(What is Archaeology)

The word “archaeology” comes from the Greek word “arkhaios,” which means “ancient.”
Archaeology is the study of the human past using material remains. These remains can be
any objects that people created, modified, or used. Portable remains are usually called artifacts.
Artifacts include tools, clothing, and decorations. Non-portable remains, such as pyramids or post-
holes, are called features.
Archaeologists use artifacts and features to learn how people lived in specific times and
places. They want to know what these people’s daily lives were like, how they were governed,
how they interacted with each other, and what they believed and valued. Sometimes, artifacts and
features provide the only clues about an ancient community or civilization. Prehistoric civilizations
did not leave behind written records, so we cannot read about them.
Archaeology is based on the scientific method. Archaeologists ask questions and develop
hypotheses. They use evidence to choose a dig site, then use scientific sampling techniques to
select where on the site to dig. They observe, record, categorize, and interpret what they find.
Then they share their results with other scientists and the public.
- National Geographic Society. (2023). Archeology
[Link]

(Types of Archaeology)
On The Basis Of Nature Of Work
Archaeology has been categorized into various types on the basis of nature of the work involved in
the process of data collection and analysis. This depends to a large extent on where an
excavation or an exploration is taking place, and with what point of view an archaeologist wants to
interpret history.
1. Environmental Archaeology
Environmental archaeology deals with the study of interrelationship between the ancient people
and their natural environment. It involves three sub-disciplines of archaeology, viz.,
zooarchaeology that deals with the study of ancient animal remains, geoarchaeology that deals
with the study of soil, sediments, rocks, natural deposits, etc., and archaeobotany that studies
ancient plant remains. Environmental archaeology answers questions relating to the kind of
natural habitat that the ancient people were surrounded by, the plants and animals living in that
age, varieties of wild and cultivated crops, animals that were hunted and those which were
domesticated, species of plants and animals that are now extinct, climatic changes that took place
over a period of time, and the effects that the changes in natural environment had on the lives of
the people and on their subsequent disappearance. Environmental archaeology encompasses
field studies along with laboratory experiments.
2. Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is the science that deals with the ethnographic investigation of living
communities in order to acquire knowledge of the past. It involves the application of
anthropological methods to a large extent. By using ethnoarchaeological techniques,
archaeologists, in a way, attempt to link the past with the present. They try to understand how the
ancient people in a given region may have lived, keeping as their basis, the tangible and intangible
culture of the modern communities. One can get valuable insights into ancient social structures,
religious and cultural beliefs, technology, etc., by applying the principles of ethnoarchaeology. But,
the link between modern and ancient societies is of course still very ambiguous. This is because,
even if two societies share some common traits, they may be distinct from each other in many
aspects, which tend to change by default over a period of time. Nevertheless, studying advanced
techniques of modern communities may help to a certain extent to provide an insight into the
rudimentary techniques, which may have been used by the ancients.
3. Landscape archaeology
Landscape archaeology is a broad division in archaeology that deals with the study of the various
changes that take place in different landscapes, both naturally as well as due to human
intervention. On the basis of this, landscapes have been classified into natural and cultural
landscapes, for archaeological purposes. The study of how landscapes and natural habitats are
interlinked with human behavior and cultural changes is actually very extensive. There are a
variety of changes that landscapes may undergo over a period of time. These include natural
changes with respect to topography, climate, soil, natural calamities such as floods, landslides,
tsunamis, rivers changing their courses, and so on, and human induced changes such as
agriculture, industrial and construction activities, clearing of forest areas, etc. Interestingly, the
methods in landscape archaeology are also used in order to analyze inequalities that may have
prevailed in a social structure at a given period of time.
4. Household Archaeology
Household archaeology is a comparatively recent development in archaeology that happened
between the late 1970s and early 1980s. It involves a small-scale excavation within a given area
on an archaeological site. It considers every single household as a unit that not only portrays the
social, cultural, economic, and political sensibilities of the people of a particular household/family,
but also throws light on the affiliations of the society on the whole. Household archaeology is also
helpful in studying aspects of secular art and architecture, food habits of the people, their religious
beliefs, and so on. Gender classification in the social order is an interesting aspect that can be
studied by this kind of archaeological method. Variety of evidences are taken into consideration in
the study of household archaeology, which include vegetal and faunal remains, pottery, processes
of site formation, etc.
5. Underwater archaeology
This is also known as marine archaeology or maritime archaeology. It is associated with the study
of underwater evidences such as shipwrecks, water-buried cities, and other inundated
archaeological sites. It is an expensive branch of archaeology and incurs a much higher cost than
any terrestrial archaeological excavation. Knowledge of specific techniques and methods that
need to be adopted in order to carry out excavations underwater is a prerequisite. Archaeologists
practicing in this field attempt to discover submerged evidences by diving into the deep waters
along with sophisticated archaeological tools. An underwater excavation may also turn out to be a
little risky at times because one cannot guess what the conditions under the sea would be like.
However, it makes an exciting profession for adventure lovers.
6. Aviation archaeology
Aviation archaeology deals with finding historical remains of aircraft, air-borne weaponry,
abandoned air bases or runways, and the like. In short, it deals with everything that has to do with
the history of aviation. Sometimes, remains from aircraft crashes are found under the sea, which
are eventually recovered, recorded and studied. It is due to this reason that many people consider
aviation archaeology as a branch of marine archaeology, but this may only be true to a limited
extent. This is because there are also a number of aviation archaeological remains found on land,
in which case, it becomes a separate division in itself. Crash sites differ largely in magnitude and
remains. The remains range from military remains to civil remnants. Instances of ancient air bases
found by aviation archaeologists have also been recorded. As far as the actual professional
practice of aviation archaeology is concerned, there may be some legal constraints, which can be
overcome through adequate paperwork and permissions.
7. Aerial Archaeology
Aerial archaeology, as the name suggests, is the investigation of archaeological remains from the
air. This is a concept that gained impetus after aerial survey and photography were considered to
be important during the two world wars. Archaeologists thought of applying this technique to
record the bird’s-eye view of archaeological sites, so that they could get a better perspective of the
same. Doing aerial surveys also help archaeologists to spot new sites, which otherwise would
have been a difficult task, as some things can be better captured from an altitude. Aerial
archaeology does not involve actual excavation, which is quite obvious. On the contrary, it involves
detailed exploration from an altitude, so that newer sites can be discovered, and the sites which
already exist can be recorded from a different perspective. Nowadays, the technique of satellite
imagery also forms part of aerial archaeology.
8. Battlefield archaeology
Battlefield archaeology, also known as military archaeology, is one of the most intriguing types of
archaeologies. It deals with digging up battlefields of the past and recovering evidences relating to
military activities, which may have been responsible for subsequent changes in the social, political
and economic spheres of the society. Archaeological evidences recovered from battlefields have
the capability to alter those historical viewpoints which have been widely accepted and
acknowledged. Evidences on such sites include remains of implements of war, skeletal remains,
and various artifacts related to military history. These so-called war sites give valuable evidences
to events, which took place not only during a given war, but also before and after it, because not
only actual battlefields but even military camp sites provide valuable evidences. Also, just as all
other sites tell us about how and when people lived, war sites tell us how and when they died. All
in all, battlefield archaeology is an engrossing case-study of how written historical accounts can
undergo changes when actual material remains relating to the recorded events are uncovered.
9. Commercial Archaeology
Commercial archaeology is actually a sub-discipline of archaeology, which deals with everything
that is related to commerce and trade. This includes evidences with respect to the commodities
that were traded and bartered, numismatic finds, ancient forms of transportation that were used for
commercial purposes, and so on. The study of ancient trade routes and sea ports, harbors and
marketplaces, is also included in commercial archaeology. This is a very gripping study, as it
answers questions such as which countries had trade relations and in what commodities, what
were the media of exchange between them, how the commodities were transported, who and what
all was involved, how they coordinated, etc. Many a time, at commercial sites, ancient inscriptions
are found, which are obviously very valuable resources that are used for recording economic
histories.
10. Industrial archaeology
Industrial archaeology is another kind of archaeology, which studies the material remains of
industrial by-products and artifacts. It does not deal with the movement of goods from one place to
another. On the contrary, it deals with the production of goods and the various processes involved
in the same. Evidences from industrial sites tell us about the industries that existed during a given
period in history, things that were manufactured then, the tools that were used at that time, and
attempt to answer queries like what people did other than agriculture (which primarily was the
main occupation in many regions), what, where and how did they manufacture, what raw materials
were used and where did they get them from, how advanced was their technology, why did they
manufacture what they did, and so on. Evidences recovered from such sites generally include
those related to activities such as manufacturing, mining, quarrying, milling, building roads and
other infrastructure, etc.
11. Salvage archaeology
Salvage archaeology, also known as rescue archaeology, is a name given to an archaeological
excavation which needs to be carried out in an emergency and with utmost urgency on threatened
sites. Salvage archaeological operations are carried out on sites that are on the verge of being
destroyed by new road constructions, dams, buildings, or any other kind of infrastructure
development. The duty of the archaeologist then, is to locate as many sites as possible in an
assigned area, explore them, and excavate them if deemed necessary, and ultimately record in
detail all the finds that have been procured. Generally, in case of salvage archaeology, time is a
constraint, and so detailed excavation is difficult to carry out. Therefore, archaeologists tend to
record whatever is found on the surface at the time of exploration. But, if it is realized during the
exploration that the site holds a prominent place in history, then detailed excavation can be carried
out and can thus alter the construction plans in some way or the other.
12. Experimental archaeology
Experimental archaeology is a kind of archaeological study in which archaeologists try to figure out
how the archaeological deposits were formed. In the course of this quest, they experiment with
various processes, which they think people might have applied in the past in order to make or
manufacture all those things which make the archaeological deposit. This experimentation of
remaking or replicating things using the methods of the past is the core of the entire concept of
experimental archaeology. Archaeological finds ranging from pottery to structures are actually
replicated using historical methods, which helps to understand the past technologies as well as the
resources available to them. Flint napping or the replication of prehistoric stone tools is an
interesting activity practiced in experimental archaeology. This has helped, to a large extent, in
understanding the prehistoric habitat and the rudimentary techniques that were used by prehistoric
man to make his much-needed tools. It has to be noted, however, that experimental archaeology
is related to a large extent to the imaginations of the archaeologists, with regards to the period in
question. Because, most of the things, especially structures, are seldom found intact; the
replication mostly depends on the perception of the archaeologist.
13. Forensic archaeology
Forensic archaeology is a newly developed stream and a very interesting one. It pertains to the
use of archaeological techniques in finding evidences on crime scenes. Forensic archaeologists
are generally employed by the security services in order to investigate crimes and catch the
culprits. Duties of archaeologists in this field of archaeology include collecting evidences like
human burials, artifacts, footprints, tool-marks, etc., and trying to figure out the situation in which a
particular crime might have happened; and to ascertain the influences on the remains of external
factors that may have disturbed the crime scene. They also try to find whether all the remains are
in situ, and if not, how and when they landed up where they currently lie. The findings of forensic
archaeologists prove to be very effective in the court of law, and help the police to a great extent in
the investigation of the occurred crime.
On The Basis Of Historic Time Period
Apart from these main kinds of archaeologies, the discipline has also been divided into various
kinds on the basis of historical time periods. This classification is in order to ease the process of
assigning peculiar characteristics to the finds of a particular era, a particular dynasty, or a
particular region.
 1. Prehistoric archaeology
Prehistory is the name assigned to the period before the invention of writing. Obviously, there are
no written records or historical accounts from the prehistoric age, and so, whatever we know about
prehistory is simply through physical archaeological finds. Prehistory has been classified into
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic periods, on the basis of the developments that
took place over a period of time in the human lifestyles. Prehistory also includes periods before the
lithic age (stone age), which preceded the existence of humans. Thus, prehistoric archaeology is
actually a vast discipline, and there is a lot of scope for original research, as there are a number of
prehistoric mysteries that are to be yet unraveled.
2. Protohistoric Archaeology
Protohistory is the period that lies in between prehistory and history. Though this is a period that
came after the invention of writing, many of the evidences have not been deciphered yet.
Protohistory encompasses the bronze age and iron age, and sometimes even the copper age, but
this differs from region to region. Dating of this period is a difficult task for an archaeologist, as this
again depends on regional and cultural aspects. But, we know from the data available that it was
during the protohistoric period that great ancient civilizations of the world sprang up, and the world
took its first and prominent steps towards urbanization. Thus, it is an important transitional phase,
and sites are loaded with surprising artifacts, which makes protohistoric archaeology an interesting
option.
3. Historical archaeology
Historical archaeology studies that period of the history of mankind from which we have ample
written sources that tell us a huge variety of things. So, historical archaeology involves the study of
not only the artifacts recovered from the archaeological sites but also of the documented
evidences that have been left behind. Sites relating to historical archaeology are spread across
the world in large numbers, and each of these help reconstruct different kinds of aspects of human
past, such as industries, trade, art and architecture, social and cultural history, military history, and
so on. However, it should be noted that historical records are not always correct, and hence, it
should be supplemented with other evidences.
4. Classical archaeology
Classical archaeology is a special branch of archaeology which pertains only to Greece and
Rome. It deals with a detailed study of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Classical
archaeology not only studies these two civilizations individually, but also in relation to other
contemporary civilizations of that period. It also studies the influences of and on other civilizations
of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is a very interesting field of study, but because it pertains to
specific regions, is limited in scope.
5. Medieval and Modern Archaeology
Medieval archaeology deals with the study of material remains of human culture belonging to the
middle ages. Similarly, modern archaeology pertains to the study of the colonial and post-colonial
periods in history. Material remains of these periods aid, in most cases, only to establish firmly the
facts from the written records of these periods, which are available in large numbers.
A Quick Guide to the Different Types of Archaeology. Science Struck.
[Link]

Archaeology Subfields
Archaeology has many subfields--including both ways of thinking about archaeology and ways of
studying archaeology
1. Battlefield Archaeology
Battlefield archaeology is an area of specialization among historical archaeologists. Archaeologists
study battlefields of many different centuries, eras, and cultures, to document what historians
cannot.
2. Biblical Archaeology
Traditionally, biblical archaeology is the name given to the study of the archaeological aspects of
the history of the Jewish and Christian churches as provided in the Judeo-Christian bible.
3. Classical Archaeology
Classical archaeology is the study of the ancient Mediterranean, including ancient Greece and
Rome and their immediate forebears Minoans and Mycenaeans. The study is often found in
ancient history or art departments in graduate schools, and in general is a broad, culture-based
study.
4. Cognitive Archaeology
Archaeologists who practice cognitive archaeology are interested in the material expression of
human ways of thinking about things, such as gender, class, status, kinship.
5. Commercial Archaeology
Commercial archaeology is not, as you might think, the buying and selling of artifacts, but rather
archaeology which focuses on the material culture aspects of commerce and transportation.
6. Cultural Resource Management
Cultural Resource Management, also called Heritage Management in some countries, is the way
cultural resources including archaeology are managed at the governmental level. When it works
best, CRM is a process, in which all the interested parties are allowed to have some input into the
decision about what to do about endangered resources on public property.
7. Economic Archaeology
Economic archaeologists are concerned with how people control their economic resources, most
particularly but not entirely, their food supply. Many economic archaeologists are Marxists, in that
they are interested in who controls food supply, and how.
8. Environmental Archaeology
Environmental archaeology is the subdiscipline of archaeology that focuses on the impacts of a
given culture on the environment, as well as the impact of the environment on that culture.
9. Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is the science of applying archaeological methods to living groups, in part to
understand how the processes of how various cultures create archaeological sites, what they
leave behind and what kind of patterns can be seen in modern rubbish.
10. Experimental Archaeology
Experimental archaeology is a branch of archaeological study that replicates or attempts to
replicate past processes to understand how the deposits came about. Experimental archaeoloy
includes everything from the recreation of a stone tool through flintknapping to reconstruction of an
entire village into a living history farm.
11. Indigenous Archaeology
Indigenous archaeology is archaeological research which is conducted by the descendants of the
people who built the towns, camps, burial sites and middens that are under study. The most
explicitly indigenous archaeological research is conducted in the United States and Canada by
Native Americans and First Peoples.
12. Maritime Archaeology
The study of ships and sea-faring is often called maritime or marine archaeology, but the study
also includes investigations of coastline villages and towns, and other topics related to life on and
around the seas and oceans.
13. Paleontology
By and large paleontology is the study of pre-human life forms, primarily dinosaurs. But some
scientists who study the earliest human ancestors, Homo erectus and Australopithecus, refer to
themselves as paleontologists as well.
14. Post-Processual Archaeology
Post-processual archaeology is a reaction to processual archaeology, in that its practitioners
believe that by emphasizing decay processes, you ignore the essential humanity of people. Post-
processualists argue that you can't really understand the past by studying the way it falls apart.
15. Prehistoric Archaeology
An assemblage of bone and ivory artifacts from the lowest layer at Kostenki that includes a
perforated shell, a probable small human figurine (three views, top center) and several assorted
awls, mattocks and bone points dating to about 45,000 years ago. Kostenki Site Assemblage.
Colorado University at Boulder (c) 2007
Prehistoric archaeology refers to studies of the remains of cultures that are primarily pre-urban
and so, by definition, don't have contemporary economic and social records that can be consulted
16. Processual Archaeology
Processual Archaeology is the study of process, that is to say, investigations of the way humans
do things, and the way things decay.
17. Urban Archaeology
Urban archaeology is, essentially, the study of cities. Archaeologists call a human settlement a city
if it has more than 5,000 people, and if it has a centralized political structure, craft specialists,
complex economies, and social stratification.
-Hirst, K. Kris. (2021, September 3). Archaeology Subfields. Retrieved from
[Link]

GOALS OF ARCHAEOLOGY
Archaeology has four main goals:
1. Develop Chronology (Culture History)
2. Reconstruct Past Lifeways (Culture Reconstruction)
3. Explain Culture Change (Culture Process)
4. Derive Meaning (Culture Interpretation).
Each of these aspects represents a different historical period in North American archaeology and a
different theoretical approach. They all are still at play and which goal an archaeologist focuses in
part depends on interest and training.
Establishing chronology is a central aspect of archaeology no matter one’s interest. This was
originally a difficult challenge in the absence of writing or without any of the techniques that we
have now for directly dating objects or the layers that objects are found in. As a result, much of
the early history of archaeology was spent in trying to work out the details of who and when. The
initial approach to establishing some rough ordering of materials involved a consideration of
artifact material and form and by factoring in find context. Stratigraphy played a key role in this by
charting the changes in artifact form in vertical space. Seriation was another key method, which
involved looking at changes in artifact form in horizontal space while also at times factoring in the
findings from stratigraphy. Both methods are still useful with stratigraphy being critical, but both
only provide relative age. Various methods now provide direct or indirect dating—true
chronological determination.
Stratigraphy concerns the analysis of the order and position of layers of archaeological remains.
Recovering archaeological materials from deeply stratified sites was critical to developing relative
chronologies around the world by employing the geologic axiom of superposition that Nicholas
Steno devised in the 16th Century for geology:
Archaeological strata consist of undisturbed layers containing material remains. These are of
great value to archaeologists and any site with finely stratified and well-differentiated layers is
vastly important because they provide a finely resolved archaeological record.
Key Assumptions Concerning “Who”
Part of the traditional concern in archaeology, one that is still present, concerned the question of
who the people were in the past whose remains get recovered and documented. To make an
account of history before writing we not only need to know when something occurred but who was
doing that something. Several guiding assumptions of the culture history paradigm that include
the following ones:
a) Artifacts = culture; i.e., “archaeological culture”.
b) Similar assemblages of artifacts within a region = same time and same people.
c) Different assemblages = different time or different people.
d) Cultural Change is initiated by:
 Diffusion of ideas,
 Migration of people or
  Independent invention (originally thought uncommon)

If an archaeologist could document abrupt dramatic change in the archaeological record then that
was proof of either migration or invasion that resulted in population replacement. Culture
historians described this as “site-unit” intrusion, and it truly can be recognized in the
archaeological record because it has occurred. But change also occurs for reasons internal to a
society and not because of migration or invasion.
The archaeological goal of culture reconstruction involves an attempt to figure out the diverse
lifeways of past societies. This stemmed from the realization that material remains are useful for
more than charting culture history. One aspect of this involves determining past functions or
artifacts and features and sites. What was this tool used for in the past? What was this structure
used for–general living or some special purpose? What about this site, could it have been like one
of the hunting stands of the Nunamiut that Binford studied?

One of the central aspects of this approach that different from that of culture history is that
variability in material remains across both space and time may reflect changing functions,
activities, or organization, not a change in people or ideas.
An interest in knowing something about the behaviors of past societies called from different
methods from those used by culture historians or ones that were more refined. As a result
experiential and experimental archaeology became important, as did ethnographic analogy and
ethnoarchaeology. Also central to this approach was paleoenvironment reconstruction,
determining what the natural environment was like at different points in the past. Environmental
change is clearly a major driver in evolutionary change since it is the environmental context that
determines response.
Belcher, B. et al. An Introduction to Anthropology: the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Humans.
USA: University of Nebraska. [Link]

THEORIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
1. Critical theory, as used by archaeologists, explores the relationship between our
knowledge of the past and the context of its production. It urges scholars to question who
they are working for and the ways in which their interpretations can be used in the present.
One of the major concerns in critical archaeology is the way that conflict and contradiction
have been hidden or masked through the ideology of those who are producing the
knowledge. A critical archaeology calls for extricating or recontextualizing interpretations of
the materiality of past social worlds from cultural to ideological capacities. Foundational to
this is the recognition that power permeates nearly every aspect of social and material life
ranging from broader hierarchical structures to intimate everyday practices.

-Roller, M.P., Tang, A., Knauf, J.E., Leone, M.P. (2020). Critical Theory in Archaeology. In: Smith,
C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, Cham. [Link]
30018-0_257

2. Practice theory represents one of the most influential bodies of thought in contemporary
anthropological archaeology. First incorporated into archaeological circles with
postprocessual critiques of the 1980s (e.g., Hodder 1982), it has remained a hallmark of
 archaeological theory over the past three decades and continues to inform current debates
over agency, identity, and materiality. Although definitions and applications vary between
practitioners, all practice approaches share common interests in action (or agency),
context, and history. When considered in terms of the structural-functional and evolutionary
frameworks of processual archaeologies, these practice-based foci challenge
archaeologists to look beyond large-scale cultural processes to consider the role that
individuals played in reproducing their respective social and cultural milieus.

-Roller, M.P., Tang, A., Knauf, J.E., Leone, M.P. (2020). Critical Theory in Archaeology. In:
Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, Cham.
[Link]

3. Uniformitarianism is the belief that the same natural laws and processes that operate in
the present-day have always operated in the in the past (and will so into the future) and
apply everywhere in the universe. This allows predictions to be made about what will occur
and understandings of what has occurred.
Belcher, B. et al. An Introduction to Anthropology: the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Humans.
USA: University of Nebraska. [Link]

4. Ethnographic Analogy uses the customs and behaviors documented in ethnographic or

other historical sources as a means for making inferences about what life was like for a past
group of people who are known only on the basis of archaeological evidence. This
approach can work best when the archaeological culture is thought to share direct ancestral
ties to an known society documented by ethnographers or other written sources.
Belcher, B. et al. An Introduction to Anthropology: the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Humans.
USA: University of Nebraska. [Link]

5. Antiquarianism: An intellectual tradition of enquiry that developed in Europe in the 16th

and early 17th centuries ad as a result of new interests in nature, antiquity, the
Renaissance of learning, and the addition of time‐depth to people's view of the world. It was
in some senses a substitute for the study of classical antiquities, and a reflection of
emergent national pride. It may also have been prompted by a reaction to the Reformation,
when the monasteries were destroyed and great libraries disposed of. In the 18th century it
was invigorated by the rediscovery of ancient Greece and the classical world, the Romantic
movement, and the rapid development of natural history.
Oxford University Press. (2011). Antiquarianism. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology.

6. The culture-historical archaeology of the late nineteenth century was a response to

growing awareness of geographical variability in the archaeological record at a time when
cultural evolutionism was being challenged in western and central Europe by declining faith
in the benefits of technological progress. These developments were accompanied by
growing nationalism and racism, which made ethnicity appear to be the most important
factor shaping human history. Nationalist fervor increased as spreading industrialization
heightened competition for markets and resources. Toward the end of the century, it was
 encouraged by intellectuals who sought to promote solidarity within their own countries in
the face of growing social unrest by blaming economic and social problems on neighboring
states.

- Trigger, B. G. (2006). Culture-Historical Archaeology. In A History of Archaeological

Thought (pp. 211–313). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

7. Processual archaeology (also known as new or scientific archaeology) is a theoretical

movement rooted in the 1960s–1970s (although some argue both for an earlier start and for
its continued dominance). Processual archaeology represented a radical break from the
then-dominant culture, the historical and antiquarian approaches to archaeology. Although
the goals and methods of processual archaeology would evolve over time, its central tenets
included the following: (1) Archaeology as a science: Archaeology was traditionally seen as
a branch of history, focused on explication of the past, gathering data to set chronologies
and to collect site-specific assemblages. The new archaeologists argued that archaeology
should focus on explanation (as defined by logical positivism; see Philosophical
Groundwork) as opposed to explication. Scientific explanations would demand that
archaeologists focus on dynamic systems—an approach called “systems theory”—with the
goal of understanding the complex factors driving cultural change, and explaining how
people adapted to the environmental factors that drove cultural changes. (2) Focus on
culture process: Arguing that culture–historical archaeology results in static snapshots of
phases of occupation (an artifact of archaeological collection and not a representation of
reality), the processualists focused on generating a more lifelike, fluid understanding of the
past, one based on understanding the complex interrelated cultural and environmental
factors that contribute to cultural (and archaeological) change over time. (3) An expressly
theoretical approach: The theoretical goals of processual archaeology resulted in a number
of methodological changes in the ways in which archaeology was (and is) practiced,
resulting in a strong focus on survey, on the integration of a wide range of new types of
data, and on the replacement of the solo archaeologist with an archaeological team of
experts, representing a number of fields that contribute to the explanation of the past.

-Krieger, W.H. (2021). Processual Archeology. England: Oxford Bibliographies. DOI:

10.1093/OBO/9780199766567-0056
[Link]
[Link]

8. Behavioral archaeology offers a way of examining the past by highlighting human

engagement with the material culture of the time.
Schiffer, M.B. (2010). Behavioral Archaeology: Principles and Practice (1 st ed.). Routledge.
[Link]
9. Post-processual archaeology refers to an intellectual movement in Anglo-American
archaeology that emerged in the 1980s. As its name implies, it grew out of critiques of
processual archaeology and advocated alternative interpretive perspectives, especially
those encompassing questions of meaning, history, politics, and practice.
-Preucel, R.W. (2018). Post Processual Archeology. England: Oxford Bibliographies.
DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199766567-0188