€ Practical English Usage 293 punctuation: full stop, *« question mark and exclamation mark 1 sentence division Full stops (AmE periods), question marks and exclamation marks (AmE exclamation points) are used to close sentences. After one of these, a new sentence has a capital letter. I looked out of the window. It was snowing again. Why do we try to reach the stars? What is it all for? We need more houses! Not one day, not next year - now! We do not normally use full stops, question or exclamation marks to close grammatically incomplete sentences. She phoned me as soon as she arrived. (NOT She-pherred mentssoomassheartived:) In his job he has to deal with different kinds of people. (NOT trhiefob-He resto deatiithdifferenttindsot peopte:) Did you understand why | was upset? (NOT Bid-yett nderstend hp heestpset?) However, sometimes we can emphasise a clause or phrase by separating it with a full stop and capital letter. People are sleeping out on the streets. In Britain. In the 21st century. Because there are not enough houses. 2 abbreviations Full stops can be used after many abbreviations > (336). But they are often dropped in modern British English.€ Practical English Usage are not enough houses. 2 abbreviations Full stops can be used after many abbreviations > (336). But they are often dropped in modern British English. Dr. Andrew C. Burke, M.A. (OR Dr Andrew C Burke, MA) 3 indirect questions We do not use question marks after indirect questions > (260). | asked her what time it was. (NOT .. -whattinrettwes?) To Section Introduction€ Practical English Usage 294 punctuation: colon * 5 explanations Acolon (:) usually introduces an explanation or further details. We decided not to go to Mexico: we had too little money. There was a problem with the car: it was losing oil. lists Acolon can introduce a list. The main points are as follows: (1) ..., (2) ..., (3)... We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political. Acolon can introduce a subdivision of a subject ina title or heading. PUNCTUATION: COLON capitals In British English, itis unusual for a capital letter to follow a colon (except at the beginning of a quotation). However, this can happen if a colon is followed by several complete sentences. My main objections are as follows: First of all, no complete budget has been drawn up. Secondly, there is no guarantee that... In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters. letters€ Practical English Usage In American English, colons are more often followed by capital letters. 5 letters Americans usually puta colon after the opening salutation (Dear...) in a business letter. Dear Mr. Callan: lam writing to ... British usage prefers a comma or no punctuation mark at all in this case. 6 direct speech Normally, direct speech is introduced by a comma in writing. Stewart opened his eyes and said, ‘Who's your beautiful friend?’ But a long passage of direct speech may be introduced by acolon. Introducing his report for the year, the Chairman said: ‘Anumber of factors have contributed to the company’s very gratifying results. First ofall, ...’ Anda colon is used when direct speech is introduced by a name or short phrase (as in the text of a play, or when famous sayings are quoted). POLONIUS: What do you read, my lord? HAMLET: Words, words, words. In the words of Murphy’s Law: ‘Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.’ To Section Introduction€ Practical English Usage 295 punctuation: semi-colon * 1 instead of full stops Semi-colons (;) are sometimes used instead of full stops, in cases where sentences are grammatically independent but the meaning is closely connected. Semi-colons are not nearly as common as full stops or commas. Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings. It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work. Commas are not usually possible in cases like these > (296.7). 2 inlists Semi-colons can also be used to separate items ina list, particularly when these are grammatically complex. You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any damage; ... [J For commas in lists, » 296. To Section Introduction3:26 € Practical English Usage 295 punctuation: *« semi-colon 1 instead of full stops Semi-colons (;) are sometimes used instead of full stops, in cases where sentences are grammatically independent but the meaning is closely connected. Semi-colons are not nearly as common as full stops or commas. Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings. It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work. Commas are not usually possible in cases like these m (296.7). 2. inlists Semi-colons can also be used to separate items ina list, particularly when these are grammatically complex. You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any damage; ... I For commas in lists, > 296.€ Practical English Usage 296 punctuation: comma * 1 __ the basic sentence We do not use commas to separate the basic parts of a sentence (subject and verb, verb and object) The standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving. (NOT Fhe-standerctoHivingofthe dock srorkerssirersstontymptonitng:) Many of them were able to begin buying their own homes. (NOT Manyofthen-wereabletobegtt poping themornborres) 2 _ before and after the basic sentence If we put long adverbial expressions before the basic sentence, we often use a comma. Compare: At that time the standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving. We do not so often put commas when adverbial expressions come after the basic sentence. The standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving during the late 1920s and early 1930s. 3 inside the basic sentence When adverbial expressions come between or inside parts of the basic sentence, we may put commas before and after them. The standard of living of the dock workers, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, was steadily improving.€ Practical English Usage 4 noun phrases We do not usually separate a noun from the adjectives or other expressions that go with it. the mainly foreign labourers (NOT the mointyforeign; terbotrers) the mainly foreign labourers in the north-eastern docks (NOT the meinty foreign-tabourers; ithe frorthreastertrdocks) However, we do use commas to separate non-identifying expressions > (234). Andreas Bergmeister, who established the dock workers’ union, 5 sentences with conjunctions We often put commas in sentences with conjunctions, especially in longer sentences. Compare: The situation changed when the export markets began to contract. The situation changed noticeably for the worse after 1932, when the export markets began to contract. We usually use a comma if we start with the conjunction. When the export markets began to contract, the situation changed. 6 indirect speech We do not put commas after verbs of saying, thinking, etc in indirect speech. Many commentators declared that the economy was in serious trouble. (NOT Meny- commentators dectared; thatthe economy...) No one knew how serious the situation would become.€ Practical English Usage Q 6 indirect speech We do not put commas after verbs of saying, thinking, etc in indirect speech. Many commentators declared that the economy was in serious trouble. (NOT Hemycommentatorsdectared; thattheeconomy...) No one knew how serious the situation would become. (NOT Ne-one-knew;how-serious...) Auseful rule: we do not put a comma before that (conjunction or relative pronoun). They did not understand that the economic conditions that had existed earlier had disappeared for good. 7 between grammatically separate sentences Between grammatically separate sentences (with no conjunction), we use a full stop or a semi-colon, but not a comma. Compare: Orders began to dry up, and most companies reduced their work force. (comma and conjunction) Orders began to dry up. Most companies started to reduce their work force. OR Orders began to dry up; most companies started to reduce their work force. (BUT NOT Orders begatrtodry tp; mosteompanies: started...) 8 conjunctions and adverbs Note that some linking words (e.g. consequently, however, therefore) are adverbs, not conjunctions. A sentence beginning with an adverb is grammatically separate from the sentence before it; consequently, a full stop or semi-colon is necessary between the sentences P (283).€ Practical English Usage Orders began to dry up. Consequently, most companies started to reduce their work force. (NOT Ordersbegarrte diy tp; conseqtentty; most companies...) Orders began to dry up; however, some companies tried to carry on as before. (NOT Ordersbegantodry tprhowever-some-comparies-...) 9 commas between adjectives Before a noun, we use commas mostly to separate adjectives that give the same or related kinds of information. a tall, impressive figure along, boring speech an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives. a tall(,) dark(,) handsome cowboy Commas are not dropped when adjectives or other modifiers refer to different parts of something. a green, red and gold carpet (NOT er-greemrecteand gottearpet) concrete, glass and plastic buildings Before a noun, commas are not normally used when adjectives give different kinds of information. Have you met our handsome new financial director? (NOT .. -cemhendsome-nen-inanciatdirector) surprising new developments gloomy economic forecasts After be and other linking verbs, adjectives are punctuated like a list (see below). His speech was long, boring, detailed and irrelevant.10 11 Practical English Usage 9 Q His speech was long, boring, detailed and irrelevant. The cowboy was tall, dark and handsome. lists We use commas to separate the different things in a list (but not usually before and unless the last item is long). Compare: The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, marketing organisations, banks and credit agencies. .. marketing organisations, banks, and some of the major credit agencies. numbers Commas are used to divide large numbers into groups of three figures, by separating off the thousands and millions. 6,435 (NOT 6-435) 7,456,189 We do not always use commas in four-figure numbers, and they are never used in dates. 3,164 OR 3164 the year 1946 Spaces are sometimes used instead of commas. There are 1000 millimetres in 1 metre. We do not use commas in decimals ® (322.1). 3.5 = three point five OR three and a half (NOT three commertive) To Section Introduction€ Practical English Usage 297 punctuation: * dash Dashes (-) are especially common in informal writing. They can be used in the same way as colons, semi-colons or brackets. There are three things | can never remember - names, faces, and I’ve forgotten the other. We had a great time in Greece - the kids really loved it. My mother - who rarely gets angry - really lost her temper. A dash can introduce an afterthought, or something unexpected and surprising. We'll be arriving on Monday morning - at least, | think so. And then we met Joseph - with Lisa, believe it or not! For the use of hyphens (as in hard-working or | co-operative), > 342.€ Practical English Usage 298 punctuation: quotation *« marks Quotation marks can be single (‘...’) or double (‘...”). They are also called ‘inverted commas’ in British English. 1. direct speech We use quotation marks (single or double) when we quote direct speech. For quotations inside quotations, we use double quotation marks inside single (or single inside double). ‘His last words,’ said Albert, ‘were “Close that bloody window”, American usage often prefers single quotation marks inside double in these cases. 2 special use of words We often put quotation marks (usually single) round words which are used in special ways ~ for example when we talk about them or when we give them special meanings. People disagree about how to use the word ‘disinterested’. Atextbook can be a ‘wall’ between the teacher and the class. American usage often prefers double quotation marks in these cases. To Section Introduction