and that proves to be an agreeable departure from the pattern of differing values. Another important element in the feeling of independence between the lines here is the fact that their respective shapes are mostly dissimilar. That is, the rises and falls, in them do not come in the same places—again, with the exception of beats 3 and 5, where both voices move briefly in parallel 6ths. Because of the contrary motion employed elsewhere in the passage, the parallel motion here is pleasing by way of contrast. If it were continued for very long, however, the effect would be that ofa sin- le voice with a parallel harmony part rather than of two independent voices. Iftwo voices move in parallel octaves, the ear tends to receive the impression that 1 voice has dropped out, and the feeling of real counterpoint is lost. It is for this rea- son that parallel octaves between voices are ruled out. Of course this principle has nothing t0 do with the device of doubling a melody an octave higher or lower throughout a passage for the sake of added strength or a particular color, a device that occurs constantly in orchestral, organ, and piano music, for example. In such cases, the octave doubling is not areal voice but merely a reinforcement ofa voice already present. Parallel unisons are obviously to be avoided as well, octaves) they give the effect of reducing two voices to one. Example 2 demonstrates parallel octaves (a) and parallel unisons (6). ince (even more than Example 2 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint 21 Parallel Sths are likewise to be avoided, but principally because they imply paral- lel triads, a device foreign to the style we are using. While this point may therefore not be entirely appropriate under the heading of independence of voices, it can most conveniently be discussed here along with other parallelisms. Any two parallel per- _fectSths are poor (Examples 3a and 6), as is the succession of diminished Sth to per- fect Sth (at c). In the case of the latter succession, a further objection is that the dissonant diminished Sth is not resolved. On the other hand, a perfect Sth to a dimin- ished Sth is possible if the proper resolution follows () Example 3 Bad bh Bad Bad 4 Possible z ‘These comments on parallelism have involved only counterpoint using note against note (frst species). Other situations will be taken up later as they occur in connection with various exercises. Asa rule, the unison, 5th, and octave should not be approached by similar motion in two-voice counterpoint (Examples 4a, 6, and c) because of the emphasis that such ‘motion gives to the perfect interval. (The effect is even more objectionable if both voices leap.) However, the approach to the octave shown in d, with the strong root, movement in the lower voice, is good; itis seen frequently in cadences. Example 4 _ Weak Good 2 bo < pa Ty _ SS Ss Ee Giect union get Sth dist ve In counterpoint involving more than two voices, similar motion to a perfect inter val in inner voices or between an inner voice and an outer voice is not uneommon. In Such eases the relationship is less basie and less audible than it would be between outer voices. UNITY “The third point in our list of requirements, the fact that the voices must have enough in common, is chiefly a matter of stylistic unity. But, in addition, voices must not be22, Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint too divergent from each other in terms of values and rhythmic patterns if they are to ‘mesh naturally. In Example 1 the use in both voices of the same values (sixteenth notes, eighth notes, and an occasional quarter note) gives the two a high degree of rhythmic unity, Such an arrangement is characteristic of much Baroque counterpoint So, too, is the maintenance of a steady pulse. The word “motoric” is sometimes applied to music of this sort, in which the underlying metrie/thythmie pulse is consis- tently apparent. ‘A further source of unity in the excerpt shown in Example 1 is corroboration of ‘melodic elements, The most obvious instance of this is the sequence in both voices at the beginning of the second measure. But in addition, a small figure that occurs first ‘on the second beat in the upper voice recurs in slightly altered form on the next beat in the lower voice and in contrary motion (with the direction of the intervals, reversed) on beats 7 and 8 in the upper part. (The appearances of this figure are bracketed in Example 5.) And the scale passages, moving first upward and then downward, contribute to the homogeneity. ExampleS BACH: Two-Part Invention No. 11 (Contrary Motion) HARMONIC IMPLICATIONS: The fourth point in our list dealt with the harmonic background implied in counter- point. Example 6 shows, through chord symbols, the harmonies implied in the passage ‘we have been using for purposes of demonstration Nonharmonic tones have been circled. Example6 BACH: Two-Part Invention No. 11 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint 23 ‘The chromatic alterations here, though analyzable in harmonic terms, are essen- tially passing sounds; and the i near the end is dominant in quality (a point that will be discussed presently). Thus the basic harmonic rhythm moves in half-note values. Notice that all the members of each triad are included in one voice or the other, so that the harmonies are implied especially clearly here. Choice of Chord Tones Intwo-voice counterpoint it is obviously impossible to have all three tones of a triad sounded simultaneously. Of course they can sometimes be outlined in succession, but that possibility is not always available. The question then arises: which chord mem ber should be omitted? If we experiment, using a C major triad, we find that omitting the oot ea deprives the chord of its basic identity, and that the E and G might row be constried as oot and third of an E minor tia. it appears, then, thatthe root ‘must ordinarily be present. (However, if the C had been heard just previously, there ‘would be no question about the E and G being heard as third and fifth of a C major triad.) Without the third = S| we cannot tell whether the triad is major or minor; its color factor is conspicuously missing. Moreover, as was previously pointed out, the open Sth is used sparingly in this style, since it tends to impart a certain archaic «quality. We conclude, therefore, thatthe third of the chord isa highly necessary mem- ber IF we omit the ith ===], the effect is satisfactory: 1 might be argued that C and E could be heard as third and fifth of an A minor triad. Ifthe chord or key of A minor had been heard just previously, that might be true; otherwise the ear would probably choose the interpretation in which the bottom note is heard as root. In Example 7 no chord fifths are present, yet all the harmonies implied are perfectly clear, Example 7 F i vy MG Of course if the fifth scale degree appears in a given melody and the tonic harmony Seems called for, either the root or the third will have to be omitted, most often the ‘Pot, as ata in Example 8. And there are cases in which the chord fifth in the bass With the third in the upper voice is perfectly satisfactory (at)24 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint Example = = Doubling In two-voice contrapuntal writing, problems of doubling are obviously not involved to the extent that they are in four-part writing, And the rules of doubling that apply in 4 four-voice texture are often waived for linear reasons in counterpoint, But it might be well to point out the slight weakness ofa doubled third in a prominent position, as at cand b in Example 9. At b, the third of the chord happens also to be the leading tone. A doubling of itis particularly to be avoided, for if the tendencies of both active tones are fulfilled directly, parallel octaves will result Example 9 a b However, if both voices move stepwise and in contrary motion through doublings of this sort, the result is usually acceptable, especially if the doubled note is not on a strong beat (Example 10), Example 10 ‘Also, sequences often justify the use of a doubling that might otherwise be question able. Principles of Teo-Voice Counterpoint 28 Choice of Harmonies; Harmonic Successions In writing counterpoint, we must not only suggest harmonies clearly but make sure that the implied harmonic successions are good. Progressions that would be avoided in four-part harmony must be avoided here as well. Example 11 illustrates some of these. Example 1 In Example I ta the succession V IV, generally heard as a reversal of normal har~ monic progression when both chords are in root position, is implied, IPIVS were sub- stituted for the IV on the third beat, the progression would be entirely usable, Ind itis the progression ii (again, with both chords in root position) that is weak. ‘The ii should either progress to a V before going to I or move toa ff if'a cadence is involved Inc the implied vi® chord is approached and left by leap, in the bass, whereas that chord and the iii® are usable only as passing sounds with the bass moving stepwise. Employed in that way, they do not actually express the degree funetion of vi or iii but are what might be called “contrapuntal chords.” [ft is argued that the A and C might be heard as an implied IV instead (which is unlikely because of the E preceding), the progression would still bea poor one, for reasons to be explained shortly In this style, the $ chord is usable in tour ways: (1) in cadences (to be dis cussed presently); (2) as a passing chord; (3) in chord repetition—that is, with the $ preceded or followed by the same harmony in first inversion or root position; (4) as an embellishing chord. These uses are illustrated in Example 12. Example 12 a = b26 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint Passing 1, Chord Repetition Principles of Two-Yoice Counterpoint 27 Example 13 In cadences (Examples 12a and 6), the If most often occurs on a strong beat and has the quality of double appoggiatura to the V chord that follows it. Consequently some systems of theory (particularly those influenced by Schenkerian principles) use the V symbol alone in analyzing the cadential progression 1 V. Still others show all three symbols: Ji V, The only instances in which the bass of a $ chord is approached by Vv leap are in the cadential progression ii I and in chord repetition, ‘The passing $ (c and d) involves stepwise motion in the bottom voice (but not nec- essarily in the top one). The notes labeled V § in d may be considered as implying a vi instead, with an F rather than a G as implied middle voice; in music of the Baroque period involving figuted bass, the symbol at such points is generally § rather than § The $ used in chord repetition (¢) normally represents an elaboration of the root position or first inversion triad, rather than a chord in which the bass has functional significance. Example 22 on page 33 involves such a case. ‘The $ as an embellishing chord (f) might be accounted for on purely linear grounds—that is, as a double neighbor tone above a stationary bass. Because it is dif- ficult to imply clearly without at least three voices, it seldom occurs in two-voice counterpoint. The IV§ is the chord most frequently involved in this use. Since the bottom voice in two-voice counterpoint tends to sound like @ real bass, an implied second inversion triad results whenever the fifth of a triad appears there. In case this implied $ chord cannot be used in one of the ways just discussed, some other solution should be found—either a different note in the lower voice or (if that voice is given) a different implied harmony above it. Remember not to jump to oF from the bass of a $ chord except in a cadence (ii 1) or in chord repetition. For example, both the following are poor: The chords I$ IIT$, and VI§ (in major or minor) are of little practical use in this, style and should ordinarily not be suggested in contrapuntal writing. Notice that ifthe principles given here are adhered to, two { chords on different scale degrees will never appear in succession. Harmonie Rhythm Some comments on harmonic rhythm were given in the preceding chapter. It is important to distinguish clearly between metric raythm (the “beat") and harmonic rhythm, While the two may involve the same values, in much music they do not. For instance, in Example | the meter signature was 4/4, yet the harmonic rhythm was add d ied) In basic counterpoint exercises the most frequent pattems of harmonic rhythm are those shown next, (The quarter note happened to be chosen as the unit here, but any other value could have been used instead.) Example 14 Inguadnptemeess J J J J tnviplemewrs © J Jd od rd od od dd ed asdd When a pattern of frequent harmonic changes has been established and the bass is Tetained from a weak beat to a strong beat (either across the bar line in any meter or from beat 2 to beat 3 in quadruple meter) the effect is static and poor. The weak- Hess lies in the fact that a change of bass is missing at precisely the point where itis Most needed to provide a sense of motion forward and harmonic pulse. This situation 's illustrated in Example 15a, Even when the bass is changed but the harmony28 Principles of Tho-Hoice Counterpoint retained “from weak to strong.” the effeet is slightly static, though much less objee- tionable (b) Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoim 29 Example 16 Final Cadences from Bach's Two-Part Inventions Noo Example 15 ln as b Ea = = Gees rer sar rE wees vt . eS = SSS Se — Weve In triple meter the harmonic rhythm J 4 is generally avoided because of the unnatural agogic accent it ends to give the second beat, However, this is by no means, an invariable rule, and there are numerous exceptions. For example, like many ‘unusual patterns in music, this one can be made to sound quite acceptable by being corroborated through repetition. Cadences It would be hard to overestimate the importance of cadences in eighteenth-century music, They establish key centers, mark the ends of sections within a composition, and provide the necessary sense of finality atthe close of it, ‘A frequent problem in student counterpoint isthe failure to make the final eadence strong enough and stylistically appropriate. To be convincing in this style, authentic, ‘cadences must imply one of the following harmonie succession WOIVV TE HeOHOGSYVE MAEVE wi) wi) Since, as mentioned earlier, the cadential 1§ is essentially a decoration of the V that follows it, it may or may not be included, When present, it occurs on a strong beat (in the case of triple meter, on either the first or second beat). Observe that in authentic cadences the dominant chord is always employed in root position. Example 16 shows a number of final cadences from Bach's Two-Part Inve ‘They should be examined carefully for characteristic features. The excerpt shown in f contains deceptive resolution of V (t0 VI, here) in the second measure, and a perfect authentic cadence at the ened, SSS SS ayy ¥ ve When eadences occur in the course of a contrapuntal work, the shythmie motion does not stop on the tonie chord, asin the final cadences just shown. Instead, at least fone of the voices keeps the rhythm going (Example 17), Example 17 Interior Cadences from Bach's Two-Part Inventions30 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint Nonharmonic Tones While nonharmonic tones might logically be considered under the heading of har- monic implications, a full discussion of the various types is being reserved for the next chapter in order that that material can be related more directly to the first exer- cises that actually use nonharmonic tones. They are touched upon in a general way in the section that follows, on consonance versus dissonance, CONSONANCE VERSUS DISSONANCE The fifth point concerns the need for a basically consonant style and obviously involves the question of the intervals used between voices—that is, the vertical or “harmonic” intervals. It may be helpful, first of all, to review the matter of where the various intervals are found within the major scale (Example 18) and to go over some points of terminology. Example 18 = minor rds minor hs major ths singe Ths, major Ths In minor, additional harmonic intervals occur, notably the augmented 2nd (between the natural sixth scale step and the raised seventh step) and its inversion, the dimin- ished 7th, These intervals can seldom be used in note-for-note counterpoint because of the intervals to which they normally resolve, a perfect 4th and a perfect Sth, respectively. For purposes of designation, intervals of more than a 10th—and sometimes the 9th and 10th as well—are generally reduced to their simplest terms, For instance, an 1th can be called a 4th, and a 13th can be called a 6th, ‘An essential interval is one in which both notes belong to the harmony implied. In an lunessential interval atleast one ofthe notes is foreign to the harmony (nonharmonic). It then resolves to a harmony note or becomes harmonic itself as the other voice moves. Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint = 31 Example 19 shows essential and unessential intervals in various relationships. Nonharmonic tones are circled, and numbers applying to unessential intervals are enclosed in parentheses. Example 19 ~ = 369338 | MT OMEMS = AAs the table that follows will show, essential intervals are mainly consonant, and they occur most often on the beat. Unessential intervals are more likely to be disso- nant than consonant and may occur between beats or on the beat with the “real” inter- val following. The first pattern is the more frequent, This whole subject will be ‘examined in more detail in Chapter 4 Inasmuch as the terms consonance and dissonance are purely relative and even debatable, a chart is given next to show how vertical intervals are traditionally classi- fied in the idiom we are concerned with, and also to give some idea of their relative frequency in two-voice counterpoint of the period. Consonant Dissonant ‘major 3rd augmented 4th fairly frequent; usable principally as minor 3rd diminished Sth§ essential intervals implying V’ major 6th > frequent ‘minor 6th perfect 8ve ‘major 2nd infrequent as essential intervals perfect Sth infrequent minor 7th pater It can be seen from this chart that the most usable intervals are the 3rd, 6th, and octave, The octave appears less frequently than the other two, and occurs most often on the tonic note at the beginnings and ends of phrases or sections, sometimes on the dominant note, and occasionally on other notes. Probably the reason for the relatively rare use of the perfect Sth is that it has the bare, incomplete sound of a triad without a third and is a bit stark for this style. When itis used, the third ofthe triad very often precedes or follows shortly.32 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint The “horn Sth” (illustrated in Example 20) involves a particular note-pattern which arose as a result of instrumental practice and became hallowed by traditional usage. Example20 SCARLATTI: Sonata (Kirkpatrick No. 104) {Allegro} This figure was frequently given to the horns in the days when they were valveless and therefore restricted as to the notes they could play. Notice that the augmented 4th and the diminished Sth occur, in major, only between the leading tone and the fourth scale step, both active tones contained within the dominant seventh harmony. This fact prompted the comments, in the preceding, chart, about their use, The perfect 4th is a special case. Although relatively consonant acoustically, it is classed as a dissonance in this style because of its incomplete and “top-heavy” qual- ity (less acceptable than that of the perfect Sth), and because its characteristic use on the beat in two-voice Baroque counterpoint is that of an unessential interval resolv- ing toa 3rd (Example 21), Example21 C.PE.BACH: —_Kurze und leichte Klavierstitcke, No. 1,Allegro == ws las Another point against the use ofthe perfect 4th as an essential interval is that it some times suggests $ chords at points where they would be stylistically inappropriate. While the 4th can seldom be employed essentially in note-for-note counterpoint, in other species of counterpoint it occasionally occurs essentially on a weak beat in a fast tempo or with a short time value (Example 22) Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint 33 BACH: — Two-Part Inventions No.ld Nos In such cases the essential 4th is acceptable because the implied harmony (for instance, B-flat major in Example 22a) i felt to be in root position from the time the root is first heard in the bass. Thus the 4th implies a decoration of the root-position harmony rather than a true § chord. If we return now to the opening measures of the Two-Part Invention in G Minor and analyze the intervals in the light of the material just discussed, we arrive at the results shown in Example 23. Example23. BACH: Two-Part Invention No. 11 ey ae 5 (6) (8(2)3 8 3 (8)6(6)6.45(4)3 3(8) 6(6) 645(A453 (1) S(HO)S 45 oy The essential intervals here in Example 23 are, in order of frequency, 3rds, 6ths, ‘octaves, diminished Sths, and perfect Sths. Of these, the frst three appear on the beat or on the second half of a beat, the others between those points, The unessential inter- vals are 6ths, 4ths, 7ths, octaves, 2nds, and 3rds. There is only one unessential inter- val on the beat. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS: Page in Workbook 1. Exercises in error detection (1:1) 2 2. Be prepared to discuss the requisites of good counter- point. 3. Be prepared to comment analytically on examples of two-voice music specified by the instructor, in terms of the points discussed in this chapter.34 Principles of Two-Voice Counterpoint SELF-TEST |. How is the interval of fourth treated in two-voice |8th-century counterpoint? 2. Why are parallel octaves ruled out in counterpoint? 3. What is an “unessential” interval? 4. Give the three harmonic intervals (those between voices) that are most useful in two-voice Baroque-style counterpoint? ‘What are the four situations in which a § chord can properly be implied? How should an implied vis or ii be used in this style? What is a step-progression? Why should two successive leaps of a 4th in the same direction (with none of the notes nonharmonic) be avoided in a Baroque-style melodic line? Chapter 4 Two-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:1 {In counterpoint exercises, one voice is usually given. This is known as the cantus fir- ‘mus' (fixed voice), and that term is commonly abbreviated to “C.F” The position of the C.F as upper or lower voice (in two-voice exercises) is often specified, When the C.F. is counterpointed with one note in the added voice against each note of the C.F, the result is called “first species” Counterpoint. This species can con- veniently be designated by the ratio 1:1, said as “one against one.” The various species traditionally used in counterpoint study are as follows: First species: 1:1 Second species: 2:1 and 3:1 ‘Third species: 4:1 and 6:1 Fourth species: Syncopated Fifth species: Florid (a combination of the other four species) Even though the approach used in this book is a great deal freer than that of tradi- tional species counterpoint, we shall be working exercises involving the first four of these rhythmic ratios in order to explore the possibilities and problems peculiar to each. The fifth species will not be undertaken as such, since it closely parallels work in free counterpoint to be done. NOTE AGAINST NOTE (1:1) Most ofthe rhythmic retationships jst mentioned occur frequently in actual music, wu the | 1 ratio is seldom used for long at a time. The reason for this is that it lacks The swig 888 plural is cantusfrmi. The alan equivalent, canto fermo, is somtimes used instead, in 5 the plural icant fermi, 3536 Two-lloice Exercises, I:1,2:1 rhythmic independence between voices, an important requisite of good counterpoint. However, itis sometimes employed for a few beats or even a few measures, as in the following excerpts. Exampleta SCARLATTI Sonata in A Minor (Kirkpatrick No. 3) Example 1b BEETHOVEN: Sonata, Op. 13 Two-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:1 37 Only essential intervals are to be used in 1: | exercises. Of these, the 6th, the 3rd, and the octave should appear with greatest frequency. The octave should be employed chiefly on the tonic note at beginnings and endings; it may also occur on the domi- nant note or, rarely, on another note (the leading tone excepted) if voice leading makes its use logical—for example, between a |Oth and a 6th, with the voices moving, stepwise in contrary motion. In such cases itis generally in a weak rhythmic position. ‘The perfect Sth may be used occasionally, preferably surrounded by 3rds or 6ths. Examples 3, 4, and 5 show faults frequently encountered in student work. Example3 ‘Symphony No. 41, K. 551 ao md = In order to illustrate the type of exercise to be done first, let us suppose that we have been given the C.F. shown on the top staff of Example 2 to be used as upper voice. Below it we are to add another voice in 1: I relationship. One possible counter- point is shown on the lower staff. The vertical intervals are described by numbers placed between the staves, and implied harmonies have been indicated at the bottom. Example2 In Example 3 the following bad features can be pointed out: |. Ata and &, the Sth is a questionable choice as interval 2. Atb, there are parallel Sths. 3. Ate, the tendency of the leading tone (G) has been ignored. It should go up to ‘Acflat, not down to E-flat. Furthermore, the bass of the I§ chord should not have been approached by a leap, since the preceding chord is not ii and chord repetition is not involved. 4, At, the harmony is carried over from the weak second beat to the strong third beat. Also, the interval of a 4th is poor. 5. Ate, the leading tone has been doubled. 6. AtJf there are parallel octaves. Example 4 Here in Example 4 there is too much consecutive use ofthe same interval, the 6th The lines consequently lack independence of curve. As a general rule, an interval should be used no more than three or four times in succession.38 Two-Foice Exercises, 1:1, 2:1 Example In Example 5 the harmenic intervals are satisfactory, but the lower voice keeps returning (0 A-fla, Its curve is uninteresting and lacks any strong sense of direction, Jn working the exercises assigned in the Counterpoint Workbook. in which various rhythmic ratios are to be used, observe the following directions: 1, The same pitch should not be used nice in succession, This would, in effect, give the note double value and would alter the intended chythmic ratio between, the voices. 2, In most cases, the voices should not be more than two octaves apart, Gaps of areater distances may occur briefly now and then, For the time being, the voices should not cross The bottom voice should be considered a bass-—that is, the equivalent of the bottom voice in an actual harmonization. Remember, however, what “bass” does not necessarily mean “root”; notes in the lower voice will often be the third ofthe implied harmony, occasionally the fifth or the seventh. (i: exercises may be done at this point.) TWO NOTES AGAINST ONE (2:1) The exereises to be done next will involve putting two notes in the added voice against each note of the C.F The excerpts in Example 6 illusteate the 2: | relation- ship, each witha different basic unit (quarter note, half note, eighth note) Example 68 BACH: French Suite No.2, Menuct, Soyer, Two Voice Exercises, 14.2: 39. ‘Canzoni alla Francese, Canzon Prima, deta La Rovera gxample 6b FRESCOBALDI exemple 6e HANDEL: Nonharmonic Tones* ‘The chief new feature that will be encountered in 2:1 exercises is the possibility of using nonharmonie tones and the unessential intervals they ereate. Consequently, a brief review of nonharmonic tones here may prove helpful. In Example 7, whi tives short illustrations of the various types, the nonharmonie tones are circled Unfortunately there is considerable divergence of opinion about the classification and labeling of such notes, and in some cases two or more names fora particular type are in common usage. ae, Sometimes called “nonchord tones"—abbreviaton "NCT:" Tis term i referred hy those who use = word "harman" to meaa the harmonle pesaresion inn erie composition and “chord” o mean the (EtG) harmonic steture at any give poimt—a valid distiption and one essential to Schenkerian ‘ought. Nevertheless, “nomharmanie™ las heen celained here ax being the term most widely used and40 TworVoice Kxercives, 1:1, 2:1 Example? Nomharmonie Tones PASSING TONES Unaccented Accented Twoinsuecession Double Chromatic NEIGHBOR TONES (Auxiliaries) CHANGING TONES aS ES Upper Lower * characteristic r went APPOGGIATURAS 46 ae ESCAPE TONES (Echapp¥es) Spa Abbreviations assing tone App = Appoggiatura N=Neighbor tone E=Escape tone Ch = Changing tones suspension Ped = Pedal point A= Anticipation A passing tone is a nonharmonic tone that moves by whole or half step from one harmonic tone to another (occasionally to another passing tone which then resolves). Twwo-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:1 4 A neighbor tone (or auxiliary) is a nonharmonic tone a whole step or a half step above or below a harmonic tone. It is approached from the harmonic tone and returns twit Changing tones, sometimes known (especially in the first form shown in Example yas the cambiata figure, are two neighbor tones used in succession. They may or may not be approached from the harmonic tone of which they are neighbors, but they always proceed to it. Some recent theory texts refer to them as a “neighbor group.” ‘An appoggiatura (“leaning tone”) is a nonharmonic tone approached by leap and resolved stepwise, most often in the direction opposite to the leap. In its characteris- tic form, it is accented; that is, it occurs either on @ strong beat with the resolution fol- lowing on the next beat, or on the first part of a beat with the resolution taking place ‘on the second half of that beat, For this reason, some systems of theory employ other labels when the nonharmonic note in such a pattern is unaccented. Of these labels, the most logical seems to be “incomplete neighbor tone”—a neighbor tone approached by leap instead of from the harmonic tone of which itis a neighbor. The appoggiatura is sometimes written as a small “grace note,” as in Example 8c. In such cases itis played on the beat, and its value is subtracted from the note that follows (The same type of notation is used for the accented passing tone at the beginning of measure 3 in Example 8c.) ‘An escape tone, or échappée, is a nonharmonic tone which, in its most usual form, is approached from a harmonic tone one scale step below, and which then leaps downward to a harmonic tone; the latter is not necessarily a member of the harmony just heard. (This is the pattern seen in Example 8d.) Very rarely, the escape tone is approached from a harmonic tone one scale step above and leaps upward to a har- monic tone. As can readily be observed, the escape tone reverses the leap-step rela- tionship involved in the appoggiatura pattern. Like the appoggiatura, it might be thought of as a form of incomplete neighbor tone, but this time with the stepwise return to the original harmonic tone missing Example 8 illustrates the use in actual music of the nonharmonic tones defined so far Example 8a BAC) Sinfonia No. 1242 Two-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:1 Example 8b VIVALDI: Concerto in F Major for Violin, Strings, and Cembalo* "The cembalo (harpsichord) pat isnot included here It consists ofthe same line taken by the cellos, and double bsses, plus igured-bass symbols Example Se C.PE. BACH: Two-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:) 43 The chief point to remember in using these nonharmonic tones is that they must be resolved stepwise—with the exception of the escape tone, of course. The latter nearly always appears in the pattern involved in Example 8d. A fault frequently encountered in student counterpoint is that of allowing a note which obviously has, the funetion ofa passing tone to leap rather than “pass” stepwise. ‘A suspension is a member of one harmony tied over or repeated as a nonharmonic tone in the next, and normally resolved downward into that harmony. Suspensions, that resolve upward are sometimes called “retardations.” ‘An anticipation is a nonkarmonic tone that occurs just in advance of the harmony to which it belongs. Its most frequent position is in cadences. Both suspensions and anticipations will be taken up in some detail alittle later on in connection with syncopated (fourth species) counterpoint A pedal point is a sustained or repeated note, usually on the tonic or dominant pitch, which lasts through two or more harmonies. (Its name stems from its charac- teristic use in the pedal part of organ music.) Although it is most often seen in the bot- tom voice, it may occur in any voice. It usually begins and ends as a harmonic note, but may, between these points, be dissonant to the harmony—that is, nonharmonic. In Example 9a the tonic pedal point appears in both the middle and the bottom voices; one has repeated eighth notes, the other, longer sustained tones. In Example 9b the tonic pedal point is part of an eighth-note figure. Example9a_ HAYDN: Sonata in E-flat Major Presto (REE = Example96 BACH: _French Suite No.6, Bourrée44 Tworloice Exercises, 1: 1,251 Placement of Harmonic and Nonharmonic Tones: Vertical Intervals ‘An example in the preceding chapter illustrated the use of harmonic and nonhar- ‘monic tones in various relationships. It is shown again here, slightly altered, for pur- poses of further analysis: Example 10 aoa boc => 36 3IH38|HIO3 8 At points marked a (Example 10), there is a harmonic tone on the first half of the beat and a nonharmonic tone on the second half, With the lower voice, these create an essential interval followed by an unessential interval. At there are harmonic tones on both halves of the beat (two essential intervals) At the two points marked c there is a nonharmonic tone on the first half ofthe beat with the harmonic tone following (an unessential interval followed by an essential interval), These are the three chief arrangements of harmonic and nonharmonic tones (within the beat) usable in 2: 1 counterpoint. The ones shown at c undoubtedly origi- nated through rhythmic displacement of the tones in relationships such as those seen at a and b, In other words, a tone first employed in a light rhythmie position (off the beat) came to be used on the succeeding beat. This process is illustrated in Example 11, in connection with an unessential perfect 4th at a, an unessential major 7th at 2 Example 11 Basic Rbythmscally form altered form ‘Two-Voice Exercises, J:1,2:1 48 A further possibility, though one seen less frequently, can be illustrated by chang- ing the second measure of Example 10 slightly: Example 12 ays 3 ee See roe owai Vv ' Here in Example 12, the nonharmonic C in the top voice on the first beat of the see- cond measure is now a quarter note, and instead of resolving within the beat it delays its resolution until the second beat. Thus both vertical intervals within the first beat are unessential. The principle involved is this: when the harmonic rhythm encom- passes two beats (whatever the meter signature), the style we are using accommo- dates an unessential interval on one of these beats with the essential interval on the other. In such cases the quarter note obviously assumes the role that the eighth note has in a quarter-note harmonic rhythm, The intervals of a 2nd, a 7th, and a perfect 4th were avoided in 1:1 exercises because they are not usable as essential intervals there. It should now be apparent that in 2:1 counterpoint they become entirely acceptable for use as unessential intervals. In that role, they most often occur between beats; but even when placed on the beat With the essential interval following, they are heard as having only secondary impor- tance—that is, merely as tones connecting the basic 1: 1 counterpoint. Very rarely, the major 2nd and the minor 7th may occur as essential intervals in 2:1, providing that the other members ofthe implied seventh chord precede or follow closely (Example 13). Example 1346 Two-Voice Bxercises, 1:1,2:1 ‘Techniques of Writing 2:1 ‘One way, though not necessarily the best way, of writing 2:1 counterpoint is to start with a 1:1 version and convert it by the addition of notes between the beats, in one voice, Example 14 shows how a 2:1 version might be derived from a 1:1 count point we have used previously. Of course only the top and bottom voices in the exam ple are intended to sound in the 2: 1 version. Faample 14 Various devices for expanding 1:1 counterpoint to 2: 1 can be seen in operation here. Probably the easiest and smoothest of these is simply the insertion of a passing tone between two notes originally a 3rd apart, as at d and e. Sometimes a 4th in the 1:1 version can be filled in with two adjacent passing tones, one of them accented, as atc At the beginning and near the end, the original 1:1 counterpoint moves by step and, obviously does not allow for the insertion of a passing tone (except a chromatic pass- ing tone, which would not be particularly appropriate in this style). However, a leap toa chord tone can be made instead, as at a, 6, and f- Care must be taken not 10 overuse this latter device. Too much outlining of chords to the exclusion of stepwise motion becomes tiresome and tends to make the voice sound less like @ line than @ succession of harmonic figurations. ‘A second, and frequently preferable, approach to the writing of 2:1 counterpoint is to invent the 2: | version directly, without having it grow out of a 1:1 version, in which case one major possiblity is added: we can have the same note on adjacent beats because other notes will intervene, and the notes on the beat will then not be repeated in succession. For example, according to the restrictions that apply in 1:1 counterpoint, we could not write the following because of the repetition at a and b. Example 15 Two-Voice Exercises, I:1,2:1 47 But in 2:11 counterpoint there would be no objection to the following: Example 16 In this particular example (16), @ lower neighbor tone carries on the eighth-note ‘motion at a and 6, But these notes between the beats might have been chord tones, rather than nonharmonic tones if we had happened to choose another counterpoint Parallelism In 1:1 counterpoint, parallel octaves and Sths are generally apparent to both the ear and the eye. But in 2:1 the presence of intervening notes between the beats makes the situation more complex as far as the recognition of parallelism is concerned. ‘There are even certain note patterns that are condemned by some writers on counter point on the grounds of parallelism but accepted by others. It would seem, then, that the only sensible criterion is what was actually practiced by composers of this period (Bach, in particular), and itis this standard on which the comments in Example 17 are based. Example 17 ad aad Possible ove ———— : $y d 7? o| 8 : aa =e t = == ‘The cases given here in Example 17 can be listed according to the following cate- {ories, which may be of some help in remembering which patterns are usable:48 Two-Voice Exercises, 1:1, 2:1 1. “open” (with intervening notes in one voice, as in a and e): bad 2. “symmetrical” or “corresponding” ) with parallelism on strong beats, as in b and f: bad ») with parallelism on weak beats, as in ¢ and g: possible? isymetrical” (parallel intervals not at corresponding places in the measure, as ind and h): good 3 Itis obvious, then, that if there are parallel octaves or Sths in a 1:1 version, the addition of intervening notes in a 2:1 version will not destroy the feeling of paral- lelism. Also, it is particularly necessary, in converting 1:1 to 2:1, to be on guard against parallel octaves that may be formed by the addition of notes (Example 18), Example 18 ‘One special case should be mentioned, The consecutive Sths illustrated in the next, example are not considered objectionable, since the second of the two is unessential They may therefore be used freely. Example 19 SCARLATTI: Sonata (Kirkpatrick No.377) [Allegissimo} (Diatonic 2: 1 exercises may be done at this point.) *YHoweve, this arrangements not desirable if dissonances occu onthe song beats asin: =H SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS | exercises, major, diatonic | exercises, minor, diatonic Exercises in error detection (2 I exercises, major and minor, diatonic Twwo-Voice Exercises, 1:1,2:1 49 Page in Workbook 3,5,6 6.7 » 9 11, 13, 15Chapter 5 Chromaticism (Two Voices) MELODIC VERSUS HARMONIC USAGE Chromaticism (the raising or lowering of a diatonic scale degree by a half step) may be entirely a melodic element or it may carry harmonic implications as well; on ovca- sion the two functions are involved at the same time in different voices. In Example | the chromatic nonharmonic tones (circled) illustrate the purely melodie function. Example! C.RE.BACH: — Kurze und leichte Klavierstiiche, No. 7, Ala Polacea Chromaticism (Two Voices) $1 Such a use is clearly a decorative one, since the chromatic notes do not figure in the harmonic structure but simply ornament a diatonic melody. In Example 2, on the other hand, most of the chromatically altered notes have har- monic significance; they are integral parts of the melodic line, in that they contribute toiits shape and individual character. gxample2 BACH: —-W7.C,, Book I, Fugue 12, Two excerpts involving a chromatically descending line are given in Example 3. Although in each case the line serves as the bottom voice at the start, it later appears as the upper voice; this interchange can be seen in the second measure of Example 3a 50 Bxample3b BACH: J 7.C., Book I, Prelude 2052 Chromaticism (Two ices) The works from which the last three examples were taken provide excellent ill trations of characteristic Bach treatment of chromaticism and are especially recom- mended for study. Notice that in subjects and motives, isolated bits of chromaticism, are avoided; ifthe chromatic element is present at all, itis generally corroborated at several points, In many instances, chromatic alterations are not fixed parts of motives or themes but are inserted at certain points with the purpose of suggesting a particular nondia- tonic harmony. This device is most often used in connection with "secondary domi- nants” (or “applied dominants” or “dominant embellishing chords”), These are triads or, more often, seventh chords that stand in the relationship of dominant to a chord other than the tonic. In order that this relationship may be seen clearly in Example 4, the basic harmonic structure has been given below the music. Exampled BAC! French Suite No. 6,Allemande In the first measure of Example 4, the D-natural is the seventh of the V/IVs it had to be included if a truly dominant effect was to be produced, since an E major triad would merely have sounded like the tonic chord, The A-sharp in the second measure is the third of a secondary dominant (V7/V). There, a triad would have been sufficient to suggest V/Y, but the seventh is included as part of a sequence and helps, in any case, to heighten the dominant effect. Another basically dominant harmony that often functions as a secondary domi- nant is the VII’ (or incomplete V®) ofa diatonic chord. Ifthe diatonic chord is minor, the VIU of itis a diminished seventh (commonly written vit; with a major triad, the natural form of the VII’ is a half-diminished seventh (vii®"), but it is sometimes altered to the diminished form, Example 5 illustrates the use of both diminished and half-diminished sevenths as secondary dominants, Chromaticism (Two Voices) $3 ExampleS BACH: Two-Part Invention No.6 Gtminor — &71V wv =m Incidentally, Example 5 contains some interesting and highly unusual departures from normal patterns of harmonic rhythm; in measures 7 and 8 the effect is almost that of a hemiola—three measures of 2/8 superimposed on the two measures of 3/8. In addition to secondary-dominant forms, various other altered harmonies appear in the style we are studying, A complete catalogue of these is neither appropriate nor possible here; but it would include the Neapolitan sixth (indicated by “N” in Example 5), which is quite common in music of the Baroque period. On the other hand, aug- ‘mented sixth chords (Italian, German, and French sixths) appear only rarely in that ‘music and then almost invariably in textures of three or four voices, most often the latter. (Obviously, they are difficult to imply with only two voices.) For that reason they will not be illustrated here. Tt must be remembered that chromaticism, however used, invariably has a diatonic framework. MODULATION Jn the examples of chromaticism shown so far, the altered chords operated within a Biven key. But they may also occur in the process of modulation, the new key being54 Chromaticiom (Two Voices) established by a cadence, Example 6 shows a common-chord modulation, by far the most frequent type in this style. Example6 BACH: French Suite No.6, Polonaise Dtyty orf eo tele Common-tone modulation and enharmonic modulation are virtually nonexistent in Baroque music. Although chromatic progression is frequent enough, actual chro- matic modulation (with no diatonic harmony in common between the two keys) is relatively rare, In Bach's music it occurs chiefly in works or passages of a free nature,

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