ca.

900 Legend has it that, while walking across a field in northern Greece, a shepherd named
Magnus experiences a pull on the iron nails in his sandals by the black rock he is standing on.
The region was later named Magnesia and the rock became known as magnetite [a form of iron
with permanent magnetism].

ca. 600 Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus describes how amber, after being rubbed with cat
fur, can pick up feathers [static electricity]. ca. 1000 Magnetic compass used as a navigational
device.

1600 William Gilbert (English) he was born on May 24, 1544 in Colchester, Essex, England and
died on November 30 [December 10, New Style], 1603 in London, coins the term electric after the
Greek word for amber (elektron) and observes that a compass needle points north–south
because the Earth acts as a bar magnet.

1671 Sir Isaac Newton (English) was born on December 25, 1642 (January 4, 1643, New Style)
and passed away on March 20 (March 31), 1727. Demonstrates that white light is a mixture of all
the colors.

1733 Charles-François du Fay (French) was born in Paris on Sept. 14, 1698. He was
superintendent of the royal gardens in Paris but is best known for his work studying the properties
of electricity. He died on July 16, 1739. Discovers that electric charges are of two forms and that
like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

1745 Pieter van Musschenbroek (Dutch) born March 14, 1692, Leiden, Neth.—died Sept. 19, 1761,
Leiden invents the Leyden jar, which was the first electrical capacitor.

1752 Benjamin Franklin (American) born Jan. 17, 1706, Boston, Mass.—died April 17, 1790,
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. invents the lightning rod and demonstrates that lightning is electricity.

1785 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (French) born June 14, 1736, Angoulême, France—died
August 23, 1806, Paris) was a French physicist best known for the formulation of Coulomb’s law,
which states that the force between two electrical charges is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

1800 Alessandro Volta (Italian) born February 18, 1745, Como, Lombardy [Italy]—died March 5,
1827, Como. Develops the first electric battery.

1820 Hans Christian Oersted (Danish) born August 14, 1777, Rudkøbing, Denmark—died March
9, 1851, Copenhagen, demonstrates the interconnection between electricity and magnetism
through his discovery that an electric current in a wire causes a compass needle to orient itself
perpendicular to the wire.

1820 André-Marie Ampère (French) born January 20, 1775, Lyon, France—died June 10, 1836,
Marseille) was a French physicist who founded and named the science of electrodynamics, now
known as electromagnetism. His name endures in everyday life in the ampere, the unit for
measuring electric current. Notes that parallel currents in wires attract each other and opposite
currents repel.

1820 Jean-Baptiste Biot (French) born April 21, 1774, Paris, France—died Feb. 3, 1862, Paris, and
Félix Savart (French) born 30 June 1791 Charleville-Mézières, France, died 16 March 1841 (aged
49) Paris, France. Develops the Biot–Savart law relating the magnetic field induced by a wire
segment to the current flowing through it.
1827 Georg Simon Ohm (German) born March 16, 1789, Erlangen, Bavaria [Germany]—died July
6, 1854, Munich. Formulates Ohm's law relating electric potential to current and resistance.

1827 Joseph Henry (American) born December 17, 1797, Albany, New York, U.S.—died May 13,
1878, Washington, D.C. Introduces the concept of inductance and builds one of the earliest
electric motors. He also assisted Samual Morse in the development of the telegraph.

1831 Michael Faraday (English) born Sept. 22, 1791, Newington, Surrey, Eng.—died Aug. 25, 1867,
Hampton Court. Discovers that a changing magnetic flux can induce an electromotive force.

1835 Johann Friedrich Carl Gauss (German) born April 30, 1777, Brunswick, Duchy of Brunswick—
died Feb. 23, 1855, Göttingen, Hanover. Formulates Gauss's law relating the electric flux flowing
through an enclosed surface to the enclosed electric charge.

1873 James Clerk Maxwell (Scottish) born June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, Scotland—died Nov. 5, 1879,
Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. Publishes his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, in
which he unites the discoveries of Coulomb, Oersted, Ampère, Faraday, and others into four
elegantly constructed mathematical equations, now known as Maxwell’s Equations.

1887 Heinrich Hertz (German) born February 22, 1857, Hamburg [Germany]—died January 1,
1894, Bonn, Germany. A German physicist who showed that Scottish physicist James Clerk
Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism was correct, and that light and heat are electromagnetic
radiations. Builds a system that can generate electromagnetic waves (at radio frequencies) and
detect them.

1888 Nikola Tesla (American) he was born July 9/10, 1856, Smiljan, Lika, Austrian Empire [now
in Croatia]—died Jan. 7, 1943, New York, N.Y., U.S. Serbian U.S. inventor and researcher. He
studied in Austria and Bohemia and worked in Paris before coming to the U.S. in 1884.

1895 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (German) he was born March 27, 1845, Lennep, Prussia [now
Remscheid, Germany]—died February 10, 1923, Munich, Germany. Physicist who received the first
Nobel Prize for Physics, in 1901, for his discovery of X-rays, which heralded the age of modern
physics and revolutionized diagnostic medicine.

1897 Joseph John Thomson (English) he was born December 18, 1856, Cheetham Hill,
near Manchester, England—died August 30, 1940, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. English physicist
who helped revolutionize the knowledge of atomic structure by his discovery of
the electron (1897). He received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906 and was knighted in 1908.

1905 Albert Einstein (German American) he was born on March 14, 1879, and died on April 18,
1955. Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely acknowledged to be one of
the greatest physicists of all time. He is best known for his theory of relativity. Einstein received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.
Vector analysis is a mathematical shorthand.

Scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single (positive or negative) real
number.

The x, y, and z we use in basic algebra are scalars, and the quantities they represent are scalars.
(TRUE OF FALSE)

If we speak of a body falling a distance L in a time t, or the temperature T at any point in a bowl
of soup whose coordinates are x, y, and z, then L, t, T, x, y, and z are all scalars. (TRUE OR FALSE)

Scalar quantities are mass, density, pressure (but not force), volume, volume resistivity, and
voltage. (TRUE OR FALSE)

Vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction in space.

Force, velocity, acceleration, and a straight line from the positive to the negative terminal of a
storage battery are examples of vectors. (TRUE OR FALSE)

Electromagnetics is a branch of physics or electrical engineering in which electric and magnetic

Coplanar vectors are vectors lying in a common plane.

Vectors may be multiplied by scalars. (TRUE OR FALSE)

The magnitude of the vector changes, but its direction does not when the scalar is positive,
although it reverses direction when multiplied by a negative scalar. (TRUE OR FALSE)

If the component vectors of the vector r are x, y, and z, then r = x + y + z. (TRUE OR FALSE)

ax, ay, and az are the unit vectors in the rectangular coordinate system. (TRUE OR FALSE)

The system consists of two or three mutually perpendicular lines called axes.

The point where the axes intersect is called the origin (usually denoted as O).

Points in the plane or space are represented by ordered pairs (x, y) in two dimensions and ordered
triplets (x, y, z) in three dimensions. – Coordinates

In a two-dimensional system, the plane is divided into four quadrants by the x-axis and y-axis. –
Quadrants

The axes have positive and negative directions. – Axes Direction

The distance between two points P₁(x₁, y₁, z₁) and P₂(x₂, y₂, z₂) in three-dimensional space. –
Distance Formula

Vector components and unit vectors are essential concepts in vector mathematics, helping to
break down vectors into simpler parts and provide a standardized way to express direction.
The vector RPQ is equal to the vector difference rQ – rP

A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of 1. It is often denoted by a hat (Ậ)

The unit vector along a particular direction is the vector pointing in that direction with a magnitude
of? – 1

A vector V can be expressed as the sum of its components multiplied by unit vectors.

The dot product, or scalar product, is defined as the product of the magnitude of A, the magnitude
of B, and the cosine of the smaller angle between them.

The dot, or scalar, product is a scalar, as one of the names implies, and it obeys the commutative
law.

The geometrical term projection is also used with the dot product.

Cross product, or vector product, of A and B, written with a cross between the two vectors as A ×
B and read “A cross B.”

The direction of A×B is perpendicular to the plane containing A and B and is along one of the two
possible perpendiculars which is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned
into B.

An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinate surfaces are mutually perpendicular.

Examples of orthogonal coordinate systems include the Cartesian (or rectangular), the circular
cylindrical, the spherical, the elliptic cylindrical, the parabolic cylindrical, the conical, the prolate
spheroidal, the oblate spheroidal, and the ellipsoidal.

The three common coordinate systems we shall use throughout the text are the Cartesian (or
rectangular), the circular cylindrical, and the spherical.

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction
of the maximum space rate of increase of V.

The projection (or component) of V in the direction of a unit vector a is W • a and is called the
directional derivative of V along a.

The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks
about P.

It is positive at a source point in the field, and negative at a sink point, or zero where there is neither
sink nor source.

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss–Otrogradsky theorem.

The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed
surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A
per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
when the area is oriented to make the circulation maximum.

This implies that the line integral of A is independent of the chosen path. Therefore, an
irrotational field is also known as a conservative field.

By a point charge we mean a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions are much
smaller than other relevant dimensions.

Coulomb’s law is an experimental law formulated in 1785 by Charles Augustin de Coulomb, then
a colonel in the French army.

The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the force that a unit positive charge
experiences when placed in an electric field.