Programming with C++

COMP2011: Program Flow Control

Cecia Chan
Brian Mak
Dimitris Papadopoulos
Pedro Sander
Charles Zhang

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong SAR, China

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Introduction

So far, our C++ program consists of only the main() function.

Inside main() is a sequence of statements, and all statements
are executed once and exactly once.
Such sequential computation can be a big limitation on what
can be computed. Therefore, we have
selection
iteration

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 Part I

You Have a Choice: if

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if Statement
Syntax: if Statement
if (<boolean expression>) <statement>
if (<boolean expression>) { <sequence of statements> }

boolean false Example: Absolute value |x| of x.

expression

true
int x;
cin >> x;

statements if (x < 0)
{
x = -x;
}

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Example: To Sort 2 Numbers
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main() /* To sort 2 numbers so that the 2nd one is larger */

{
int x, y; // The input numbers
int temp; // A dummy variable for manipulation

cout << "Enter two integers (separated by whitespaces): ";

cin >> x >> y;

if (x > y)
{
temp = x; // Save the original value of x
x = y; // Replace x by y
y = temp; // Put the original value of x to y
}

cout << x << ’\t’ << y << endl;

return 0;
}
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if-else Statement
Syntax: if-else Statement
if (<bool-exp>) <stmt> else <stmt>
if (<bool-exp>) { <stmts> } else { <stmts> }

boolean
Example: To find the larger value.
expression
false true
int x, y, larger;

cin >> x >> y;

statements 1 statements
2
if (x > y)
larger = x;
else
larger = y;

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.6
if-else-if Statement

Syntax: if-else-if Statement

if (<bool-exp>) <stmt>
else if (<bool-exp>) <stmt>
else if (<bool-exp>) <stmt>
..
.
else < stmt >

if (<bool-exp>) { <stmts> }
else if (<bool-exp>) { <stmts> }
else if (<bool-exp>) { <stmts> }
..
.
else { <stmts> }

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.7
Example: Conversion to Letter Grade
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main() /* To determine your grade (fictitious) */

{
char grade; // Letter grade
int mark; // Numerical mark between 0 and 100
cin >> mark;

if (mark >= 90)

grade = ’A’; // mark >= 90
else if (mark >= 60)
grade = ’B’; // 90 > mark >= 60
else if (mark >= 20)
grade = ’C’; // 60 > mark >= 20
else if (mark >= 10)
grade = ’D’; // 20 > mark >= 10
else
grade = ’F’; // 10 > mark

cout << "Your letter grade is " << grade << endl;
return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.8
Relational Operators

Math C++ Meaning

= == equal to
< < less than
≤ <= less than or equal to
> > greater than
≥ >= greater than or equal to
6= != not equal to

Relational operators are used to compare two values.

The result is boolean indicating if the relationship is true or
false.
Don’t mix up the 2 following different expressions:
x=y // This is an assignment
x == y // This is an equality comparison

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.9
Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to modify or combine boolean
values.
C++ has 3 logical operators:
!: logical NOT
||: logical OR
&&: logical AND
Boolean values
true: internally represented by 1; ANY non-zero number is also
considered true
false: internally represented by 0

p q !p p && q p || q
T T F T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F F

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.10
Precedence and Associativity of Boolean Operators

Operator Description Associativity

() parentheses —
++ −− ! − increment, decrement, Right-to-Left
logical NOT, unary minus
∗/% multiply, divide, mod Left-to-Right
+− add, subtract Left-to-Right
> >= < <= relational operator Left-to-Right
== ! = equal, not equal Left-to-Right
&& logical AND Left-to-Right
|| logical OR Left-to-Right
= assignment Right-to-Left

Operators are shown in decreasing order of precedence.

When you are in doubt of the precedence or associativity, use
extra parentheses to enforce the order of operations.
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.11
= != ==
Both x = y and x == y are valid C++ expressions
x = y is an assignment expression, assigning the value of y
to x. The expression has a result which is the final value of x.
(That is why the cascading assignment works.)

x == y is a boolean expression, testing if x and y are equal,

and the result is either true or false.

But since C++ also interprets integers as boolean, so

in if (x = 3) { <stmts> } , <stmts> are always executed
because (x = 3) evaluates to 3 — a non-zero value — which is
interpreted as true.

in if (x = 0) { <stmts> } , <stmts> are always NOT

executed because (x = 0) evaluates to 0 which is interpreted
as false.

It is not recommended to use an assignment expression as a

boolean expression.
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.12
if-else Operator: ?:
Syntax: if-else Expression
(<bool-exp>) ? <then-exp> : <else- exp>;

The ternary if-else operator: ?: is used.

Unlike an if-else statement, an if-else expression has a value!

Example
/* Example: get the larger of two numbers */
larger = (x > y) ? x : y;

/* Example: get the letter grade from the percentile */

grade = (percentile >= 85) ? ’A’
: ((percentile >= 60) ? ’B’
: ((percentile >= 15) ? ’C’
: ((percentile >= 5) ? ’D’: ’F’
)
)
);

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.13
Nested if

In the if or if-else statement, the < stmts > in the if-part or

else-part can be any statement, including another if or if-else
statement. In the latter case, it is called a nested if statement.
“Nested” means that a complete statement is inside another.

if (condition1)
{
if (condition2)
if (condition3)
cout  "conditions 1,2,3 are true."  endl;
else
cout  "conditions 1,2 are true."  endl;
else
cout  "condition1 true; condition2 false."  endl;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.14
“Dangling else” Problem

What is the value of x after the following code is executed?

Program code: Interpretation 1: Interpretation 2:

int x = 15; int x = 15; int x = 15;

if (x > 20) if (x > 20) if (x > 20)

if (x > 30) { {
x = 8; if (x > 30) if (x > 30)
else x = 8; x = 8;
x = 9; else }
x = 9; else
} x = 9;

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.15
“Dangling else” Problem ..

C++ groups a dangling else with the most recent if.

Thus, for the code in the previous page, interpretation 1 is

used.
It is a good programming practice to use extra braces “{ } ”
to control how your nested if statements should be executed.
to clarify your intended meaning, together with proper
indentation.

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.16
 Part II

Loops or Iterations

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while Loop (Statement)
Syntax: while Statement
while (<bool-exp>) { <stmts> }

<stmts> will be repeated as long

as the value of <bool-exp> is true.
As usual, <stmts> can be a single
statement, or a sequence of
statements
statements (including another while
statement), or even no statement!
What does while (x > 0) ; do?
boolean
expression
true In general, while statement only
false makes sense if the value of
<bool-exp> may be changed by
<stmts> inside the while loop.
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Example: Factorial using while Loop
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

/* To compute x! = x(x-1)(x-2)...1, where x is a non -ve integer */

int main()
{
int factorial = 1;
int number;

cout << "Enter a non-negative integer: ";

cin >> number;

while (number > 0)

{
factorial *= number; // Same as: factorial = factorial*number
--number; // Same as: number = number-1
}

cout << factorial << endl;

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.19
Example: Factorial using while Loop ..

(assume the user enters 4 for the variable number)

Iteration factorial number (number > 0)

0 1 4 true
1 4 3 true
2 12 2 true
3 24 1 true
4 24 0 false

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.20
Example: Find the Maximum using while Loop
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

// To find the maximum of a list of +ve integers. Stop by inputting a

// character that is not a digit. Assume there is at least one number.
int main()
{
cout << "Enter a number: ";
int x; cin >> x; // Input integers

int max = x; // Result initialized with the first number

cout << "Enter the next number: ";

while (cin >> x) // If there is input, cin returns TRUE else FALSE
{
if (x > max)
max = x;
cout << "Enter the next number: ";
}

cout << endl << "The maximum number = " << max << endl;
return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.21
Example: Continuously Halving a float Number
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int count = 0; // Count how many times that x can be halved
float x; // Number to halve

cout << "Enter a positive number: ";

cin >> x;

while (x > 0.1)

{
cout << "Halving " << count++ << " time(s); "
<< "x = " << x << endl;
x /= 2;
}

return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.22
Example: Continuously Halving a float Number ..

Enter a positive number: 7

Halving 0 time(s); x = 7
Halving 1 time(s); x = 3.5
Halving 2 time(s); x = 1.75
Halving 3 time(s); x = 0.875
Halving 4 time(s); x = 0.4375
Halving 5 time(s); x = 0.21875
Halving 6 time(s); x = 0.109375

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.23
Example: Continuously Halving an int Number
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int count = 0; // Count how many times that x can be halved
int x; // Number to halve

cout << "Enter a positive number: ";

cin >> x;

while (x > 0.1)

{
cout << "Halving " << count++ << " time(s); "
<< "x = " << x << endl;
x /= 2;
}

return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.24
Example: Continuously Halving an int Number ..

Enter a positive number: 7

Halving 0 time(s); x = 7
Halving 1 time(s); x = 3
Halving 2 time(s); x = 1

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.25
A Good Programming Practice on Loops

After you have written the codes for a loop, try verifying the
following cases:
The first iteration.
The second iteration.
The last iteration.
Do you know exactly how many iterations will be performed?
How can the loop terminate? Otherwise, you have an infinite
loop! And the program runs forever!

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.26
for Loop (Statement)
Syntax: for Statement
for (<for-initialization> ; <bool-exp> ; <post-processing>)
{ <stmts> }

for statement is a generalization of the while

statement. The idea is to control the number of
iterations, usually by a counter variable.
for
initialization <for-initialization> sets up the initial values of
false
some variables, usually a counter, before
boolean
expression
executing <stmts>.
true

<stmts> are iterated as long as <bool-exp> is

statements
true.
post
processing
At the end of each iteration,
<post-processing> will be executed. The idea
is to change some values, again usually the
counter, so that <bool-exp> may become false.
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.27
Example: Factorial using for Loop

#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */

using namespace std;

/* To compute x! = x(x-1)(x-2)...1, where x is a non -ve integer */

int main()
{
int factorial = 1;
int number;

cout << "Enter a non-negative integer: ";

cin >> number;

for (int j = 1; j <= number; ++j) // Set up a counter to iterate

factorial *= j;

cout << number << "! = " << factorial << endl;
return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.28
Example: x n using for Loop
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

/* To compute x n , where x and n are integers, and n >= 0 */

int main()
{
int x;
int n; // Power or exponent
int result = 1; // Need to initialize it to 1. Why?

cout << "Enter a number followed by its +ve power: ";

cin >> x >> n;

if (n < 0)
cerr << "Error: n < 0!" << endl;
else
{
for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++)
result *= x;

cout << x << " to the power of " << n << " = " << result << endl;
}

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.29
Remarks on for Statement

Notice that the variable j in the above 2 examples are only

defined inside the for loop. When the loop is done, j
disappears, and you cannot use that j anymore.
Don’t mis-type a “;” after the first line of the for loop. E.g.,
what is the result of the following code?
for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++);
result *= x;

while statement is a special case of for statement. How can

you simulate while using for?
Sometimes, if the for-body is short, you may even further
compact the code as follows:

for (int j = 1; j <= number; factorial *= j++)

;

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.30
 Part III

Nested Looooooops

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Nested Loops Example: Compute Average Score
One may put a while loop inside another while loop.
#include <iostream> /∗ File: [Link] ∗/
using namespace std;

int main( )
{
int NUM ASSIGNMENTS = 5; // Uppercase variable doesn’t change
int j; // Assignment counter
int score, sum of scores;
char reply = ’y’; // ’y’ for yes, ’n’ for no; initialized to yes

cout  "Enter scores for the first student? (y/n) "  endl;
while ((cin  reply) && (reply == ’y’ || reply == ’Y’))
{
sum of scores = 0; // Reset the accumulator to zero
j = 1; // Reset the assignment counter to 1

while (j <= NUM ASSIGNMENTS)

{
cout  "Enter student’s score for assignment #"  j  " : ";
cin  score; // Remark: one should check input errors here
sum of scores += score;
j++;
}
cout  "The average score = "  sum of scores/NUM ASSIGNMENTS  endl;
cout  "Enter scores for another student? (y/n) " ;
}

return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.32
Nested Loops Example: Multiplication Table

#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */

#include <iomanip> // a library that helps control input/output formats
using namespace std;

int main()
{
// To print out products of j*k where j, k = 1,...,10
for (int j = 1; j <= 10; ++j)
{
for (int k = 1; k <= 10; ++k) // Reset k=1 for each j. Why?
cout << setw(4) << j*k; // Set the length of output field to 4

cout << endl;

}

return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.33
break and continue
A break causes the innermost enclosing loop to exit
immediately.
A continue causes the next iteration of the enclosing loop to
begin.
That is, in the while loop, control passes to test the boolean
expression again immediately.

statements 2 statements 2

false false
true
boolean true boolean
expression 2 statements 3 expression 2

continue

statements 1 statements statements 1

3

boolean true boolean true

expression 1 expression 1

false false

break

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.34
Example: Stop Inputs with break
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int NUM_ASSIGNMENTS = 5; // Uppercase variable doesn’t change
int j; // Assignment counter
int score, sum_of_scores;
char reply = ’y’; // ’y’ for yes, ’n’ for no; initialized to yes

cout << "Enter scores for the first student? (y/n) " << endl;
while ((cin >> reply) && (reply == ’y’ || reply == ’Y’))
{
sum_of_scores = 0; // Reset the accumulator to zero
j = 1; // Reset the assignment counter to 1

while (j <= NUM_ASSIGNMENTS)

{
cout << "Enter student’s score for assignment #" << j << " : ";
cin >> score; // Remark: one should check input errors here

if (score < 0)
break ;

sum_of_scores += score;
j++;
}
cout << "The average score = " << sum_of_scores/NUM_ASSIGNMENTS << endl;
cout << "Enter scores for another student? (y/n) " ;
}
return 0;
} // Question: What is the output with the input: 4, 5, -6, 7, 8?

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.35
Example: Ignore Negative Inputs with continue
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int NUM_ASSIGNMENTS = 5; // Uppercase variable doesn’t change
int j; // Assignment counter
int score, sum_of_scores;
char reply = ’y’; // ’y’ for yes, ’n’ for no; initialized to yes

cout << "Enter scores for the first student? (y/n) " << endl;
while ((cin >> reply) && (reply == ’y’ || reply == ’Y’))
{
sum_of_scores = 0; // Reset the accumulator to zero
j = 1; // Reset the assignment counter to 1

while (j <= NUM_ASSIGNMENTS)

{
cout << "Enter student’s score for assignment #" << j << " : ";
cin >> score; // Remark: one should check input errors here

if (score < 0)
continue ;

sum_of_scores += score;
j++;
}
cout << "The average score = " << sum_of_scores/NUM_ASSIGNMENTS << endl;
cout << "Enter scores for another student? (y/n) " ;
}
return 0;
} // Question: What is the output with the input: 4, 5, -6, 7, 8 ?

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.36
Example: Difference between break and continue

/* File: [Link] */ /* File: [Link] */

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;

int main() int main()

{ {
int j = 0; int j = 0;

while (j < 3) while (j < 3)

{ {
cout << "Enter iteration " cout << "Enter iteration "
<< j << endl; << j << endl;

if (j == 1) if (j == 1)
break; continue ;

cout << "Leave iteration " cout << "Leave iteration "
<< j << endl; << j << endl;
j++; j++;
} }

return 0; return 0;
} }

Question: What are the outputs of the 2 programs?

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.37
Where Does continue; Continue in a for Loop?

#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */

using namespace std;

int main()
{
for (int j = 1; j <= 10; j++)
{
cout << "j = " << j << endl;

if (j == 3)
{
j = 10;
continue; // What if it is replaced by break;
}
}

return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.38
 Part IV

Let’s switch: C++ Multiple Choices

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.39
switch Statement
switch statement is a variant of the if-else-if statement, that allows
multiple choices based on the value of an integral expression.

Syntax: switch Statement

switch (integral expression)
{
E case constant-1:
c1 c2 cn statement-sequence-1;
break;
S1 S2 ..... Sn
case constant-2:
statement-sequence-2;
break;
...
case constant-N:
statement-sequence-N;
break;
default: // optional
statement-sequence-(N+1);
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.40
Example: switch on Integers
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main() // To determine your instructor

{
cout << "Enter the COMP2011 section number to find its instructor: ";
int section; // COMP2011 section number: should be 1, 2, 3, or 4
cin >> section; // Input COMP2011 section number

switch (section)
{
case 1:
cout << "Sergey Brin" << endl; break;
case 2:
cout << "Bill Gates" << endl; break;
case 3:
cout << "Steve Jobs" << endl; break;
case 4:
cout << "Jeff Bezos" << endl; break;
default:
cerr << "Error: Invalid lecture section " << section << endl;
break;
}

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.41
Example: switch on Characters
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main() // To find out who may give you blood

{
cout << "Enter your blood type (put ’C’ for blood type AB): ";
char bloodtype; cin >> bloodtype;

switch (bloodtype)
{
case ’A’:
cout << "Your donor must be of blood type: O or A\n";
break;
case ’B’:
cout << "Your donor must be of blood type: O or B\n";
break;
case ’C’:
cout << "Your donor must be of blood type: O, A, B, or AB\n";
break;
case ’O’:
cout << "Your donor must be of blood type: O";
break;
default: // To catch errors
cerr << "Error: " << bloodtype << " is not a valid blood type!\n";
break;
}
return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.42
Example: switch with Sharing Cases
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;
int main() // To determine your grade (fictitious)
{
char grade; // Letter grade
int mark; // Numerical mark between 0 and 100
cin >> mark;
switch (mark/10)
{
case 10: // Several cases may share the same action
case 9:
grade = ’A’; break; // If mark >= 90
case 8: case 7: case 6: // May write several cases on 1 line
grade = ’B’; break; // If 90 > mark >= 60
case 5:
case 4:
case 3:
case 2:
grade = ’C’; break; // If 60 > mark >= 20
case 1:
grade = ’D’; break; // If 20 > mark >= 10
default:
grade = ’F’; break;
}
cout << "Your letter grade is " << grade << endl;
return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.43
Example: switch vs. if-else-if

#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */

using namespace std;

int main() /* To determine your grade (fictitious) */

{
char grade; // Letter grade
int mark; // Numerical mark between 0 and 100
cin >> mark;

if (mark >= 90)

grade = ’A’; // mark >= 90
else if (mark >= 60)
grade = ’B’; // 90 > mark >= 60
else if (mark >= 20)
grade = ’C’; // 60 > mark >= 20
else if (mark >= 10)
grade = ’D’; // 20 > mark >= 10
else
grade = ’F’; // 10 > mark

cout << "Your letter grade is " << grade << endl;
return 0;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.44
Remarks on switch

The expression for switch must evaluate to an integral value

(integer, char, bool in C++).
NO 2 cases may have the same value.
On the other hand, several cases may share the same action
statements.
When a case constant is matched, the statements associated
with the case are executed until either
a break statement.
a return statement.
the end of the switch statement.
Difference between a switch statement and a if-else-if
statement:
switch statement can only test for equality of the value of one
quantity.
each expression of the if-else-if statement may test the truth
value of different quantities or concepts.

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.45
Example: Give me a break
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main() // To determine your grade (fictitious)

{
char grade; // Letter grade
int mark; // Numerical mark between 0 and 100
cin >> mark;

/* What happens if you forget to break? What is the output? */

switch (mark/10)
{
case 10: case 9:
cout << "Your grade is A" << endl;
case 8: case 7: case 6:
cout << "Your grade is B" << endl;
case 5: case 4: case 3: case 2:
cout << "Your grade is C" << endl;
case 1:
cout << "Your grade is D" << endl;
default:
cout << "Your grade is F" << endl;
}

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.46
New Data Types with enum

One way to define a new data type is to use the keyword

enum.
Syntax: enum Declaration
enum new-datatype { identifier1 [=value1], identifier2 [=value2], · · · };

Example
enum weekday { MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY,
SATURDAY, SUNDAY }; // 0,1,2,3,4,5,6

enum primary_color { RED = 1, GREEN, BLUE }; // 1,2,3

enum bloodtype { A, B, AB = 10, O }; // 0,1,10,11

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.47
User-defined enum Type

An enumeration is a type that can hold a finite set of

symbolic objects.
The symbolic (meaningful) names of these objects follow the
same rule as identifier names.
The symbolic names make your program easier to
read/understand.
Internally, these objects are represented as integers.
By default, the first object is given the value zero, then each
subsequent object is assigned a value one greater than the
previous object’s value.
The integral values of the enumerated objects may be
assigned other integral values by the programmer.
Thus, the objects of an enum type act like named integer
constants.

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.48
Example: enum with switch
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{
enum shapes { TEXT, LINE, RECT, CIRCLE };
cout << "supported shapes: "
<< " TEXT = " << TEXT << " LINE = " << LINE
<< " RECT = " << RECT << " CIRCLE = " << CIRCLE << endl;
int myshape; // Why the type of myshape is not shape?
cin >> myshape;

switch (myshape)
{
case TEXT:
cout << "Call a function to print text" << endl; break;
case LINE:
cout << "Call a function to draw a line" << endl; break;
case RECT:
cout << "Call a function to draw a rectangle" << endl; break;
case CIRCLE:
cout << "Call a function to draw a circle" << endl; break;
default:
cerr << "Error: Unsupported shape" << endl; break;
}

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.49
 Part V

Further Readings and Examples

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.50
Quiz: Logical Operations

What is the value of each of the following boolean expressions:

4 == 5
x > 0 && x < 10 /* if int x = 5 */
5 ∗ 15 + 4 == 13 && 12 < 19 || !false == 5 < 24
true && false || true
x /* if int x = 5 */
x + + == 6 /* if int x = 5 */
x =9
x == 3 == 4 /* assume that x is an int */

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.51
do-while Loop (Statement)
Syntax: do-while Statement
do { <stmts> } while (<bool-exp>);

Again, like the while statement,

<stmts> will be repeated as long
as the value of <bool-exp> is true.
However, unlike the the while
statements statement, the <bool-exp> is
evaluated after <stmts> at the
bottom of do-while statement.
boolean
expression That means, <stmts> in do-while
true
loop will be executed at least once,
false
whereas <stmts> in while loop
may not be executed at all.

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.52
Example: Factorial using do-while Loop
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std; // Compute x! = x(x-1)(x-2)...1; x is non -ve

int main()
{
int factorial = 1, number;
cout << "Enter a non-negative integer: ";
cin >> number;

if (number > 0)
{
do
{
factorial *= number; // Same as: factorial = factorial*number
--number; // Same as: number = number-1
} while (number > 1);
}

cout << factorial << endl;

return 0;
}
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.53
Which Loop to Use?

for loop : When you know how to specify the required

number of iterations.
When the counter variable is also needed for
computation inside the loop.
e.g. To compute sums, products, and to count.
while loop : You want to repeat an action but do not know
exactly how many times it will be repeated.
The number of iterations is determined by a
boolean condition. e.g.
while (cin >> x) { ... }

do-while loop : The associated actions have to be executed at

least once.
Otherwise, do-while and while are used in similar
situations.
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.54
Common Loop Errors
What is the error in each of the following cases?

int sum;
Case 1: while (cin >> x)
sum += x;

int j;
while (j < 10)
{
Case 2:
cout << "hello again!" << endl;
j++;
}

int j = 0;
while (j < 10);
{
Case 3:
cout << "hello again!" << endl;
j++;
}

{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.55
More enum Example: Mixing Colors
#include <iostream> /* File: [Link] */
using namespace std;

int main()
{ // Declare color variables immediately after the enum definition
enum color { RED, GREEN, BLUE, YELLOW, CYAN, PURPLE } x, y;
int xint, yint; // Input variables for the color variables

cin >> xint >> yint;

x = static_cast<color>(xint); // Convert an int to a color quantity
y = static_cast<color>(yint); // Convert an int to a color quantity

if ( (x == RED && y == GREEN) || (y == RED && x == GREEN) )

cout << YELLOW << endl;

else if ( (x == RED && y == BLUE) || (y == RED && x == BLUE) )

cout << PURPLE << endl;

else if ( (x == GREEN && y == BLUE) || (y == GREEN && x == BLUE) )

cout << CYAN << endl;

else
cerr << "Error: only support mixing RED/GREEN/BLUE!" << endl;

return 0;
} // Check what is really printed out
{ kccecia, mak, dipapado, psander, charlesz }@[Link] COMP2011 (Fall 2022) p.56