ENGINEERING

G R A P H I C S - I & II
(M – SCHEME)

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

Principal
Sri Renugambal Polytechnic College,
Polur – 606 907.
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ENGINEERING GRAPHICS - I & II

Copy right © : Publishers

No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or reproduced
in any way, including but not limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record,
without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.

First Edition : November 2003

Revised Edition : October 2008
Revised Edition : June 2016

Price : 176.00

For Contact :
99446 50380
96266 26747
Publisher :
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
 PREFACE
This book on ENGINEERING GRAPHICS - I & II has been written to
cover the latest revised syllabus for the Polytechnic college students of I Year Basic
Engineering.

As the drawing is the language of engineers, it is necessary for every technical

student to understand and develop the skill in preparing technical drawings. This book
has been prepared by keeping this idea in mind.

Immense care has been taken while preparing the drawings provided in this book.
Almost all the problems asked in the previous board examinations have been solved.
More exercises are included for the practice of students. Necessary solution are also
provided for easy reference.

I am very thankful to M/s KAL PATHIPPAGAM for their kind

encouragement to bring out this book in an excellent manner as expected by the students
and teachers.

The author would be very glad and thankful to receive any comments and
constructive suggestions for the improvement of this book.

N. Iyanarappan
(iyanarvlr1976@gm ail.com )
 30015 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – I
DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit – I :
1. 1. Drawing office practice
Importance of engineering drawing - drawing instruments: drawing board, mini drafter,
compass, divider, protractor, drawing sheets, drawing pencils, set squares etc.,-title block –
folding of drawing sheets. Lettering and numbering as per BIS 9609 - importance - single
stroke letters – slanting letters - upper case and lower case letters – general procedures for
lettering and numbering - height of letters – guidelines – practices.

Scales - full scale, reduced scale and enlarged scale.

1. 2. Dimensioning
Dimensioning – terms and notations as per BIS -requirement of dimensioning - Dimension
line, Extension lines and Leader lines – Dimensioning systems - Methods of dimensioning –
Important dimensioning rules – Exercises (One view of the object).

Unit – II :
2.1 Geometric Constructions
Geometric constructions: Bisect a line – bisect an arc – bisect given angle – divide straight
line into number of equal parts – divide the circle into number of equal divisions – draw an
arc touching two lines at any angle – draw an arc touching two arcs.

2.2 Constructions of conics

Conics: Cone – conic sections - Definition of locus, focus, directrix, axis, vertex and
eccentricity. Definition: ellipse, parabola and hyperbola.
Ellipse: Construction of ellipse by concentric circle method, rectangular method and
Eccentricity method when focus and directrix are given – Exercises.
Parabola: Construction of parabola by rectangular method, parallelogram method and
eccentricity method when focus and directrix are given– exercises.
Hyperbola: Construction of hyperbola by rectangular method and eccentricity method when
focus and directrix are given – exercises.

Unit – III :
3.1 Projection of points.
Projection of points – points on the different quadrants and on the reference planes.

3.2 Projection of straight lines.

Projection of straight lines – Line in the first quadrant and on the reference lanes -
perpendicular to one plane and parallel to other plane – inclined to one plane and parallel to
the other plane – parallel to both the planes – inclined to both the planes – Exercises.

Unit - IV :
4.1. Orthographic projection
Introduction – Orthographic projection - terms - First angle projection - Third angle
projection – Draw symbols – Compare first and third angle projections.
Draw the projection of the simple isometric objects using first angle projection only – Draw
front view / top view / right / left side view.(Any two views only)
 30026 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – II
DETAILED SYLLABUS
Unit - I :
1.1 Constructions of special curves
Geometric curves: Definition - construction of cycloid - epicycloids – hypocycloid – exercises.
Involutes of a circle - Archimedean spiral – helix – exercises.

1.2 Construction of Polygon

Construct triangle, rectangle, pentagon and hexagon by side distance in various positions –
construction by inscribe & circumscribe a circle and by angle.

Unit – II :
2.1 Development of surfaces
Methods of development - Need for development - Development of regular polygons: prism,
cylinder, cone and pyramids. Exercises in rectangular, pentagon and hexagon prisms and
pyramids. Exercises in regular cylinder and cone.
Development of truncated prism and cylinder, frustum of pyramid and cone.
Development of miscellaneous objects - T-pipe, elbow, ducts, tray, lamp shade and funnel.

Unit – III :
3.1 Projection of solids
Introduction - important terms - classification of solids – polyhedron – solids of revolution –
exercises in triangular and hexagonal prisms - triangular and hexagonal pyramids - cylinder
and cone.
Projections of solids in simple positions – Axis parallel to one plane and perpendicular to
other plane - axis inclined to one plane and parallel to other plane - axis parallel to both
planes - exercises.

3.2 Section of Solids

Introduction – terminology - true shape - sectional view - need for sectional view - cutting
plane – section lines - triangular and hexagonal prisms and pyramids - cylinder and cone.
Position of solids – Axis parallel to one plane and perpendicular to other plane - axis parallel
to both planes - exercises.
Position of cutting planes – cutting plane perpendicular to one plane and parallel to another
plane - cutting plane perpendicular to one plane and inclined to another plane – exercises.

Unit - IV :
4.1 Isometric projections
Introduction – isometric view - isometric projection – methods of drawing an isometric view -
box method – isometric view of regular solids – isometric view of truncated solids - Isometric
view of arcs and circles – four centre method for drawing an ellipse - arcs of circles in
isometric view.
Isometric view of the machine parts from the given simple orthographic view - exercises.
 Contents
Unit Title Page No.

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS - I
I. DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICE 1.1 - 1.41
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS AND
II. 2.1 - 2.24
CONSTRUCTION OF CONICS CURVES
PROJECTION OF POINTS AND
III. 3.1 - 3.27
STRAIGHT LINES

IV. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 4.1 - 4.56

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS - II
V. CONSTRUCTION OF SPECIAL CURVES 5.1 - 5.18

VI. DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES 6.1 - 6.27

VII (a). PROJECTION OF SOLIDS 7.1 - 7.45

VII(b). SECTION OF SOLIDS 7.46 - 7.76

VIII. ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS 8.1 - 8.28

Board Examination Question Papers

with Solutions
!
 Unit – I
1.1 DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICE
1.1.1 Importance of engineering drawing
Engineering drawing is the language of engineers. By means of drawing, the shape, size,
finish, colour, and construction of any object can be described accurately and clearly. Hence,
drawing is a way for communicating engineer’s ideas, designs, and thoughts to others. It is
necessary for the engineer to develop his skill in preparing engineering drawings.

1.1.2 BIS codes for engineering drawing

Engineering drawing is a common language used by engineers throughout the world.
Like other languages, engineering drawing also follows certain rules, regulations and
conventions. These are called standards.

The standards to be used for engineering drawing in India are prescribed by Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS). The following are the IS codes recommended by BIS for engineering
drawing.
IS code Name of the drawing subject
IS 9609 – 1983 English lettering
IS 10711 – 1983 Size of drawing sheet
IS 10713 – 1983 Scales for technical drawings
IS 10714 – 1983 General principle of presentation
IS 11664 – 1983 Folding of drawing prints
IS 11665 – 1985 Title block
IS 11669 – 1986 General principle of dimensioning

1.1.3 Drawing instruments and materials

Drawing instruments are used to prepare engineering drawings accurately and easily.
The accuracy and neatness of the drawings depend on the quality of the instruments used. The
following are the list of instruments and other materials required for engineering drawing.
1) Drawing board 9) Drawing paper
2) T – square 10) Drawing pencils
3) Set squares 11) Sand paper block
4) Clinograph 12) Pencil eraser (Rubber)
5) Protractor 13) Paper fasteners (Pins, tape or clips)
6) Scales 14) Duster
7) French curves 15) Mini–drafter
8) Instrument box

1.1
1) Drawing board
Slotted holes

Bottom strips

Battens

Ebony working edge

Fig.1 Drawing board
A drawing board is rectangular in shape. It is made of strips of well seasoned soft wood
such as oak or pine. The strips are joined together by two battens at the back to prevent
warping. An ebony strip is fitted on one edge of the board. This edge is perfectly straight and is
called as working edge. T–square head is made to slide against the ebony edge. The ebony
edge has a saw cut along its length to prevent contraction and expansion due to atmospheric
changes.
The standard sizes of drawing boards recommended by BIS are given below.

Board size in mm Suitable

Designation
Length x Width x Thickness Drawing sheet size
D0 1500 x 1000 x 25 A0
D1 1000 x 700 x 25 A1
D2 700 x 500 x 15 A2
D3 500 x 350 x 15 A3

2) T – Square

Fig.2 T– square
1.2
 T–square is made in the form of “T” by using hard wood. It consists of a stock and a
blade. These two parts are joined together at right angles to each other by means of screws
and pins. The working edge of T–square should be perfectly straight. The stock is placed
adjoining the working edge of the board and is made to slide on it when required. The blade is
pressed firmly against the drawing sheet.
T–square is mainly used to draw horizontal lines. Set–squares may be made to slide
over the working edge of the T–square to draw perpendicular, parallel and inclined lines.

3) Set–squares or triangles

30°

45°

90° 45° 90° 60°

Fig.3 Set squres

The set–squares or triangles are made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic. The two
forms of set–squares generally used are 45o set–square and 30o– 60o set–square.

The two edges of each set square are made at right angles and are graduated in mm.
Some set–squares may have French curves cut in them. Set–squares are used to draw all
straight lines. Vertical lines can be drawn by using set–squares along with the T–square. Lines
with an angle of 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 75o, 105o, etc. can be drawn with the combination of T–
square and set–squares.

4) Clinograph

Fig.4 Clinograph

1.3
 Clinograph is an adjustable set–square. It has two fixed edges at 90o. The third edge is
hinged and can be adjusted to any required inclination. This is used to draw parallel lines at
any inclination.

5) Protractor

80 90 100
70 110
90 12
60 100 80
70 0
110 13
50 0 60 0
12
0 50
13

14
40

0
0

40
14

15
30

0
0

30
15

160
20
160

20

170
10
180 170

10

180
0
0

Fig.5 Protractor
Protractor is made of wood, tin, celluloid or transparent plastics. It is generally available
in flat semi–circular and circular shapes. The normal size is 100mm diameter. The beveled
circumferential edge is graduated in 1o divisions and numbered at every 10o intervals. The
readings can be taken both in clockwise and anticlockwise directions. It is used to measure or
draw angles which cannot be drawn by set–squares. Protractor is also used to divide the circle
into a number of equal parts.

6) Scales
Scales are used for transferring and measuring distances or lengths on a drawing. They
are made of wood, celluloid, plastic, card–board, etc. Flat card–board scales of 300mm length,
30mm width, and 1mm thick are commonly used. Wooden and plastic scales are thicker than
card–board scales and their longer edges are beveled. Both the longer edges of the scales are
graduated with different divisions and sub–divisions.

The representative fraction such as 1:2, 1:10, 10:1, etc. is marked on the scale. The
scales generally used in engineering drawings are:
• Full scale 1:1
• Reducing scales 1:2, 1:2.5, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200
• Enlarging scales 10:1, 5:1, 2:1

7) French curves
French curves are used to draw curves and other than circular arcs, which cannot be
drawn with a compass. They are made of wood, plastic or transparent celluloid. They are
available in various shapes. French curves are cut in the middle of some set–squares also.

1.4

Fig.6 French curves

8) Drawing instrument box

Drawing instrument box contains the following instruments.
(i) Large size compass
(ii) Lengthening bar
(iii) Small bow compass
(iv) Large size divider
(v) Small bow divider
(vi) Small bow ink–pen
(vii) Inking pen

(i) Large size compass

Fig.7 Large bow compass

1.5
 This compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of circles. It consists of two legs hinged
together at its upper end. A pointed needle is fitted at the lower end of one leg and a pencil
lead is inserted at the end of the other leg. Both the legs are provided with knee joints. Circles
up to about 120mm diameter can be drawn with the legs of the compass kept straight. For
drawing large circles, both the legs should be bent at the knee joints so that they are
perpendicular to the surface of the paper. The needle is kept longer than the lead point,
because the needle is required to be inserted slightly inside the paper.

(ii) Lengthening bar

Fig.8 Lengthening bar

Circles more than 150mm radius are drawn with the help of the lengthening bar. The
lower part of the pencil leg is detached and the lengthening bar is inserted in its place. The
detached part is then fitted at the end of the lengthening bar, thus increasing the length of the
pencil leg.

(iii) Small bow compass

Small bow compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of less than 25mm radius. It is
particularly used to draw a large number of small circles of the same diameter. It consists of a
pointed needle leg and a pencil lead leg. The two legs are joined through a torsion spring at
their ends. An adjustable screw is provided to adjust the distance between these two legs.

(iv) Large size divider

The divider has two legs hinged at the upper end. Each leg has needle points at the
lower end. It does not have the knee joint as in a compass. The dividers are used
• To divide curves or straight lines into required number of equal parts
• To transfer dimension from one part of the drawing to another part
• To set–off given dimension from the scale to the drawing.

(v) Small bow divider

Small bow divider is used for making minute divisions and large number of equal
distances. An adjustable screw is provided to change the distance between the two legs.

1.6
 Knob

Screw steel nib

Ink Scale
Paper

Fig.9 Small bow compass
Fig.10 Divider
Fig.11 Inking pen

(vi) Small bow ink–pen

It is used for drawing small circles and arcs in ink.
(vii) Inking pen
It is used for drawing straight lines and non–circular arcs in ink. It consists of a pair of
steel nibs fitted to a metal holder. Ink is filled between the two nibs to about 6mm height. The
gap between the nib blades can be adjusted by means of a screw. This is done to get the
required line thickness.

9) Drawing paper
Drawing papers are available in many varieties. For ordinary pencil drawings, the paper
selected should be uniform in thickness and as white as possible. Good quality paper with
smooth surface should be selected for drawings which are to be inked and preserved for a long
time. Thin and cheap quality papers may be used for drawings from which tracing are to be
prepared. The following are the standard sizes of drawing papers recommended by BIS.

Sheet Trimmed size Untrimmed size

Designation Width x Length (mm) Width x Length (mm) A3

A0 841 x 1189 880 x 1230 A2

A4
A1 594 x 841 625 x 880 A5
A0
A2 420 x 594 450 x 625
A3 297 x 420 330 x 450
A1
A4 210 x 297 240 X 330
A5 148 x 210 165 x 240

1.7
 Surface area of A0 size is one square meter. Successive sizes are obtained by dividing
along the length. The areas of the two sizes are in the ratio 1:2.

10) Drawing pencils

The accuracy, neatness, and appearance of drawings depend very much on the quality
of the drawing pencils used. The grade of a pencil lead is usually shown by figure and letters at
one of its ends. Letters HB indicate the medium grade. The grades H, 2H, 3H, etc. indicate the
degree of hardness in increasing order. The grades B, 2B, 3B, etc. indicate the degree of
softness in an increasing order. The uses of different grade pencils are listed below.

Pencil grade Uses

3H pencil Guide lines for lettering.
2H pencil For construction lines, dimension lines, leader lines, section lines, and centre lines.
H pencil For object lines, lettering and dimensioning.
HB pencil For free hand sketching, arrow heads, dimensioning and lettering.
10

(a) (b) Chisel edge (c) Conical point

Fig.12 Drawing pencils

The pencil lead may be sharpened to two different shapes:

• Conical point: It is used in sketch works, lettering, etc.
• Chisel edge: It is used for drawing lines of uniform thickness and hence it is suitable
for drawing work.

11) Sand paper block

It consists of a wooden block about 150mm x 50mm x 12mm thick. A piece of sand
paper is pasted or nailed on about half of its length. The pencil lead should occasionally be
rubbed on the sand paper block to maintain the same thickness of the chisel edge or the
pointed end.

1.8
12) Pencil eraser (Rubber)
The eraser made of soft India rubber is mostly used for pencil drawings. Eraser is used
to remove the unwanted lines and lines drawn by mistake. The rubber should be such as not to
spoil the surface of the paper. Frequent use of rubber should be avoided by careful planning.

13) Paper fasteners

Drawing pins, adhesive tapes or spring clips are generally used for fixing the drawing
sheet on the drawing board. These are called paper fasteners. Adhesive tape and spring clips
are widely used. Adhesive tape does not obstruct the free movement of T–square, set–square
or mini–drafter. Fixing and removal of sheets become easier with spring clips.

14) Duster
Duster is used for cleaning the mini–drafter, set–square and other instruments and the
surface of the drawing sheet before starting the work and also during the work. Duster may be
a towel cloth or hand kerchief. The rubber crumbs formed after the use of rubber should be
cleaned by the duster.

15) Mini–drafter

Drawing board edge

Clamp

Link
mechanism

Blade

Protractor head
Knob

Fig.13 Mini–drafter

Mini–drafter is a miniature form of drafting machine. The uses and advantages of the
T–square, set–squares, scales and the protractor are combined in the mini–drafter. Its one end
is clamped by means of a screw, to the distant longer edge of the drawing board. An
adjustable head having protractor markings is fitted at its other end.

1.9
 Two blades made of transparent celluloid accurately set at right angles to each other are
attached to the protractor head. Scale markings are provided on these two blades. The blades
may be set at any required angle with the help of the protractor markings. The machine has a
mechanism which keeps the two blades always parallel to their original position, whenever
they may be moved on the board.

By using mini–drafter, horizontal, vertical, inclined, parallel, and perpendicular lines of

required length can be drawn anywhere on the sheet easily. It considerably reduces the
drafting time.

1.1.4 Drawing sheet layout

30 10

10
Layout for A 2 size sheet

Margin
Filing margin

All dimensions are in mm

Folding mark TITLE BLOCK

Untrimmed Trimmed

Fig.14 Layout of A2 size drawing sheet
Layout of drawing sheet is necessary for easy reading of the drawings and for easy
location of details. Layout is provided for inclusion of all necessary information and easy
handling of drawings with facilities for folding and filing.

Requirements of a good layout

• Sufficient margin
• Proper title block
• Proper spacing between drawings

1.10
 • Correct arrangement of drawings
• Good lettering and dimensioning

Fig.14 shows the layout of A2 size drawing sheet. It includes the following:
• Margin of 30mm on left hand side (for filing) and 10 mm each on the three sides.
• Title block of 185mm x 55mm at the right hand bottom corner.
• Correct folding marks on all the four sides.

1.1.4.1 Title block

A title block will be provided for each drawing sheet by following the specifications as per
IS:11665 – 1985. The title block should be placed at the right hand bottom corner of the
sheet.

The title block consists of one or more adjoining rectangles. Each rectangle may be
subdivided into smaller boxes for inserting specific information. The information included in the
title block should be grouped into rectangular zones as follows:
(i) identification zone (ii) other zones for additional information
Identification zone
The identification zone shall include the following basic information
(a) Registration or identification number.
(b) Title of the drawing.
(c) Name of the legal owner of the drawing.

The various arrangements for identification zone are shown in the fig.15.

c b
b
b c
a a c a

170 MAX

Fig.15 Arrangement for identification zone

Zones for additional information

The zones for additional information may be positioned above or to the left of the
identification zone. The following items may be inserted in these zones.
• Indicative items such as the symbol for projection method, scale of the drawing, etc.
• Technical items such as surface texture, geometrical tolerances, etc.
• Administrative items such as size of the drawing sheet, date, signature of those
responsible, etc.

1.11
 A suggested title block for the use of polytechnic students is shown in fig.16(b).

TITLE OF DRAWING

15
10 10 10 10
Symbol for NAME OF THE STUDENT
55

projection method
ROLL NUMBER
SCALE SHEET NO. CLASS
Staff
Signature DATE: INSTITUTION
25 30 130
185

Fig.16(a) Title block

DIMENSIONING

8
I. ARAVINDAN

6
ROLL NO. 2001

6
SCALE1:1 SHEET NO.01 B-SECTION (D.M.E)

6
12.07.06 S.V.POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

6

Fig.16(b) Sample title block

1.1.4.2 Folding of drawing sheet

Drawing sheet is folded in proper and easy manner with the help of folding marks made
in the drawing sheet. Two methods of folding of prints are general in use. In either method,
the title block is visible in the top part of the folded print.

Method I
This method is suitable when the drawing sheets are to be folded for filing or binding. It
allows drawing sheet to be unfolded or refolded without removing them from the files. The final
size of the folded print will be 297mm x 190mm.

Method II
This method is suitable when the drawing sheets are to be stored and preserved in
cabinets. The final size of the folded print will be 297mm x 210mm.

Fig.17 shows the folding of an A2 size drawing sheet in two methods. Dimensions for
folding of various sizes of drawing sheets by the two methods are given below.

1.12
 Method Folding diagram Lengthwise folding Crosswise folding

594
116 96 96 96 190

123
1
ld
Fo
Fold 6
Method I

420
Fold 5

Fold 3

Fold 2
Fold 4

297
Title block

594
174 210 210

123
Fold 3

Method II

420
Fold 1
Fold 2

297

Title block

Fig.17 Folding of A2 size drawing sheet

Method I

Horizontal dimension Vertical dimension Number of folds

Sheet size
from left (mm) from bottom (mm) Lengthwise Crosswise
A0 130 + 100 + (190 x 5) (297 x 2) + 247 7 2
A1 146 + 125 + (190 x 3) 297 + 297 5 1
A2 116 + (96 x 3) + 190 297 + 123 5 1
A3 125 + 105 + 190 297 2 –

Method II

Horizontal dimension Vertical dimension Number of folds

Sheet size
from left (mm) from bottom (mm) Lengthwise Crosswise
A0 139 + (210 x 5) (297 x 2) + 247 5 2
A1 211 + (210 x 3) 297 + 297 3 1
A2 174 + (210 x 2) 297 + 123 2 1
A3 210 + 210 297 1 –

1.13
1.1.5 Types of lines

Centre line
Locus line
C C Cutting plane line

Hidden line
Outline
Extension line
80

Dimension line Short break line

Leader line
Section line R30

long break line

Fig.18 Various types of lines

Various types of lines are used in engineering drawing to describe different objects
completely. Each line in a drawing has a definite meaning. The lines define shape and size of
the object. The various types of lines and their uses are listed below.

Type of line Illustration General applications

Continuous Thick Visible outlines, visible edges, surface boundaries

of objects, and margin lines.
Continuous Thin Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines,
leader lines, construction lines, and border lines.
Continuous Thin Wavy Short break lines, and irregular boundary lines.
Dashed Medium 3 1 Invisible outlines, invisible edges, and invisible
surfaces.
Chain Thin 6 1 Centre lines, locus lines, extreme positions of
movable parts, pitch circle line, and parts situated
in front of the cutting plane.
Long chain Thick Indication of lines or surfaces to which a special
requirement applies.
Long chain Thick at Cutting plane line or section plane line
ends and thin
elsewhere
Continuous Thin with Long break lines.
Zig–zag

1.14
1.1.6 Lettering and numbering

Importance of legible lettering

Writing of titles, sub–titles, bill of materials, dimensions, notes, and other important
particulars on a drawing is known as lettering.

Poor lettering spoils the appearance and the usefulness of the drawing. Therefore, in an
engineering drawing, lettering should be legible, clear, and uniform. Lettering should be in
plain and simple style so that it can be done freehand with speed.

Single stroke letters

When the thickness of the lines of the letters is obtained in one stroke of the pencil, then
they are called single stroke letters. The word single stroke does not mean that the letters
should be made in one stroke without lifting the pencil.

Single stroke letters of two types: (i) Vertical letters (ii) Inclined letters. The lines
of inclined letters are drawn at an inclination of 75o with the horizontal.

Size of single stroke letters

The size of letters and numerals is measured by their heights. The ratio of height to
width varies, but in case of most of the letters it is 6:5. The approximate height : width ratio of
letters is tabulated below.

Letters Height : Width

TOM – Q – VAXY 6:6

ISO 81 ejAM
h

W 6:8
c

d a e
1&I 6:1

b
All other letters
R f
h

6:5
and numerals

Fig.19 Size of single stroke letters

According to the height of letters, they are classified as:

(i) Lettering ‘A’ type (ii) Lettering ‘B’ type

In lettering ‘A’ type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts. In lettering
‘B’ type, it is divided into 10 parts.

1.15
 h
Lettering ‘A’ type o d= p
14

Characteristic Ratio Dimensions (mm)

14
o ph
2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Height of capital letters h 14
10
o ph
– 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
Height of lower case letters c 14
2
o ph
0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8
Spacing between characters a 14
20
o ph
3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
Minimum spacing of base lines b 14
6
o ph
1.05 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4
Minimum spacing between words e 14
1
o ph
0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4
Thickness of lines d 14

h
Lettering ‘B’ type o d= p
10

Characteristic Ratio Dimensions (mm)

10
o ph
2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Height of capital letters h 10
7
o ph
– 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
Height of lower case letters c 10
2
o ph
0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4
Spacing between characters a 10
14
o ph
3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
Minimum spacing of base lines b 10
6
o ph
1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4 12
Minimum spacing between words e 10
1
o ph
0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2
Thickness of lines d 10

1.16
Recommended height of letters
The following are the recommended height of letters for various purposes

Description Height of letters

Drawing number in title block
10mm to 12mm
and letters denoting cutting plane section
Main title of drawing 6mm to 8mm
Sub–titles 3mm to 6mm
Notes and dimension figures 3mm to 5mm

Lettering procedure
Lettering is freehand drawing and not writing. The following procedure is suggested to
make any type of lettering.
1) Select suitable height (h) of letters.
2) Draw thin and light horizontal parallel guidelines at a distance ‘h’ apart.
3) Draw thin and light vertical or inclined parallel guidelines at a distance equal to the width
of letters.
4) According to the shape and form of letter, plot lightly all points on guidelines.
5) Join these points in proper order by light pencil strokes.
• Draw the horizontal lines of the letters from left to right.
• Draw vertical, inclined and curved lines from top to bottom.
6) Finally, fair out the letters.
7) Maintain proper spacing between words and sentences.
8) After lettering has been completed, don’t try to erase guidelines.

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE

Write the following statements in a single stroke vertical capital letters with 6mm, 8mm
and 10mm heights.
1) A drawing can be termed as language of engineers.
2) Mini-drafter is a miniature form of drafting machine.
3) Poor lettering spoils the appearance and usefulness of the drawing.
4) The final size of the folded print in method I will be 297 mm x 190 mm.

Write the following statements in a single stroke sloping capital letters with 6mm, 8mm
and 10mm heights.
1) Lettering is freehand drawing and not writing.
2) The standards used in engineering drawings in India are prescribed by BIS.
3) Manual drafting is time consuming and requires services of skilled draughtsman.
4) The final size of the folded print in method II will be 297 mm x 210 mm.

1.19
1.1.7 Scales
While preparing drawings, the objects cannot always be shown to their full size. The
drawings of objects are frequently drawn smaller or larger than the actual sizes for the easy
and clear interpretation of the information depicted and handling convenience.
• Full scale: When the drawings are drawn to the same size of objects, the scale used is
said to be full scale.
• Reducing scale: When the drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the
objects, the scale used is said to be reducing scale. Example: Drawings of large
machine parts, building components, architectural drawings, survey maps, bridge
structures, etc.
• Enlarging scale: When the drawings are drawn larger than the actual size of the
objects, the scale used is said to be enlarging scale. Example: Drawings of small
machine parts, dial gauges, watches, etc.

Recommended scales
The scales recommended by BIS for the use on technical drawings are as follows:
• Reducing scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
• Full scale 1:1
• Enlarging scales 50:1 20:1 10:1
5:1 2:1

1.1.7.1. Representative fraction

The ratio of the drawing size of an object to its actual size is known as the representative
fraction. It is usually denoted as R.F.
Drawing size of the object
R.F =
Actual size of the object

Example: 1
☞ Calculate the representative fraction, when a 1cm long line in a drawing represents 1 meter length
of the object.

Drawing size of the object 1cm 1cm 1

R.F = = = =
Actual size of the object 1m 100cm 100
When the R.F. of the scale is less than 1, it is said to be a reducing scale.

Example: 2
☞ Calculate the representative fraction, when a 1cm long line in a drawing represents 2 mm length of
the object.

1.20
 Drawing size of the object 1cm 10mm
R.F = = = =5
Actual size of the object 2mm 2mm
When the R.F. of the scale is greater than 1, it is said to be a enlarging scale.

Example: 3
☞ Calculate the representative fraction, when the drawing of 160cm x 64cm size represents 4000
square kilometers.
Drawing size of the object = 160 x 64 = 10240 cm2
10240 cm² represents 4000 km².
4000
1cm² represents = =0.390625 km²
10420
1cm represents √ 0.390625 = 0.625 km
Drawing size of the object 1 cm 1 cm 1
R.F = = = =
Actual size of the object 0.625 km (0.625 x 1000 x 100)cm 62500

1.1.7.2 Types of scales

The scales used in practice are classified as follows.
1) Plain scales
2) Diagonal scales
3) Scale of chords
4) Comparative scales
5) Vernier scale

1. Plain scales
A plain scale consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal parts or units. The
first part is sub–divided into small parts. Plain scales represents either two units or a unit and
its sub–division.

In every scale,
• The zero should be placed at the end of the first main division
• From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and its sub–divisions to
the left.
• The names of the units and sub–divisions should be stated clearly below or at the
respective ends.
• The name of the scale (e.g. Scale 1:10) or its RF should be mentioned below the scale.

Example: 4
☞ Construct a scale of 1cm = 0.5m to show decimeters and meters and long enough to measure up
to 5 meters. Show on it a length of 3.8 meters.

1.21
✍ Solution:
3.8 Metre

10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4
DECIMETRES 1 METRES
R.F. =
50

Fig.1 Plain scale
1) Determine the RF of the scale
Drawing size 1 cm 1 cm 1
R.F = = = =
Actual size 0.5 m 50 cm 50
2) Determine the length of the scale
Length of the scale = RF x Maximum length
1 1
= x5m= x 500 cm = 10 cm
50 50
3) Draw a line 10cm long and divide it into 5 equal divisions. Each division represents
1 metre.
4) Mark 0 (zero) at the end of the first division. From 0, mark 1,2,3 and 4 at the end of
each subsequent divisions to its right.
5) Divide the first division into 10 equal sub–divisions, each representing 1 decimeter.
6) Mark decimeters to the left of 0 as shown in the figure.
7) To distinguish the divisions clearly, show the scale as a rectangle of about 3mm width.
8) Draw the main division (METER) lines throughout the width of the scale. Draw the sub–
division (DECIMETER) lines slightly shorter.
9) Draw thick and dark horizontal lines in the middle of all alternate divisions and sub–
divisions.
10) Below the scale, print the main divisions (METERS) on the right hand side, sub–divisions
(DECIMETERS)on the left hand side, and the RF in the middle.
11) Indicate the required distance 3.8 meters as shown in the figure.

Example: 5
☞ A plot of land of area 25 square kilometers is represented on a map by an area of size 2 x 2cm.
Construct a plain scale to show units of 10km and 1km. Mark a distance of 35 km on the scale.

✍ Solution:
35 KM

10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
KILOMETRES SCALE = 1:250000 KILOMETRES
(ONES) (TENS)

Fig.2 Plain scale

1.22
 1) Determine the RF of the scale
4 cm² represents 25 km².
25
1cm² represents = = 6.25 km²
4
1cm represents √ 6.25 = 2.5 km
Drawing size 1 cm 1 cm 1
R.F = = = =
Actual size 2.5 km (2.5 x 1000 x 100)cm 250000
2) Assume the distance to be measured as 50 km. Determine the length of the scale
Length of the scale = RF x Maximum length
1 1
= x50 km = x 50 x 1000 x 100 cm = 20 cm
250000 250000
3) Draw a line 20cm long and divide it into 5 equal divisions. Each division represents
10 kilometers.
4) Mark 0 (zero) at the end of the first division. From 0, mark 10,20,30 and 40 at the
end of each subsequent divisions to its right.
5) Divide the first division into 10 equal sub–divisions, each representing 1 km.
6) Mark kilometers to the left of 0 as shown in the figure.
7) Complete the scale as shown in the figure.
8) Indicate the required distance 35 kilometers as shown.
2. Diagonal scale
A diagonal scale is used when very minute distances such as 0.1mm etc. are to be
accurately measured. It is also used when measurements are required in three units, for
example, decimeters, centimeters and millimeters or yard, foot and inch.
Principle of diagonal scale
Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as
explained below.
• Let the short line AB to be divided into 10 equal parts in such a A B
way that 0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc. can be directly measured. 10' 10

• From B, draw a line perpendicular to AB. 9' 9

8' 8
• Along this line, mark 10 equal divisions of any length, starting
from B and ending at C. 7' 7

• Number the division points, 10, 9, 8,… 1 as shown. 6' 6

5' 5
• Join A with C.
4' 4
• Through the points 1, 2, 3,etc. draw lines parallel to AB. These
lines cut AC at 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. 3' 3
2' 2
• From the figure, the triangles 1’1C, 2’2C, … ABC are similar.
1' 1
• Since C5 = 0.5BC, the line 5’5 = 0.5AB. Similarly 1’1 = 0.1AB,
2’2 = 0.2AB, etc. C
• Thus, the horizontal lines below AB become progressively
Fig.3 Principle of
diagonal scale
shorter in length by 0.1AB.

1.23
Example: 6
☞ Construct a diagonal scale of 3:200 showing meters, decimeters and centimeters and to measure
up to 6 meters. Shown on it a distance of 2.34 m.

✍ Solution:

1) Determine the RF of the scale

3
RF = (Given)
200
2) Determine the length of the scale
3 3
Length of the scale = x6m= x 600 = 9 cm
200 200
3) Draw a line AB = 9cm long and divide it into 6 equal divisions. Each division
represents 1m.
4) Divide the first part A0 into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 1 decimeter
i.e. 0.1m
5) At A, erect a perpendicular line and step off along it, 10 equal divisions of any
length, ending at D. Draw the rectangle ABCD.
6) Erect perpendiculars at meter–divisions 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
7) Draw horizontal lines from the division points on AD.
8) Join D with the point 9 (first division along A0).
9) From the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6, etc. draw lines parallel to D9.
2.34 Metres
D C
10

8
CENTIMETRES

4 P Q

A B
10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
DECIMETRES 3 METRES
R.F. =
100

Fig.4 Diagonal scale

To show a distance of 2.34 meters

Any length between 1cm (0.01 m) and 6m can be measured from this scale. To show a
distance of 2.34m (2m, 3dm, 4cm), place one leg on the divider at Q where the vertical
through 2 meets the horizontal through 4cm and the other leg at P where the diagonal through
3 dm meets the same horizontal.

Example: 7
☞ Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 1 / 4000 to show meters and long enough to measure up to 500
meters. Shown on it a distance of 256 m.

1.24
✍ Solution:
1
1) Determine the RF of the scale. RF = (Given)
4000
2) Determine the length of the scale
1 1
Length of the scale = x 500 m = x 500 x 100 cm= 12.5 cm
4000 4000
3) Draw a line 12.5cm long and divide it into 5 equal divisions. Each division represents 100m.
4) Divide the first part into 10 equal subdivisions, each representing 10m.
5) At the left hand end, erect a perpendicular line and step off along it, 10 equal divisions of
any length.
6) Draw a rectangle and complete the scale as shown in example problem 3.
256 m
D C
10

8
1 METRES

6 P Q

A B
100 50 0 100 200 300 400
10 METRES 1 100 METRES
R.F. =
4000

Fig.5 Diagonal scale
To show a distance of 256 meters
To show a distance of 256 (200 + 50 + 6) meters, place one leg on the divider at Q
where the vertical through 200 meets the horizontal through 6meters and the other leg at P
where the diagonal through 50 meters meets the same horizontal.

3. Scale of chords
The scale of chords is used to set out or measure angles when a protractor is not
available. It is based on the lengths of different angles measured on the same arc.
General procedure
The following is the general procedure to construct scale of chords.

1) Draw a line AB of any convenient length (say 60mm)

2) At B, erect a perpendicular BY.
3) With B as centre and radius equal to BA, draw an arc AC cutting the perpendicular BY at
C. Then the chord of arc AC subtends an angle of 90° at the centre B.
4) Divide the arc AC in to 18 equal number of parts and name the division points as 5,10,15, etc.
5) Transfer each division point from the arc to the straight line AB produced, by taking A as
centre and radii equal to chords A–5, A–10, A–15, etc.
6) Complete the scale by drawing a rectangle below AB. The divisions obtained are
unequal, decreasing gradually from A to D.

1.25
 Y
80 90
70 C
60

50

40

30

20

10

A B D

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig.6 Scale of chords

Example: 8
☞ Construct an angle of 35° and 125° by using the scale of chords.

✍ Solution:
V

U
Q

5°
12 65°
35°

55
60°

A R S B
P

Fig.7 Construction of angles using scale of chords
To construct an angle of 35°
1) Draw a line AB of convenient length.
2) With a point P on it as centre and radius equal to 0–60 (from scale of chords), draw an
arc cutting AP at a point R.
3) With R as centre and radius equal to A–35 (chord of 35°), cut the arc at a point T.
4) Draw a line joining P with T. Then ∠RPT= 35°.
To construct an angle of 125°
As the scale of chords gives angles up to only 90°, angle of 125° may be set off in two
parts, viz. 60° + 65° or 90° + 35°.

1.26
 1) With R as centre, and radius equal to A–60 (chord of 60°) cut the arc at a point U.
2) With U as centre and radius equal to A–65 (chord of 65°) cut the arc at point Q.
3) Then ∠APQ = ∠APU + ∠UPQ = 60° + 65° = 125°.
4) The angle 125° may also be obtained as 180° – 55° = 125°. With S as centre and radius
equal to A–55 (chord of 55°), cut the arc at point Q. Join Q with P. Now ∠APQ = 125°

1.1.8 Dimensioning
Dimensioning is the process of indicating the sizes and other descriptions on a drawing
using lines, figures, letters, symbols, and notes. The dimensioning contains the following
information.
• Exact length, width, and height of the object.
• Sizes and positions of holes, groves, etc.
• Distance between surfaces.
• Dimensional tolerances.
• Surface finish and roughness value.
• Material to be used.
• Machining processes, etc.
Dimensioning of drawings should be done as per the specifications given in IS:11669–
1986 (General principles of dimensioning) and IS:10718–1983 (Methods of dimensioning and
tolerance codes)

1.1.8.1 Dimensioning terms and notations

30

R15

20
Note Object line

Ø20 -2 HOLES

Leader line
40
20

Centre line

20 20

80

Dimension line Dimension Arrow head

Fig.1 Dimensioning terms and notations

1.27
 The different terms and notations used in dimensioning are explained below.
• Object line or outline: They are thick continuous lines drawn to represent visible
edges, surfaces and surface boundaries of objects.
• Dimension line: Dimension line is a thin continuous line. It is terminated by
arrowheads touching the outlines, extension lines or centre lines.
• Extension line: An extension line is a thin continuous line drawn in extension of an
outline. It should be extended by about 2mm beyond the dimension line. It is preferred
to keep a gap of about 1mm between the extension line and an outline.
• Note: A note gives information regarding specific operation relating to a feature. It
should be always written horizontally.
• Leader line: It is a thin continuous line connecting a note or a dimension figure.
Leader line should terminate with a dot if it ends within outlines of an object. It should
terminate with an arrowhead if it ends on the outline of an object. It should terminate
without dot or arrowhead if it ends on a dimension line.

Fig.2 Leader line

Termination of dimension line
20 20 20 5 20 8
5 3

Fig.3 Termination of dimension line

Dimension lines are terminated by arrowheads, oblique strokes or an origin indication.
• Arrowhead: It is placed at each end of a dimension line. The length of the arrowhead
should be about three times its maximum width. The arrowhead may be open, closed
or closed and filled.
• Oblique stroke: Oblique stroke is drawn as a short line inclined at 45o
• Origin indication: It is drawn as a small open circle of approximately 3mm diameter.

Oblique stroke
1

Origin indication

Arrow heads

Fig.4 Origin indication

1.28
 Only one type of arrowhead termination should be used on a single drawing. But, where
space is insufficient for an arrowhead, the oblique stroke or a dot may be used.

1.1.8.2 Dimesnioning Systems (Placement of dimensions)

Method – I (Aligned system)

30

R15 75°

20

15

60
15

45°

°
Ø20
15

45°
15
24

°
90
15
45°
20

20
80

(a) (b)

Fig.5 Aligned system of dimensioning

In this method, the dimension is placed parallel to the dimension line in such a way that
it may be read from the bottom edge or the right–hand edge of the drawing sheet. The
dimensions should be placed near the middle and above the dimension line. in this method,
angles are dimensioned as shown in fig.5(b)

Method – II (Unidirectional system)

30

R15 75°
75°
20
60°
60° 45°
45°
Ø20

45° 45°
24 90°
20 45° 90°
45°
20
80

(a) (b)

Fig.6 Unidirectional system of dimensioning

1.29
 In this method, all the dimensions are placed in such a way that they can be read from
the bottom of the edge of the drawing sheet. The dimension lines may be broken near the
middle for inserting the dimension. In this method, angles are dimensioned as shown in
fig.6(b)

1.1.8.3 Methods of dimensioning

1) Continuous or chain dimensioning

In this method, dimensions are arranged in
a straight line. The first extension line of the
succeeding dimension will be the second extension
20 15 20
line of the preceding dimension.

Fig.7 Continuous or chain dimensioning

2) Parallel dimensioning (or)

Baseline dimensioning

In this method, a number of dimensions are

20
indicated from a common datum. The dimension
35
lines are placed parallel to one another.
55

Fig.8 Parallel dimensioning

3) Progressive dimensioning

This method is simple and used where there

is no risk of confusion. In this method, the datum
line is indicated by an origin indication (or a dot)
and the zero sign. The dimensions are placed
20

35

55
0

progressively from the datum.

Fig.9 Progressive dimensioning

4) Coordinate dimensioning
In this method the coordinate values
and sizes of various features in a drawing
are separately tabulated. It results in a neat
2 5
and clear presentation of drawing.
Y
1 2 3 4 5 3

1 4
X 20 20 40 60 60
0

X
Y 10 30 20 10 30 0

φ 6 6 10 6 6

Fig.10 Coordinate dimensioning

1.30
1.1.8.4 Dimensioning of common features
1) Circles
A circle is dimensioned by specifying its diameter value. The dimension should always be
preceded by the symbol φ. Fig.11 shows various methods of dimensioning different sizes of
circles.
Ø15
Ø10 Ø20
15

Fig.11 Dimensioning of circles

2) Arcs
An arc is dimensioned by specifying its radius value. The dimension should always be
preceded by the letter R. Dimension line for the radius should pass through the centre of the
arc and terminated with only one arrowhead.
R8

R3
5
R5

2
R1
R3 R10

Fig.12 Dimensioning of arcs

• While dimensioning a small radius, the arrowhead may be reversed.

• When the centre of an arc lies outside the limits of the drawings, the dimension line of
the radius should be broken according to whether or not it is necessary to locate the
centre.

3) Holes

Ø6, 4 HOLES
Ø10, DEEP15

Fig.13 Dimensioning of holes

Hole sizes are dimensioned with their diameters along with the depth of the hole.

1.31
4) Chamfers
Chamfers with angle other than 30o are dimensioned as shown in the fig.14(a).
Chamfers with angle 45o are dimensioned as shown in fig.14(b). Internal chamfers are
dimensioned as shown in fig.14(c).

Ø17
2 x 45°
30°
3 30° 2 x 45° 2 x 45°
2 x 45°

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.14 Dimensioning of chamfers
5) Angles
12
0°
45°

60° 60°

Fig.15 Dimensioning of angles

Angles are dimensioned as shown in fig.15.
6) Chord and arcs

33 60° 36

Chord Angle Arc length

Fig.16 Dimensioning of chords and arcs

Chords and arcs are dimensioned as shown in fig.16. Chordal dimension refers to the
straight distance. The arc length is dimensioned by placing ∩ symbol above the dimension figure.

7) Bent parts
32
16
50
150°
R3 R3
13

3 3
50

Fig.17 Dimensioning of bent parts

Bent parts are dimensioned as shown in fig.17.

1.32
8) Tapers
32 32 32
15°

Ø40

Ø40

Ø20

Ø20
Taper 1:4

Fig.18 Dimensioning of tapers

Tapers are dimensioned as shown in fig.18.

9) Counter sunk holes Ø14

Ø20

Ø14

90°
3 3

Fig.19 Dimensioning of counter sunk holes

Counter sunk holes are dimensioned as shown in fig.19.

10) Equidistant feature

18 3 x 20 (= 60)

Fig.20 Dimensioning of equidistant feature

When equidistant or regularly arranged elements appear on a drawing, the dimensioning

may be simplified as shown in fig.20.

1.33
11) Repeated features
To avoid repeating the same dimensional value of a feature, it may be dimensioned as
shown in fig.21.
Ø20, 6 HOLES

Fig.21 Dimensioning of repeated features

1.1.8.5 Addition of symbols and letters

SØ25
R5
R8
SR7
Ø20
Ø10

10

Diameter Radius Square Spherical diameter Spherical radius

Fig.22 Addition of symbols and letters

• The symbol φ should be placed before a dimension for a diameter.

• The letter R should be placed before a dimension for a radius.
• The symbol □ should be placed before a dimension for a square.
• The radius and diameter dimension of a spherical surface should be preceded by the
letter SR and Sφ respectively.

1.34
 Unit – II
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS AND
CONSTRUCTION OF CONICS CURVE
2.1 Introduction
Preparation of engineering drawing involves a series of geometrical constructions based
on plane geometry. Hence, it is essential that all engineers must be familiar with geometrical
constructions so that he may use them advantageously while preparing engineering drawings.

2.2 Plane figures

Triangles
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines and the sum of the interior
angles is always 180°. Different types of triangles are shown in fig.1

Fig.1 Triangles
a) Equilateral triangle: All sides equal and all angles equal.
b) Isosceles triangle: Two sides equal and two angles equal.
c) Scalene triangle: No sides equal and no angles equal.
d) Right angle triangle: Any one angle 90°.

Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight lines. If the opposite sides are
parallel, the quadrilateral is called a parallelogram.

Fig.2 Quadrilaterals

Different types of quadrilaterals are shown in fig.2.

 a) Square: All sides equal, adjacent sides perpendicular.
b) Rectangle: Opposite sides equal, adjacent sides perpendicular.
c) Rhombus: All sides equal, opposite sides parallel and opposite angles equal.
d) Rhomboid: Opposite sides parallel and equal, opposite angles equal.
e) Trapezium: Two sides parallel.
f) Trapezoid: No sides parallel.

Polygons
A plane figure bounded by straight lines is called a polygon. If the polygon has equal sides
and equal angles, it is known as regular polygon. A regular polygon can be inscribed in or
circumscribed about a circle. The different polygons are:
a) Triangle : 3 sides b) Square : 4 sides
c) Pentagon : 5 sides d) Hexagon : 6 sides
e) Heptagon : 7 sides f) Octagon : 8 sides
g) Nonagon : 9 sides h) Decagon : 10 sides
i) Dodecagon : 12 sides

Parts of a circle
Fig.3 shows the parts in a circle.
Chord: It is a straight line joining any two points on the
circumference of a circle
`

Segment: It is a portion of a circle which is bounded by a

chord and an arc.

Sector: It is a portion of a circle which is bounded by two

radii and the corresponding arc.

2.3 Geometrical constructions

Example:1
☞ To bisect a given straight line
✍ Solution:
1) Let AB be the given line.
2) With A as centre and radius greater than half AB, draw arcs on both sides of AB.
3) With B as centre and same radius, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs on both sides at
C and D.
4) Draw a line joining C and D. The line CD bisects the line AB at E. Also CD bisects AB at right
angles.

Fig.4 Bisecting a line
Fig.5 Bisecting an arc

Example:2
☞ To bisect a given arc

✍ Solution:
1) Let AB be the arc drawn with centre O.
2) With A as centre and radius greater than half AB, draw arcs on both sides of AB.
3) With B as centre and same radius, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs on both sides
at C and D.
4) Draw a line joining C and D. The line CD bisects the arc AB at E. The bisector CD, if
produced, will pass through the centre O.

Example:3
☞ To divide a given straight line into any number of equal parts.
✍ Solution:
<

Fig.6 Dividing a straight line

1) Let AB be the given line to be divided into 7 equal part.
2) Draw a line AC of any length inclined at some convenient angle to AB (preferably an
acute angle)
3) From A, cut–off seven equal divisions of convenient length, along the line AC using a
divider.
,
 4) Draw a line joining B and 7.
5) Draw lines through 1,2,3,etc., parallel to B7. These lines intersect AB at points
1’,2’,3’,etc., thus dividing it into seven equal parts.

Example:4
☞ To bisect an angle
✍ Solution:
1) Let ∠ABC be the given angle.
2) With B as centre and any radius, draw an arc cutting
AB at D and BC at E.
3) With centres D and E, and radius greater than DE,
draw arcs intersecting each other at F.
4) Draw a line joining F and B. The line FB bisects the
angle ABC i.e. ∠FBA = ∠ FBC = ½∠∠ABC

Example:5
☞ To divide a circle into number of equal divisions.
✍ Solution:

Fig.8 Dividing a circle

1) Draw a circle of radius 40mm with O as centre. Let this circle to be divided in to 8 equal
divisions.
2) Draw a horizontal line and vertical line through O. These lines divide the circle into 4
equal divisions.
 1) Draw concurrent lines passing through O with included angle θ.
360 360
θ= = = 45 O
No. of Divisions 8
2) Mark the intersection points on the circumference of the circle as 1, 2, 3, etc. Thus the
circle can be divided into any number of equal divisions.

Example:6
☞ To divide a circle into 12 number of equal divisions.
✍ Solution:
c

Fig.9 Dividing a circle (12 Divisions)

1) Draw a circle of radius 40mm with O as centre. Let this circle to be divided in to 12
equal divisions.
2) Draw a horizontal line and vertical line through O. These lines divide the circle into 4
equal divisions.
3) With 1 as centre and 40mm as radius, draw arc to cut the circle in 3 and 11.
With 4 as centre and 40mm as radius, draw arc to cut the circle in 2 and 6.
With 7 as centre and 40mm as radius, draw arc to cut the circle in 5 and 9.
With 10 as centre and 40mm as radius, draw arc to cut the circle in 8 and 12.
4) Mark the intersection points and draw lines through centre by joining these points. Thus
circle can be divided into 12 number of equal divisions.
Example:7
☞ To draw an arc of given radius touching two given straight line at right angles to each other.
✍ Solution:
1) Let AB and AC be the given lines and R be the
given radius.
2) With centre A and radius equal to R, draw arcs
cutting AB at P and AC at Q.
3) With P and Q as centres and the same radius, draw
arcs intersecting each other at O.
4) With O as centre and radius equal to R, draw the
required arc.

Example:8
☞ To draw an arc of given radius touching two given straight lines which make any angle between
them.

✍ Solution:
1) Let AB and AC be the given lines and R be the given radius.
2) Draw a line PQ parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AB.
3) Similarly, draw a line EF parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AC. The lines PQ
and EF intersect at O.
4) With O as centre and radius equal to R, draw the required arc.

Fig.11 Constructing an arc

☞ To draw an arc of given radius touching a straight line and arc.
✍ Solution:

Fig.12 Constructing an arc

1) Let AB be the given line and CD be the given arc of radius R1. Let R be the given radius
of the arc to be drawn.
2) Draw a line EF parallel to and at a distance equal to R from AB.
3) With P as centre and radius (R1+R), draw an arc to cut the line EF at O.
4) With O as centre and radius R, draw the required arc.

Example:10
☞ To draw an arc of given radius touching two arcs.
✍ Solution:

Fig.13 Constructing an arc

1) Let AB and CD be the given arcs of radius R1 and R2 respectively. Let R be the radius of
the arc to be drawn.
2) With P as centre and radius (R1+R), draw an arc EF.
3) With Q as centre and radius (R2+R), draw an arc to the cut the arc EF at O.
4) With O as centre and radius R, draw the required arc.
2.4 Conic sections
The sections obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone by a plane in different
positions relative to the axis of the cone are called conics or conic sections.

Fig.1 Different conic sections

The different conic sections are illustrated in fig.1

• Circle: When the section plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cone, the section
obtained is a circle.
• Ellipse: When the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all the generators, the
section obtained is an ellipse.
• Parabola: When the section plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one of the
generator, the section obtained is parabola.
• Hyperbola: When the section plane makes an angle with the axis which is smaller
than the angle made by the generator, the section obtained is a hyperbola.
• Rectangular hyperbola: When the cutting plane is parallel to the axis, the section
obtained is a rectangular hyperbola.
2.4.1 Conics
A conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the
ratio of its distance from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.
• Focus (F): The fixed point in a conic is called focus.
• Directrix (AB): The fixed straight line in a conic is called directrix.
• Eccentricity: It may be defined as a ratio of the shortest distance of the moving point
from the focus to the shortest distance from the directrix.

Fig.2 Conics

Shortest distance from the focus

i.e Eccentricity =
Shortest distance from the directrix
PF
Eccentricity for ellipse = <1 (It is always less than 1)
PM
QF
Eccentricity for parabola = =1 (It is always equal to 1)
QN
RF
Eccentricity for hyperbola = >1 (It is always greater than 1)
RS

• Axis (OO’): It is the line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix.
• Vertex(V): It is a point on which the conic cuts its axis.
2.4.2 Ellipse
Ellipse is defined as a plane curve generated by a point moving in such a way that the
sum of its distances from the fixed points (foci) is always constant.

• Major axis (AB): It is the long axis passing throughout the foci and terminated by the
elliptical curve. It is also called as major diameter.
• Minor axis (CD): It is the perpendicular bisector of the major axis terminated by the
elliptical curve. It is also called as minor diameter.
In the figure, CF1 = CF2 = ½ Major axis

Application of ellipse
• Arches, dams, and monuments are constructed in the shape of semi–ellipse.
• Some utensils and container bottoms are elliptical in shape.
• Ship ventilators are elliptical in shape.
• Elliptic curves are used in the manufacture of glands, man–holes, stuffing boxes, etc.

Fig.3 Ellipse

Method of construction of ellipse

Ellipse can be constructed by the following methods.
1) Concentric circles method (or) Auxiliary method.
2) Rectangle method (or) Oblong method.
3) Arc or circle method (or) Foci method.
4) Trammel method.
5) Four centres method.
CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLES METHOD.
Example:1
☞ A flowerbed in a botanical garden is in elliptical shape with major and minor axis dimensions are
9m and 6m respectively. Draw the profile of the flowerbed by concentric circles method.

,,
✍ Solution:

Fig.4 Construction of ellipse by concentric circles method

1) Draw the major axis AB = 90mm as a horizontal line and bisect the line at O. Through
O draw the minor axis CD = 60mm as a vertical line.
2) With O as centre and diameters AB and CD respectively, draw two concentric circles.
3) Divide the major–axis circle into 12 equal number of divisions and mark points 1,2,etc.
as shown.
4) Draw lines joining these points with centre O. These lines cut the minor–axis circle at
points 1’,2’,etc.
5) Through the point 1 on the major–axis circle, draw vertical line. Through the point 1’
on the minor–axis circle, draw horizontal line. These two lines intersect at P1.
6) Repeat these construction through all the points to obtain points P2, P3, etc.
7) Draw a smooth curve through the points P1, P2, P3, etc. and complete the ellipse.
Example:2
☞ The foci of an ellipse are 80mm apart and the minor axis is 60mm. Draw the ellipse by concentric
circles method. Also draw a tangent and normal to the ellipse at a point 20mm from the major axis.

,
✍ Solution:
1) Draw a horizontal line of length 80mm and mark the ends as F1 and F2. Bisect this line at O.
2) Through O, draw the minor axis CD = 60mm as a vertical line.
3) Extend the line OF1 up to a point A such that OA = CF1. Similarly extend the line OF2 up
to the point B such that OB = CF2. (CF1 = CF2 = ½ Major axis)
4) Now the line AB represents the major axis.
,
5) Then, draw the ellipse by concentric circles method as explained in Example 1.

Fig.5 Construction of ellipse by concentric circles method

To draw tangent and normal
1) Fix a point P on the ellipse at a height of 20mm from the major axis AB.
2) Join the point P with F1 and F2.
3) Bisect the angle F1PF2. (Ref. Example:4 – To bisect an angle; page no. 2.4)
4) Now the bisector MN is the required normal.
5) Draw a line perpendicular to MN and passing through P. This line ST is the required tangent.
CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE BY RECTANGULAR METHOD

Example:3
☞ Construct an ellipse of major axis 120mm and minor axis 80mm by rectangular method. Also
draw a tangent and normal to the ellipse at any point.

✍ Solution:

Fig.6 Construction of ellipse by rectangular method

1) Draw the major axis AB = 120mm and minor axis CD = 80mm so that they intersect
each other at O.
2) Construct the rectangle EFGH (EF = GH = 120mm, FG = HE = 80mm)
3) Divide the semi–major axis AO into any number of equal parts (say 4) and AE into the
same number of equal parts. Mark the division points from A as shown.
4) Draw lines joining 1’,2’,3’ with C.
5) From D, draw line through 1 and extend it to intersect the line C1’ at a point P1.
6) Similarly, draw lines through 2 and 3 intersecting C2’ and C3’ at points P2 and P3
respectively.
7) Draw a smooth curve through A–P1–P2–P3–C. It will be one quarter of the ellipse.
 8) As the curve is symmetrical about the two axes, points in the remaining quadrants may
be located as follows.
• Draw horizontal and vertical lines from the points P1, P2 and P3.
• Measure the horizontal distances of each point from the axis CD and transfer these
distances to the other side of the axis to locate the points P5, P6 and P7. (For
example, P2y = yP6)
• Similarly, measure the vertical distances of each point from the axis AB and transfer
these distances to the other side of the axis to locate the points P1’, P2’, etc. (For
example, P2x = xP2’)
9) Draw the smooth curve through these located points and complete the ellipse.
To draw tangent and normal
1) Select a convenient point P on the curve.
2) With C as centre and OA as radius, draw two arcs on the line at F1 and F2 (CF1=CF2= OA)
3) Join the point P with F1 and F2.
4) Bisect the angle F1PF2. Now the bisector MN is the required normal.
5) Draw a line perpendicular to MN and passing through P. This line ST is the required tangent.

Example:4
☞ Inscribe an ellipse in a parallelogram of sides 100mm and 70mm. The angle between sides is
120°.

✍ Solution:

Fig.7 Construction of ellipse by parallelogram method

 1) Draw the parallelogram EFGH, having sides 100mm x 70mm and included angle 120°.
2) Draw lines AB and CD, joining the mid points of the opposite sides of the parallelogram.
These lines are called conjugate axes.
3) Now construct the ellipse by using the same procedure as explained in rectangular method.

CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE BY ECCENTRICITY METHOD.

Example:5
☞ Construct an ellipse when the distance of focus from the directrix is 50mm and the eccentricity of
ellipse is 2/3. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:

Fig.8 Construction of ellipse by eccentricity method

1) Draw a vertical line AB as directrix.

2) At any point C in the directrix, draw the axis line horizontally.
3) Mark the focus F on the axis at a distance of 50mm from C.
4) Divide CF into 5 equal divisions.
 1) Mark the vertex V on the third division–point from C. Thus,
VF 2
Eccentricity = =
VC 3
2) At V, draw a perpendicular VE equal to VF. Draw a line joining C and E , and extend it.
3) Mark any point 1 on the axis. Draw a perpendicular through 1 to meet CE extension line at 1’.
4) With F as centre and radius equal to 1–1’, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular through
1 at points P1 and P1’.
5) Similarly, mark the points 2, 3, etc. (generally with a spacing of 10mm) on the axis and
draw perpendicular through these points to meet the CE extension line at 2’, 3’, etc.
respectively.
6) With F as centre and radius equal to 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., draw arcs to intersect at P2 and P2’, P3
and P3’, etc.
7) Draw the smooth curves through these points and complete the ellipse.
To draw tangent and normal
1) Select a convenient point P on the ellipse.
2) Draw a line joining P and F.
3) From F, draw a line perpendicular to PF and extend it to meet AB at S.
4) Draw a line ST through P. This line ST is the required tangent to the curve.
5) Through P, draw a line MN, perpendicular to ST. This line MN is the required normal to the
curve.

2.4.3 Parabola

Fig.9 Parabola
 Parabola is defined as a plane curve generated by a point moving in such a way that its
distance from a fixed point, called focus, is always equal to its distance from a fixed line, called
directrix.
• Ordinate (CD): Any line drawn from a point on the parabola such that it is perpendicular
to the axis is called ordinate.
• Double ordinate (CE): When the ordinate is extended to cut a point on the parabola
below the axis, the line is called double ordinate. Double ordinate is twice the length of the
ordinate.
• Latus rectum (JK): The double ordinate which passes through the focus (F) is called latus
rectum.
• Abscissa: The difference between the vertex(V) and a point on the axis through which the
double ordinate passes is called abscissa.

Application of parabola
• Reflectors of light and sound reflectors are made in parabolic form.
• Arches, bridges, and tunnels are constructed in the shape of parabola.
• The trajectory of a thrown object or missile has the form of parabola.
• Wall brackets subjected to heavy loads are designed like a parabola.

Methods of constructing parabola

Parabola can be constructed by the following methods.
1) Rectangular method.
2) Parallelogram method.
3) Eccentricity method.

CONSTRUCTION OF PARABOLA BY RECTANGULAR METHOD.

Example:6
☞ A ball thrown up into the air reaches a maximum height of 60 metres and falls at a distance of 90
metres from the place where it is thrown. Trace the path of the ball.

✍ Solution:
(Note: Use a scale of 1:100)

1) Draw a horizontal line AB of length 90mm. Bisect this line at O.

2) From O, draw a vertical line OV equal to a length of 60mm.
3) Complete the rectangle ABCD as shown in the figure.
4) Divide AO and AD into a same number of equal parts (say, 4) and mark them as shown.
5) Draw lines to join V with 1,2,3, & 4,5,6.
6) Through 1’,2’,3’,4’,5’ and 6’, draw perpendiculars to AB.
7) Let these lines intersect V–1, V–2, etc. at points P1, P2, etc. respectively.
8) Draw smooth curves through A, P1, P2, P3, V, P4, P5, P6 and B to complete the parabola.

Fig.10 Construction of parabola by rectangular method

CONSTRUCTION OF PARABOLA BY PARALLELOGRAM METHOD

Example:7
☞ Inscribe a parabola in a parallelogram having sides 100mm x 50mm. The angle between the
sides is 70°.

,
✍ Solution:

Fig.11 Construction of parabola by parallelogram method

1) Draw a parallelogram ABCD (AB = 100mm, CD = 40mm and ∠DAB = 70°). Bisect the
line AB at O and draw a line OV parallel to CD.
2) Follow the same procedure as explained in rectangular method.
CONSTRUCTION OF PARABOLA BY ECCENTRICITY METHOD
Example:8
☞ Construct a parabola when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 50mm. Also draw a
tangent and normal at any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:

Fig.12 Construction of parabola by eccentricity method

1) Draw the directrix AB and axis CD perpendicular to each other.

2) Mark focus F on CD, 50 mm from C.
3) Bisect CF, and mark the vertex V on the midpoint.
VF
(Eccentricity = =1. VF = VC = 25mm)
VC
4) Mark the points 1,2,3, etc. on the axis from V, with a spacing of 10mm from each other.
5) Draw perpendicular through these points.
6) With F as centre and radius equal to C-1, draw arcs to cut the perpendicular through 1
at P1 and P1’.
 1) Similarly obtain P2 and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.
2) Draw a smooth curve through the points P1, P2, P3,…… P1’, P2’, P3’, etc. This curve is
the required parabola.

To draw tangent and normal

1) Locate a convenient point P on the parabola.
2) From P, draw a perpendicular line to cut the axis at R.
3) Mark the point S on the axis so that VR = VS.
4) Draw the line ST passing through P. This line ST is the required tangent.
5) Through P, draw a line MN, perpendicular to ST. This line MN is the required normal to
the curve.

2.4.4 Hyperbola

Fig.13 Hyperbola

Hyperbola is defined as a plane curve generated by a point moving in such a way that
the difference between its distance from the fixed points (foci) is always constant.
• In fig.13, F1 and F2 are the foci.
• The line through the foci is the axis of the hyperbola.
• The points A and B where the curve cuts the axis are the vertices.
• The line AB between the vertices is called transverse axis or major axis.
• The midpoint O of the transverse axis is the centre of the hyperbola.
• The line CD is the conjugate axis.
• Asymptotes: The hyperbola consists of two infinite branches. The lines drawn tangent to
both branches at infinity in opposite directions and passing through O are called
asymptotes.
• When the asymptotes are at right angles, the hyperbola is called rectangular hyperbola.
Applications of hyperbola
• Electronic transmitters and receivers (like radar antenna) have the shape of hyperbola.
• Rectangular hyperbola is used in the design of hydraulic channels.
• It is also used in the design of hydraulic machinery requiring constant velocity of flow.

CONSTRUCTION OF HYPERBOLA
Example:9
☞ Construct a hyperbola when the distance of focus from the directrix is 50mm and the eccentricity
of hyperbola is 3/2. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw a vertical line AB as directrix.

2) At any point C in the directrix, draw the
axis line horizontally.
3) Mark the focus F on the axis at a distance
of 50mm from C.
4) Divide CF into 5 equal divisions.
5) Mark the vertex V on the second division–
point from C. Thus,
VF 3
Eccentricity = =
VC 2
6) At V, draw a perpendicular VE equal to
VF. Draw a line joining C and E , and
extend it.
7) Mark any point 1 on the axis. Draw a
perpendicular through 1 to meet CE
extension line at 1’.
8) With F as centre and radius equal to 1–1’,
draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular
through 1 at points P1 and P1’.
9) Similarly, mark the points 2, 3, etc.
(generally with a spacing of 10mm) on
the axis and draw perpendicular through
these points to meet the CE extension line
at 2’, 3’, etc. respectively.
10) With F as centre and radius equal to 2–2’,
3–3’, etc., draw arcs to intersect at P2 and
P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.
11) Draw the smooth curves through these
points and complete the hyperbola.
Fig.14 Hyperbola
To draw tangent and normal
1) Select a convenient point P on the hyperbola.
2) Draw a line joining P and F.
3) From F, draw a line perpendicular to PF and extend it to meet AB at S.
4) Draw a line ST through P. This line ST is the required tangent to the curve.
5) Through P, draw a line MN, perpendicular to ST. This line MN is the required normal to
the curve.

Example:10
☞ Draw a hyperbola when half the transverse axis, double ordinae and abscissa are 50mm, 120mm
and 40mm long respectively.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw a horizontal line OV of length

90mm (half transverse axis) and
VX of length 40mm (abscissa).
2) Draw a vertical line BC of length
120mm (double ordinate) through X.
3) Complete the rectangle ABCD as
shown in the figure.
4) Divide AB and CD into a same
number of equal parts (say, 4) and
mark them as shown.
5) Divide XB and XC into a same
number of equal parts (say, 4) and
mark them as shown.
6) Draw lines to join O with 1,2,3, &
4,5,6.
7) Draw lines to join V with 1’,2’,3’, &
4’,5’,6’.
8) Let these lines O-1, O-2, etc. and
lines V–1’, V–2’, etc. intersect at
points P1, P2, etc. respectively.
9) Draw smooth curve through B, P1,
P2, P3, V, P4, P5, P6 and c to
complete the hyperbola.
Fig.15 Hyperbola
Example:11
☞ Construct a rectangular hyperbola when a point P is at a distance of 40mm and 20mm from the
asymptotes OX and OY respectively.

✍ Solution:

Fig.16 Construction of rectangular hyperbola

1) Draw asymptotes OX and OY at right angle to each other.

2) Draw a line CD parallel to OX at a distance of 40mm from OX.
3) Draw a line EF parallel to OY at a distance of 20mm from OY. Let these two lines intersect
at P, the given point.
4) Along PD, make any number of points (say, 5) namely 1,2,3,4 and 5. Mark point 6 along
CP as shown in the figure.
5) Join O with points 1,2,3,4,5 and 6.
6) Let these lines intersect EF at 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, 5’ and 6’ respectively.
7) Draw vertical lines from 1,2,3, etc. and horizontal lines from 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. Let them meet
at points P1, P2, P3, etc. as shown in the figure.
8) Draw a smooth curve through the points P6, P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5. This gives the required
rectangular hyperbola.
 EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE
ELLIPSE
1) Construct an ellipse of major axis 100mm and minor axis 70mm by concentric circles
method.
2) The foci of an ellipse are 90mm apart and the minor axis is 80mm. Draw the ellipse by
concentric circles method. Also draw a tangent and normal to the ellipse at a point
25mm from the major axis.
3) Construct an ellipse of major axis 110mm and minor axis 90mm by rectangular method.
Also draw a tangent and normal to ellipse at any point.
4) Inscribe an ellipse in a parallelogram of sides 120mm and 80mm. The angle between
sides is 110o.
5) Construct an ellipse when the distance of focus from the directrix is 40mm and the
eccentricity is 2/3. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
PARABOLA
6) A cricket ball thrown into the air reaches a maximum height of 45metre and travels a
horizontal distance of 75 metre. Trace the path of the ball assuming it to be parabolic.
7) Inscribe a parabola in a parallelogram having sides 120mm and 50mm. The angle
between the sides is 70o.
8) Construct a parabola when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 60mm. Also
draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
HYPERBOLA
9) Construct an hyperbola when the distance of focus from the directrix is 60mm and the
eccentricity of the hyperbola is 4/3. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the
curve.
10) Construct a rectangular hyperbola when a point P is at a distance of 30mm and 15mm
from the asymptotes OX and OY respectively.
 Unit – III
PROJECTION OF POINTS AND STRAIGHT LINES
3.1 Projection
If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a
plane, the object is said to be projected on the plane. The figure formed by joining the points
at which these lines meet the plane, is called a projection of that object. The lines drawn from
the object to the plane are called projectors.

Orthographic projection : When the projector are parallel to each other and also
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called an orthographic projection.

3.2 Planes of projection

• The picture plane used for obtaining orthographic projection are called reference plane or
principal planes of projection. They meet each other at right angles.
• The plane in front of the observer is the vertical plane of projection or the frontal plane.
It is usually denoted by the letters V.P.
• The other plane which is horizontal but perpendicular to the V.P. is the horizontal plane.
It is denoted by the letters H.P.
• A plane perpendicular to both V.P. and H.P. is known as auxiliary vertical plane and is
denoted by A.V.P.
• The line of intersection of V.P. and H.P. is known as the reference line and is usually
,,,
denoted by the letters X–Y.

Fig.1 Planes of projection


Fig.2 Four quadrants

3.3 Four quadrants

If the planes of projection are extended beyond the line of intersection, they form four
quadrants. The object may be placed in any one of these quadrants. In order to obtain the
projections, the observer views the object from in front of V.P. and above H.P. The position of
the object relative to the planes is described as above or below the H.P and in front or behind
the V.P.

3.4 Projection of points

A point may lie in space, in any one of the four quadrants, formed by the two principal
planes of projections, namely H.P and V.P. After knowing the distances of a point from the H.P
and the V.P, projection of the point is obtained by extending projectors perpendicular to both
the planes.

Projection obtained on the V.P is called Front View and projection obtained on the H.P is
called Top View. To draw the top view, the H.P is rotated about XY line through 90o in the
Clock-wise direction, so that the first and third quadrants are opened out.

Notations

• The actual points in space are denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C, etc.

• Their front views are denoted by their corresponding lower case letters with dashes
such as a’, b’, c’, etc.

• Their top views are denoted by their corresponding lower case letters such as a, b, c,
etc.
3.4.1 Projection of a point in the first quadrant
When a point lies in the first quadrant, it will be above the H.P and in front of the V.P.
3.4.1 Projection of a point in the first quadrant
When a point lies in the first quadrant, it will be above the H.P and in front of the V.P.

Example:1
☞ A point A is 25 mm above the H.P and 30mm in front of the V.P. Draw its front view and top view.
✍ Solution:

1) The front view of the point A is obtained in the V.P and top view is obtained in the
H.P.
2) Rotate the H.P about the XY line through 90o in the CW direction. After rotation, the
H.P occupies the position vertically below the V.P. Therefore front view is drawn
above XY and top view is drawn below XY.
3) Draw XY line and draw a projector at any point on it.
4) Front view : Mark a’ 25mm above XY on the projector.
5) Top view : Mark a 30mm below XY on the same projector.
3.4.2 Projection of a point in the second quadrant
When a point lies in the second quadrant, it will be above the H.P and behind the V.P.

Example:2
☞ A point B is 35 mm above the H.P and 45mm behind the V.P. Draw its projections.
✍ Solution:

1) The front view of the point B is obtained in the V.P and top view is obtained in the H.P.
2) Rotate the H.P about the XY line through 90o in the CW direction. After rotation, the H.P.
coincides with the V.P. Therefore both the front view and top view are drawn above XY.
3) Draw XY line and draw a projector any point on it.
4) Front view : Mark b’ 35mm above XY on the projector.
5) Top view : Mark b 45mm above XY on the same projector.
3.4.3 Projection of a point in the third quadrant
When a point lies in the third quadrant, it will be below the H.P and behind the V.P.

Example:3
☞ A point C is 25 mm below the H.P and 35mm behind the V.P. Draw its front view and top view.
✍ Solution:

1) The front view of the point C is obtained in the V.P and top view is obtained in the H.P.
o
2) Rotate the H.P about the XY line through 90 in the CW direction. After rotation, the H.P
occupies the position vertically above the V.P. Therefore front view is drawn below XY and
top view is drawn above XY.
3) Draw XY line and draw a projector any point on it.
4) Front view : Mark c’ 25mm below XY on the projector.
5) Top view : Mark c 35mm above XY on the same projector.
3.4.4 Projection of a point in the fourth quadrant
When a point lies in the fourth quadrant, it will be below the H.P and in front of the V.P.

Example:4
☞ A point D is 20mm below the H.P and 30mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.
✍ Solution:

1) The front view of the point D is obtained in the V.P and top view is obtained in the H.P.
o
2) Rotate the H.P about the XY line through 90 in the CW direction. After rotation, the H.P
coincides with the V.P. Therefore both the front view and top view are drawn below XY.
3) Draw XY line and draw a projector any point on it.
4) Front view : Mark d’ 20mm below XY on the projector.
5) Top view : Mark d 30mm below XY on the same projector.

Summary
Quadrant Position of the point Front View Top View
I Above H.P and in front of V.P Above XY Below XY
II Above H.P and behind V.P Above XY Above XY
III Below H.P and behind V.P Below XY Above XY
IV Below H.P and in front of V.P Below XY Below XY
Example:5
☞ Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line.
(i) A, 35mm in front of the V.P and 20mm above the H.P
(ii) B, 40mm behind the V.P and 30mm above the H.P
(iii) C, 50mm behind the V.P and 30mm above the H.P
(iv) D, 30mm in front of the V.P and 50mm below the H.P
(v) E, 35mm below the H.P and in the V.P
(vi) F, 45mm behind the V.P and in the H.P

✍ Solution:
Example:6
☞ The projections of different points are shown in the figure. Define the position of the points with
respect to the reference planes. All the dimensions are in mm.

✍ Solution:

(i) P is 30mm in front of the V.P and 20mm above the H.P. It lies in the first quadrant.
(ii) Q is 20mm behind the V.P and 40mm above the H.P. It lies in the second quadrant.
(iii) R is 35mm behind the V.P and 25mm below the H.P. It lies in the third quadrant.
(iv) S is 20mm in front of the V.P and 50mm below the H.P.
(v) T is 30mm below the H.P and in the V.P. It lies between third and fourth quadrant.
(vi) U is 35mm behind the V.P and in the H.P. It lies between second and third quadrant.
(vii) V is both in the V.P and H.P. It lies in XY.

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE

1) Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line.
(i) A, 45mm in front of the V.P and 25mm above the H.P
(ii) B, 30mm behind the V.P and 20mm above the H.P
(iii) C, 60mm behind the V.P and 35mm above the H.P
(iv) D, 30mm in front of the V.P and 45mm below the H.P
(v) E, 25mm below the H.P and in the V.P
(vi) F, 55mm behind the V.P and in the H.P
3.5 Projection of straight lines
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Therefore, the projections of
a straight line may be drawn by joining the respective projections of these end points.

The following are the possible positions of straight lines with respect to the H.P and V.P.
1) Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other
2) Parallel to both the planes
3) Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other
4) Contained by one plane and inclined to the other
5) Inclined to both the planes

• The true length of the line is obtained when it is parallel to any one of the reference plane.
• If the line is parallel to the V.P, the true length is obtained in the V.P. Hence draw the front view first.
• If the line is parallel to the H.P, the true length is obtained in the H.P. Hence draw the top view first.

3.5.1 Projection of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other
A straight line perpendicular to one plane is automatically parallel to the other plane.
When a line is perpendicular to the H.P, the front view has true length perpendicular to XY and
the top view is a point. When a line is perpendicular to the V.P, the top view has true length
perpendicular to XY and the front view is a point.

Projection of a line perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P

Example:1
☞ A line AB 30mm long is parallel to the V.P and perpendicular to the H.P. Point B is 10mm above the
H.P and line AB is 20mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projection of the line AB.

✍ Solution:

Since the line is parallel to the V.P, the true length of the line is seen in the front view.
Hence draw the front view first.
1) Draw the XY line and draw a projector at any convenient point on it.
To draw the front view :
2) The point B is 10mm above the H.P. So mark b’ 10mm above XY.
3) From b’, draw a vertical line 30mm long to represent the projection of line AB and mark
a’ as shown. The line a’b’ will be the front view.
To draw the top view :
4) The point A is 20mm in front of the V.P. So mark a 20mm below XY.
5) When the line AB is seen from the top, A is visible and B is invisible. The point B
coincides with point A. The top view of the invisible point B is represented as (b)
6) Mark the dimensions as per the rule.
Projection of a line perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P
Example:2
☞ A line CD 30mm long is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. Its end C is 10mm in front
of the V.P and line CD is 20mm above the H.P. Draw the projection of the line CD.

✍ Solution:
 Since the line is parallel to the H.P, the true length of the line is seen in the top view.
Hence draw the top view first.
1) Draw the XY line and draw a projector at any convenient point on it.
To draw the top view :
2) The point C is 10mm in front of the V.P. So mark c 10mm below XY on the projector.
3) From c, draw a vertical line 30mm long to represent the projection of line CD and mark d
as shown. The line cd will be the top view.
To draw the front view :
4) The point C is 20mm above the H.P. So mark c’ 20mm above XY.
5) When the line CD is seen from the front, D is visible and C is invisible. The point C
coincides with point D. The front view of the invisible point C is represented as (c’)
6) Mark the dimensions as per the rule.

3.5.2 Projection of a line parallel to both the planes

When a line is parallel to both the H.P and V.P, it true length will be seen both in the H.P
and the V.P.

Example:3
☞ A line PQ 40mm long is parallel to both the planes. The line is 30mm above the H.P and 25mm in
front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

✍ Solution:
 1) Draw the XY line and draw a projector at any convenient point on it.
2) Front view : The line is 30mm above the H.P. So mark p’ at a distance of 30mm above
XY. From p’, draw a horizontal line of length 40mm to represent the projection of the
line in front view. Mark q’ as shown. p'q’ will be the front view.
3) Top view : The line is 25mm in front of the V.P. So mark p at a distance of 25mm
below XY. From p, draw a horizontal line of length 40mm to represent the projection of
the line in top view. Mark q as shown. pq will be the top view.

3.5.3 Projection of a line parallel to one plane and inclined to the other
The inclination of a line to a plane is the angle which the line makes with its projection
on that plane.

• The inclination of the line with the H.P is denoted as θ and the inclination of the line with V.P is
denoted as φ. The angle θ and φ always denote the true inclination.

Projection of a line parallel to the V.P and inclined to the H.P

Example:4
☞ A line AB 50mm long is parallel to the V.P and inclined at an angle of 30o to the H.P. The end A is
20mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line.

✍ Solution:
 1) A is 20mm above the H.P. So mark a’ at a distance of 20mm above XY. A is 15mm in
front of the V.P. So mark a at a distance of 15mm below XY on the same projector.
2) Front view : As AB is parallel to the V.P, the true length will be seen in the front view.
From a’, draw a line at an angle of 30o to XY and mark b’ such that a’b’ = 50mm =
true length. Now a’b’ is the front view.
3) Top view : As AB is inclined to the H.P, the top view will be in reduced length. From a,
draw a horizontal line. From b’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the horizontal line
drawn from a at b. Now ab is the top view.

Projection of a line parallel to the H.P and inclined to the V.P

Example:5
☞ Draw the projections of a line CD 40mm long parallel to the H.P and inclined at angle of 35o to the
V.P. The end C is 20mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P.

✍ Solution:

1) C is 20mm above the H.P. So mark c’ at a distance of 20mm above XY. C is 15mm in
front of the V.P. So mark c at a distance of 15mm below XY on the same projector.
2) Top view : As CD is parallel to the H.P, the true length will be seen in the top view.
From c, draw a line at an angle of 35o to XY and mark d such that cd = 40mm = true
length. Now cd is the top view.
3) Front view : As CD is inclined to the V.P, the front view will be in reduced length. From
c’, draw a horizontal line. From d, draw a vertical projector to intersect the horizontal
line drawn from c’ at d’. Now c’d’ is the front view.
3.5.4 Projection of line contained by one plane and inclined to the other

Projection of line contained by the V.P and inclined to the H.P

Example:6
☞ A line AB 50mm long is in the V.P and inclined at an angle of 35o to the H.P. The end A is 15mm
above the H.P. Draw its projections.

✍ Solution:

1) A is 15mm above the H.P. So mark a’ at a distance of 15mm above XY. The line AB is in
the V.P. So mark a on XY.
2) Front view : As AB is parallel to the V.P, the true length will be seen in the front view.
From a’, draw a line at an angle of 35o to XY and mark b’ such that a’b’ = 50mm = true
length. Now a’b’ is the front view.
3) Top view : As the line is in the V.P, the top view will lie on XY. From b’, draw a vertical
projector to intersect XY line at b. Now ab is the top view.
Projection of line contained by the H.P and inclined to the V.P
Example:7
☞ A line MN 40mm long is in the H.P and inclined at an angle of 30o to the V.P. The end M is 10mm
in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

✍ Solution:

1) M is 10mm in front of the V.P. So mark m at a distance of 10mm below XY.

2) Top view : As MN is parallel to the H.P, the true length will be seen in the top view.
From m, draw a line at an angle of 30o to XY and mark n such that mn = 40mm = true
length. Now mn is the top view.
3) Front view : As the line in the H.P, the front view will line on XY. From n, draw a vertical
projector to intersect the XY line at n’. Now m’n’ is the front view.

3.5.5 Projection of a line inclined to both the planes

When a line is inclined to both the planes, the true length of the line will not be seen in
any view. The projections of such a line can be obtained by rotating the line into two simple
positions as follows :
1) Draw the projections of the line by assuming that the line is parallel to the V.P and
inclined at angle θ to the H.P.
2) Draw the projections of the line by assuming that the line is parallel to the H.P and
inclined at angle φ to the V.P.
The final front view and the top view of the line can be obtained by combining these two
views. This method is known as Rotating Line Method.
Example : 8
☞ A line CD 80mm long is inclined an angle of 30o to the H.P and 45o to the V.P. The point C is 20mm
above the H.P and 30mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the straight line.

✍ Solution:
1) C is 20mm above the H.P. So mark c’ 20mm above XY. C is 30mm in front of the V.P.
So mark c 30mm below XY on the same projector.
To obtain the locus of d’ and top view length.
2) Assume that the line is inclined to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. From c’, draw a line
at angle of 30o to XY and mark d1’ such that c’d1’= true length = 80mm.
3) Draw a horizontal line through d1’ which will be the locus of d’ in front view.
4) Draw a horizontal line from c.
5) From d1’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the horizontal line drawn from c at d1.
Now cd1 is the length of the top view.
To obtain the locus of d and front view length
6) Assume that the line is inclined to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. From c, draw a line at
angle of 45o to XY and mark d2 such that cd2 = true length = 80mm
7) Draw a horizontal line through d2 which will be the locus of d in top view.
8) Draw a horizontal line from c’.
9) From d2 , draw a vertical projector to intersect the horizontal line drawn from c’ at d2’.
Now c’d2’ is the length of the front view.
To draw the top view
10) With c as center and cd1 as the radius, draw an arc to intersect the locus of d at d. Join
c and d. Now cd is the top view.
To draw the front view
11) With c’ as center and c’d2’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the locus of d’ at d’. Join c’
and d’. Now c’d’ is the front view.
Check : Now d’ and d will be on the same projector.

• The angle made by the front view of the line (c’d’) with XY is called apparent angle α . The
angle made by the top view of the line (cd) with XY is called apparent angle β .
• The apparent inclinations are always greater than the true inclinations i.e α > θ , β > φ
Example : 9
☞ A line AB 60mm long has its end A in both the H.P and V.P. It is inclined at 45o to the H.P and 30o
to the V.P. Draw its projections.

✍ Solution:

1) The end A is both in the H.P and the V.P. So mark a’ and a on XY.
To obtain the locus of b’ and top view length.
2) Assume that the line is inclined to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. From a’, draw a line
at angle of 45o to XY and mark b1’ such that a’b1’= true length = 60mm.
3) Draw a horizontal line through b1’ which will be the locus of b’ in front view.
4) From b1’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the XY at b1. Now ab1 is the length of the
top view.
To obtain the locus of b and front view length
5) Assume that the line is inclined to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. From a, draw a line at
angle of 30o to XY and mark b2 such that ab2 = true length = 60mm
6) Draw a horizontal line through b2 which will be the locus of b in top view.
7) From b2, draw a vertical projector to intersect the XY at b2’. Now a’b2’ is the length of
the front view.
To draw the top view
8) With a as center and ab1 as the radius, draw an arc to intersect the locus of b at b. Join
a and b. Now ab is the top view.
To draw the front view
9) With a’ as center and a’b2’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the locus of b’ at b’. Join
a’ and b’. Now a’b’ is the front view.
Check : Now b’ and b will be on the same projector.
Example : 10
☞ The mid-point of a straight line AB is 60mm above the H.P and 50mm in front of the V.P. The line
measures 80mm long and inclined at 30o to the H.P and 45o to the V.P. Draw it projections.

✍ Solution:

1) Mark m’ at a distance of 60mm above XY and m at a distance of 50mm below XY to

represent the projections of the mid-point M. Draw horizontal lines through m’ and m.
To obtain the locus of a’ and b’
2) Assume that the line is inclined to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Through m’, draw a
line at angle of 30o to XY. On this line, mark a1’b1’ = 80mm (true length) such that
a1’m’= m’b1’ = 40mm.
3) From a1’, draw a horizontal line to represent the locus of a’.
4) From b1’, draw a horizontal line to represent the locus of b’.
To obtain the locus of a and b
5) Assume that the line is inclined to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. through m, draw a
line at angle of 45o to XY. On this line, a2b2 = 80mm (true length) such that a2m =
mb2= 40mm
6) From a2, draw a horizontal line to represent the locus of a.
7) From b2, draw a horizontal line to represent the locus of b.
 To draw the projections
The projection of right half of the line is drawn first and the remaining half is drawn by
extending it.
1) From b1’, draw a vertical projector to cut the horizontal line drawn through m at b1.
Now mb1 is the top view length for half of the line.
2) With m as center and mb1as radius, draw an arc to cut the locus of b at b.
3) From b, draw a vertical projector to cut the locus of b’ at b’.
4) Join bm and extend this till it touches the locus of a at a. Now amb is the top view of
the line AB.
5) Join b’m’ and extend this till it touches the locus of a’ at a’. Now a’m’b’ is the front view
of the line AB.
Check : Now a’ and a will be on the same projector.

Example : 11
☞ A line PQ 75mm has one of its ends 50mm in front of the V.P and 15mm above the H.P. The other
end is 15mm in front of the V.P and above the H.P. The top view of the line is 50mm long. Draw
and measure the front view.

✍ Solution:

1) P is 15mm above the H.P and 50mm in front of the V.P. So mark p’ 15mm above XY
and p 50mm below XY. Draw a horizontal line from p.
To draw the top view with the given length
2) Q is 15mm in front of the V.P. So draw a horizontal line 15mm below XY to represent
the locus of q.
3) The top view of the line is 50mm. So, with p as center and 50mm as radius, draw an
arc to intersect the locus of q at q. Now pq will be the top view of the line.
To obtain the locus of q’
4) With p as center and pq as radius, draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
through p at q1. From q1, draw a vertical projector.
5) The true length is given as 75mm. So, with p’ as center and 75mm as radius, draw an
act to intersect the projector drawn from q1 at q1’.
6) Draw a horizontal line through q1’ to represent the locus of q’.
To draw the front view
7) From q, draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of q’ at q’.
8) Join p’q’ which is the front view of the line.
Example : 12
☞ A line AB 80mm long has one of its ends 60mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P. The
other end is 20mm above the H.P and in front of the V.P. The front view of the line is 60mm long.
Draw and measure the top view.

✍ Solution:

1) A is 60mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P. So, mark a’ 60mm above XY
and a 15mm below XY. Draw a horizontal line from a’.
To draw the front view with the given length
2) B is 20mm above the H.P. So, draw a horizontal line 20mm above XY to represent the
locus of b’.
3) The front view length of the line is given as 60mm. So, with a’ as center and 60mm as
radius, draw an arc to intersect the locus of b’ at b’.
 To obtain the locus of b
1) With a’ as center and a’b’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
from a’ at b1’. Draw a vertical projector from b1’.
2) The true length is given as 80mm. So, with a as center and 80mm as radius, draw an
act to intersect the projector drawn from b1’ at b1.
3) Draw a horizontal line through b1 to represent the locus of b.
To draw the top view
4) From b’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of b at b.
5) Join ab which is the top view of the line.

Example : 13
☞ The end P of a line PQ is 30mm above the H.P and 35mm in front of the V.P. The line is inclined at
35o to the H.P. Its top view is 70mm long and inclined at 40o to XY. Draw the projections of the
straight line. Find the true length and inclination of the line with the V.P.
✍ Solution:

1) P is 30mm above the H.P and 35mm in front of the V.P. So, mark p’ 30mm above XY
and p 35mm below XY. Draw horizontal lines from p and p’.
To draw the top view
2) From p, draw a line inclined at 40o to XY and mark a point q on the line such that pq =
70mm (top view length). Now pq is the top view.
To obtain the locus of q’ and true length of the line
3) With p as center and pq as radius, draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
from p at q1. Draw a vertical projector through q1.
4) From p’, draw a line inclined at 35o to XY to meet the projector drawn through q1 at q1’.
Then p’q1’ gives the true length of the line. It is measured as 85.5mm.
5) From q1’, draw a horizontal line to represent the locus of q’.
 To draw the front view
1) From q, draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of q’ at q’. Now p’q’ is the front
view.
To find the inclination of the line with the V.P.
2) With p’ as center and p’q’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
through p’ at p2’.
3) Draw a horizontal line through q to represent the locus of q.
4) From q1’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of q at q2. Join pq2.
5) The inclination of the pq2 with XY gives the inclination of the line with the V.P. It is
measured as 32o.

Example : 14
☞ A line PQ has its end P 10mm above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P. The end Q is 35mm in
front of the V.P. The front view of the line measures 60mm. The distance between the two end
projectors is 50mm. Draw the projections of the line and find its true length and its true
inclinations with the V.P and the H.P.

✍ Solution:
 1) P is 10mm above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P. So, mark p’ 10mm above XY
and p 20mm below XY. Draw horizontal lines from p and p’.
To draw the projections
2) Draw a vertical projector at 50mm from the projector pp’. On this projector, mark q at
a distance of 35mm below XY. Now pq is the top view.
3) With p’ as center and 60mm as radius, draw an arc to intersect the projector through q
at q’. Now p’q’ is the front view.
To obtain the true length and true inclination
4) With p as center and pq as radius, drawn an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
through p at q1.
5) Draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of q’ at q1’. Then p’q1’ shows the true
length of the line. The inclination θ of p’q1’ with XY shows the true inclination of the line
with the H.P.
6) With p’ as center and p’q’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn
through p’ at q2’.
7) From q2’, draw a vertical projector to intersect the locus of q at q2. Then pq2 shows the
true length of the line. The inclination φ of pq2 with XY shows the true inclination of the
line with the V.P.

Example : 15
☞ A line AB 70mm long is in the first quadrant with end A in the H.P and the end B in the V.P. The line
is inclined at 30o to the H.P 45o to the V.P. Draw the projections of the line AB.

✍ Solution:
 1) For the given position, the top view of B(i.e. b) and the front view of A(i.e. a’) lie in XY.
The length of the front view and top view are first determined.
2) From b, draw a line at 45o to XY and mark a2 such that ba2 = 70mm. Draw a horizontal
line through a2.
3) Draw vertical projector from a2 to intersect the XY at a2’. Now ba2’ is the length of the
front view.
4) From a’, draw a line at 30o to XY and mark b1’ such that a1b1’ = 70mm. Draw horizontal
line through b1’.
5) Draw a vertical projector from b1’ to intersect the XY at b1. Now a’b1 is the length of the
top view.
6) With any point a’ in XY as center and ba2’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the
horizontal line drawn through b1’ at b’. Now a’b’ is the front view.
7) Draw a vertical projector from b’ to intersect XY at b. With b as center and a’b1 as
radius draw an arc to intersect the horizontal line drawn through a2 at a. Now ab is the
top view.
Check : Now a and a’ will be in the same projector.

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE

1) A line AB 40mm long is parallel to the V.P and perpendicular to the H.P. Point B is 15mm
above the H.P and line AB is 10mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line.

2) A line PQ 50mm long is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. Its end P is
10mm in front of the V.P and the line is 15mm above the H.P. Draw its projections.

3) A line CD 45mm long is parallel to both the planes. The line is 20mm above the H.P and
25mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

4) A line RS 60mm long is parallel to the V.P and inclined at an angle 35o to the H.P. The
end R is 15mm above the H.P and 10mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the
line.

5) Draw the projection of a line PQ 70mm long parallel to the H.P and inclined at an angle of
45o to the V.P. The end P is 15mm above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P.

6) A line PQ 60mm long is parallel to the H.P and inclined to the V.P. The end P is 15mm
above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P. The length of the front view is 49mm. Draw
the projections of the line and find the inclination of the line with the V.P. (Ans: φ=50o)

7) The end M of a line MN is in the V.P and 30mm above the H.P. The line is parallel to the
H.P and inclined at 35o to the V.P. The length of the front view is 50mm. Find the true
length of the line. (Ans: T.L=60mm)
 8) A line CD is parallel to the V.P and inclined to the H.P. The end C is 15mm above the H.P
and 20mm in front of the V.P. The end D is 60mm above the H.P. The distance between
the two end projectors is 60mm. Find the true length and inclination of the line with the
H.P. (Ans: T.L=74mm, θ =38o)

9) A line CD 65mm long is inclined at an angle of 35o to the H.P and 40o to the V.P. The
point C is 30mm above the H.P and 25mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of
the straight line.

10) A line AB 70mm long has its end C 15mm above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P.
It is inclined at 50o to the V.P and 40o to the H.P. Draw its projections.

11) The end P of a line PQ 70mm long is in both the H.P and the V.P. The line is inclined at
40o to the H.P and 35o to the V.P. Draw its projections.

12) A line PQ 60mm long is in the first quadrant with the end P in the H.P and the end Q in
the V.P. The line is inclined at 35o to the H.P and 40o to the V.P. Draw the projections of
the line.

13) One end C of a line CD 80mm long is 10mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the
V.P. The line is inclined at 40o to the H.P and the top view makes 50o with the V.P. Draw
the projections of the line and find its true inclination with the V.P. (Ans: φ=35o)

14) The end A of a line AB 80mm long is 25mm above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P.
The line is inclined at 35o to the V.P. Its top view has a length of 50mm. Draw the
projections of the line and find its true inclination with the H.P. (Ans: θ =51o)

15) A line AB 60mm long has its end A, 30mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P.
The end B is 50mm above the H.P and 45mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of
the line and find its true inclinations with the H.P and the V.P. (Ans: θ =20o, φ=30o)

16) A line CD has its end C 10mm in front of the V.P and 15mm above the H.P. The other
end D is 50mm in front of the V.P. The front view has a length of 70mm. The distance
between the two end projectors is 60mm. Draw the projections of the line. Find its true
length, true inclinations. (Ans: θ =25o, φ=29o, T.L=80mm)

17) A line PQ 70mm long has its end P 10mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P.
Its top view and front view measures 60mm and 40mm respectively. Draw the
projections of the line. Determine its true inclinations. (Ans: θ =31o, φ=55o)

18) A straight line AB has its end A, 10mm in front of the V.P and nearer to it. The mid-point
m of the line is 50mm in front of the V.P and 40mm above the H.P. The front and top
views measures 90mm and 120mm respectively. Draw the projections of the line. Also
find its true length and true inclinations with the H.P and the V.P. (Ans: T.L=128mm,
θ =21o, φ=38o)
 Unit – IV
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
(Conversion of pictorial views into orthographic views)

4.1 Projection
If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a
plane, the object is said to be projected on the plane. The figure formed by joining the points
at which these lines meet the plane, is called a projection of that object. The lines drawn from
the object to the plane are called projectors.

4.2 Orthographic projection

Fig.1 Orthographic projection

When the projector are parallel to each other and also perpendicular to the plane, the
projection is called an orthographic projection.

4.3 Planes of projection

• The picture plane used for obtaining orthographic projection are called reference plane or
principal planes of projection. They meet each other at right angles.
• The plane in front of the observer is the vertical plane of projection or the frontal plane.
It is usually denoted by the letters V.P.
• The other plane which is horizontal but perpendicular to the V.P. is the horizontal plane.
It is denoted by the letters H.P.
 • A plane perpendicular to both V.P. and H.P. is known as auxiliary vertical plane and is
denoted by A.V.P.
• The line of intersection of V.P. and H.P. is known as the reference line and is usually
denoted by the letters X–Y.

Fig.2 Planes of projection
Fig.3 Four quadrants

4.4 Four quadrants
If the planes of projection are extended beyond the line of intersection, they form four
quadrants. The object may be placed in any one of these quadrants. In order to obtain the
projections, the observer views the object from in front of V.P. and above H.P. The position of
the object relative to the places is described as above or below the H.P and in front he of
behind the V.P.

4.5 Systems of orthographic projection

(a) First angle projection (b) Third angle projection

,

Fig.4 Systems of orthographic projection
 Orthographic views can be obtained by the following two methods.

a) First angle projection

b) Third angle projection

The comparison of these two methods of orthographic projection is shown in the

following table.
First angle projection Third angle projection
1. The object is assumed to be kept in first quadrant, The object is assumed to be kept in third
i.e. in front of VP and above HP. quadrant, i.e. behind VP and below HP.
2. The object lies between the observer and the plane The plane of projection lies between the observer
of projection. and the object.
3. The plane of projection is assumed to be non– The plane of projection is assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
4. In this method, the top view comes below the front In this method, the top view comes above the
view. front view.
5. The left side view of the object is drawn to the right The left side view of the object is drawn to the left
of the front view. of front view.

4.6 Symbols of orthographic projection

(a) First angle projection (b) Third angle projection

Fig.5 Symbols of orthographic projection

For every drawing it is essential to indicate the method of projection adopted. This is
done by means of a symbolic figure drawn within the title block on the drawing sheet. The
symbols recommended by BIS for first angle projection and third angle projection are shown in
the fig.5. The symbol represents the views of a frustum of cone with its axis horizontal.

4.7 Obtaining views in first angle projection

1) Front view or elevation

When the object is viewed from the front, the projection of object obtained on the
vertical plane (V.P) is known as the front view or elevation. This view may represent the length
and height of the object.
,,

Fig.6 Obtaining front view
2) Top view or plan

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.7 Obtaining top view
Let us assume that the horizontal plane (H.P) is hinged to the vertical plane so that, the
object is in front of the V.P and above the H.P. When the object is viewed from its top, the
projection of object obtained on the horizontal plane is known as the top view or plan. This
view may represent the length and width of the object.

To draw the front view and top view on a flat surface, one of the planes may be turned
around so that it lies in extension with the other plane. Fig.7(b) shows the position of the
planes, when the H.P is turned and brought in line with the V.P. Fig.7(c) shows the two views
of the object, drawn in correct relationship with each other.
3) Side view or End elevation
Two views may not be sufficient to describe an object completely. An auxiliary vertical
plane (A.V.P) is therefore assumed to be placed perpendicular to both H.P and V.P. When the
object is viewed from its side, the projection of object obtained on the A.V.P is known as the
side view. It is also called as end view, side elevation or end elevation. This view may
represent the width and height of the object.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.8 Obtaining side view

When the A.V.P is rotated and brought in line with the V.P, the view will be seen as
shown in fig.8(c). In first angle projection, the left side view of the object is placed to the right
of the front view.

4.8 Assumptions for reading a pictorial view

• A hidden part of a symmetrical object should be assumed to be similar to the
corresponding visible part.
• All holes, slots, grooves, etc. should be assumed to be drilled or at right through the
object, unless otherwise specified.
• Suitable radius should be assumed when the radii of small curves, fillets, etc. are not
given.
4.9 Points to be considered while drawing orthographic projection from pictorial views

• While making the views, the longest face of the object or the most informative contour
may be treated as the front. The direction of front view is generally indicated by means
of an arrow.
 • Lines which are parallel to the direction of vision will be seen as points, while surfaces
which are parallel to it will be seen as lines.
• The object which has both the right hand and left hand side symmetrical shape requires
only two views. Three views are necessary for the objects which are not symmetrical.
• The intersection of two surfaces and visible edges are shown by continuous lines. But the
hidden details are shown by dotted lines.
• The centre lines of holes and cylindrical parts must be clearly indicated. The centre of a
circle is shown as the intersection of two mutually perpendicular centre lines. When it is
seen as a rectangle, one centre line is drawn to represent its axis.
• When a visible line coincides with either a dotted line or a centre line, the visible line is
shown and a centre line extended beyond the outlines of the view.
• When a dotted line coincides with the centre line, the dotted line should be shown.

4.10 General procedure for drawing orthographic views

1) Prepare freehand sketches of the required orthographic views from the pictorial view of
the object.
2) Determine the overall dimension of the required view. Select a suitable scale so that the
views are conveniently accommodated in the drawing sheet.
3) Prepare a sheet layout. Draw rectangles for each view, keeping sufficient space between
them and from the borders of the sheet.
4) Draw centre lines in all the views for circles and arcs.
5) Draw details simultaneously in all the views in the following order:
• Circles and arcs of circles.
• Straight lines for the general shape of the object.
• Straight lines, small curves, etc. for minor details.
6) Check whether all the hidden features are shown in the drawing by dotted lines.
7) Erase all unnecessary lines completely.
8) Fair the views with 2H or 3H pencil, making the outlines uniform and intensely black.
9) Dimension the views completely with required notes and titles.
10) Fill up the title block and add all other necessary particulars.

4.11 Mitre lines

The top view of an object can be drawin by vertically projecting the front view using
projectors. A 45o line, knowan as MITRE LINE is used to connect the top view and side view.
The projectors from the top view are extended to intersect the mitre line. Perpendiculars are
erected at the point of intersection to meet the projectors drawn from the front view. Thus the
distances are transfered from the top view to the side view.
!
 Unit – V
CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGON
AND SPECIAL CURVES
5.1 Polygons
A plane figure bounded by straight lines is called a polygon. If the polygon has equal sides
and equal angles, it is known as regular polygon. A regular polygon can be inscribed in or
circumscribed about a circle. The different polygons are:
a) Triangle : 3 sides b) Square : 4 sides

c) Pentagon : 5 sides d) Hexagon : 6 sides

e) Heptagon : 7 sides f) Octagon : 8 sides

g) Nonagon : 9 sides h) Decagon : 10 sides

i) Dodecagon : 12 sides

5.2 Construction of Polygons

Example:1
☞ To construct a equilateral triangle of 40mm side

✍ Solution:

1) Draw a line AB equal to 40mm.

2) With A as centre and 40mm as radius, draw
an arc.
3) With B as centre and 40mm as radius, draw
another arc to cut the previous arc at C.
4) Join AC and BC.
5) Then ABC is the required equilateral
Fig.1 Constructing a triangle
triangle.
Example:2
☞ To construct a square of 50mm side
✍ Solution:

1) Draw a line AB equal to 50mm.

2) Draw lines AP and BQ perpendicular
to AB.
3) Mark a point C on BQ such that
BC = 50mm.
4) Similarly mark a point D on AP such
that AD = 50mm.
5) Draw a line joining C and D.

6) Then ABCD is the required square.
Fig.2 Constructing a square

Example:3
☞ To construct a rectangle of 60mm length and 40mm width.
✍ Solution:

1) Draw a line AB equal to 60mm.

2) Draw lines AP and BQ perpendicular
to AB.
3) Mark a point C on BQ such that
BC = 40mm.
4) Similarly mark a point D on AP such
that AD = 40mm.
5) Draw a line joining C and D.

6) Then ABCD is the required rectangle.

Fig.3 Constructing a rectangle
Example:4
☞ To construct a pentagon of given side (say, 40mm)
✍ Solution:
Method I (Dividing the semi circle in to 5 equal divisions)

1) Draw a line AB equal to 40mm.

2) With centre A and radius AB, draw a semi–circle BP.
3) Divide the semi–circle into 5 equal parts (same as the number of sides). Name the
division points as 1,2,3,etc. starting from P.
4) Draw a line joining A with the second division point 2.
5) Draw lines through the division points 3,4,etc. from A and extend the lines to
convenient length.
6) With B as centre and radius AB, draw an arc cutting the line A4, produced, at C.
7) With C as centre and the same radius, draw an arc cutting the line A–3 produced, at D.
8) Draw line BC, CD and DE. Now ABCDE represents the required pentagon.

Fig.4 Method - I Fig.5 Method – II

Method II (Angle Method)

1) Draw a line AB equal to 40mm.
2) With AB as base and base angles equal to 54°, draw an isosceles triangle, OAB.
3) With O as centre and radius OA, draw a circle which passes through A and B.
4) With radius AB, cut the circle successively at C,D and E.
5) Draw lines BC, CD, DE and EA. Now ABCDE represents the required pentagon.
Example:5
☞ To construct a hexagon of given side (say, 30mm)

✍ Solution:

Method I (Dividing the semi circle in to 6 equal divisions)

Fig.6 Construction of hexagon

1) Draw a line AB equal to 30mm.

2) With centre A and radius AB, draw a semi–circle BP.
3) Divide the semi–circle into 6 equal parts (same as the number of sides). Name the
division points as 1,2,3,etc. starting from P.
4) Draw a line joining A with the second division point 2.
5) Draw lines through the division points 3,4,etc. from A and extend the lines to
convenient length.
6) With B as centre and radius AB, draw an arc cutting the line A5, produced, at C.
7) With C as centre and the same radius, draw an arc cutting the line A–4 produced, at D.
8) With D as centre and the same radius, draw an arc cutting the line A–3 produced, at E.
9) Draw line BC, CD, DE and EF. Now ABCDEF represents the required hexagon.

Method II (Angle Method)

1) Draw a line AB equal to 30mm.
2) With AB as base and base angles equal to 60°, draw an equilateral triangle, OAB.
3) With O as centre and radius OA, draw a circle which passes through A and B.
4) With radius AB, cut the circle successively at C,D,E and F.
5) Draw lines BC, CD, DE, EF and FA. Now ABCDEF represents the required hexagon.
Method III
When the distance across the corners is given (or)
to construct hexagon in a circumscribed circle

Fig.7 Construction of hexagon

1) With any point O as centre and radius equal to 30mm, draw a circle.
2) Draw the horizontal or vertical diameter line AD.
• Horizontal line should be drawn when two sides of the hexagon are required to be
horizontal.
• Vertical line should be drawn, when two sides of the hexagon are required to be vertical.
3) With A as centre and radius equal to that of circle (30mm), draw arcs to cut the circle at B
and F.
4) With D as centre and the same radius, draw arcs to cut the circle at C and E.
5) Draw lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EF and FA. Now ABCDEF represents the required hexagon.

Method IV
When the distance across the faces is given (or)
to construct hexagon around an inscribed circle

Fig.8 Construction of hexagon

 1) With any point O as centre and radius equal to 30mm (distance across the faces), draw a circle.
2) Draw the horizontal or vertical line AD through the centre O.
• Horizontal line should be drawn when two sides of the hexagon are required to be horizontal.
• Vertical line should be drawn, when two sides of the hexagon are required to be vertical.
3) Draw tangents to this circle on both sides at angle of 60o using mini drafter or set square.
4) Mark the intersection of these tangent lines at A, B, C, etc.
5) Draw lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EF and FA. Now ABCDEF represents the required hexagon.

(Note: For drawing hexagon, method –III is recommended for the students.)

5.3 Geometric curves

5.3.1 Involute
An invloute is a curve traced out by a point on a tight string, when it is unwound from a
circle or a polygon.
It may also be defined as a curve traced out by a point in a straight line which rolls
without slipping along a circle or a polygon.
Application of involutes
• The involute of a circle is the basic curve used in the development of tooth profiles of gear wheel.
• This curve is used in the design of impeller of centrifugal pumps.

Construction of involute
Example:1
☞ Draw the involute of a circle of diameter 35mm and draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
✍ Solution:
1) Draw a circle of 35mm diameter with O as centre.
2) Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1,2,3, etc. as shown.
3) Draw a horizontal line AB tangential to the circle at A with its length equal to circumference
of the circle, πD (π x 35 mm = 110 mm)
4) Divide the line AB into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1’,2’,3’,etc. as shown.
5) Draw tangents to the circle at points 1,2,3, etc.
6) On the tangent drawn from point 1, mark the point P1 such that 1–P1 = A–1’.
7) Similarly mark P2,P3,etc. on the remaining tangents such that 2–P2 = A–2’, 3–P3=A–3’, etc.
8) Draw a smooth curve through A, P1, P2, P3, etc. This is the required involute of a circle.

Fig.1 Construction of involute
To draw tangent and normal
1) Locate a convenient point P on the curve.
2) Join P with the centre O.
3) With OP as diameter, draw a semicircle so that it intersects the circle at N.
4) Draw a line MN through P. This line MN is the required normal.
5) Through P, draw a line ST perpendicular to MN. This line ST is the required tangent to the
curve.

5.3.2 Spirals
A spiral is a curve generated by a point moving continuously in one direction along a
straight line rotates in a plane about one of its ends.
• The point about which the line rotates is called a pole.
• The line joining any point on the curve with the pole is called the radius vector.
• The angle between any radius vector and its initial radius vector is called the vector angle.
• One complete revolution of the spiral forms one convolution.
Archimedean spiral
It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that its movement towards or
away from the pole is uniform with the increase of the vectorial angle from the starting line.

Application of Archimedean spiral

• Spirals are used in mechanical engineering in cam design and development of tooth
profiles of helical gears.
• It is frequently used to provide the spring action of clocks, watches and toys.

Construction of Archimedean spiral

Example:2
☞ A point moves away from a fixed point O and reaches a distance of 50mm while moving around it
once. Its movement from O being uniform. Draw the curve traced out by the point. Draw tangent
and normal at any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:

Fig.2 Construction of Archimedean spiral

 1) Let O be the pole. Draw a horizontal line OA of length 50mm. With O as centre and
radius OA, draw a circle.
2) Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1,2,3, etc. as shown.
3) Draw radial lines joining these points with O.
4) Divide the line OA into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1’,2’,3’,etc. as shown.
5) With O as centre and O–1’ as radius, draw an arc to cut the radial line O–1 at P1.
6) Similarly with O as centre and O–2’, O–3’, etc. as radii, draw arcs to cut the radial lines
O–2, O–3, etc. to obtain points P2, P3, etc. respectively.
7) Draw a smooth Archimedean spiral through the points O,P1,P2,etc.

To draw tangent and normal

Find the constant of the curve by using the following formula.
r = c + kθ –––––(1)
where, r = radius vector at any point (say P12) = 50 mm
c = Initial radius vector = 0
θ = Vector angle = 360o = 2π radians.
k = Constant of the curve.
From the equation (1)
r-c 50 – 0 50
k= = = = 7.96mm (say 8 mm)
Θ 2π 2π

1) Locate a convenient point P on the curve.

2) Join P with the centre O.
3) Draw OQ perpendicular to OP.
4) On OQ, mark a point M such that OM = 8 mm.
5) Draw a line MN through P. This line MN is the normal.
6) Through P, draw a line ST, perpendicular to MN. This line ST is the required tangent to the
curve.

Example:3
Construct an Archimedean spiral of 1½ convolutions, given the greatest radius 60 mm and the
☞ shortest radius 10 mm.

✍ Solution:
1) Let O be the pole, OA the greatest radius and OB the shortest radius.
2) With O as centre and radius equal to OA (60 mm), draw a circle.
3) With O as centre and radius equal to OB (10 mm), draw a circle.
4) Divide the circle into 12 equal parts for 1 revolution and mark the points 1,2,3,… 18 for
1½ revolutions as shown in the figure.
5) Draw radial lines joining these points with O.
6) Divide the line AB into 18 equal parts and mark the points 1’,2’,3’,etc. as shown.
7) With O as centre and O–1’ as radius, draw an arc to cut the radial line O–1 at P1.
 1) Similarly with O as centre and O–2’, O–3’, etc. as radii, draw arcs to cut the radial lines
O–2, O–3, etc. to obtain points P2, P3, etc. respectively.
2) Draw a smooth Archimedean spiral through the points B, P1, P2, etc.

Fig.3 Construction of Archimedean spiral

5.3.3 Helix
Helix is a curve traced on the surface of a cylinder (or cone) by a point moving uniformly
parallel to the axis of the cylinder (or cone) when cylinder (or cone) rotates uniformly.

The axial distance moved by the generating point in each revolution is called the pitch or
lead of the helix.

Application of helix
• The helix is the basis for all screw thread designs.
• It is also used in springs, spiral stair cases, conveyors, etc.
Construction of helix
Example:4
☞ Draw a helix when the cylinder diameter is 60mm and pitch 120mm.

✍ Solution:
1) Assume the cylinder stands vertically.
2) Draw a circle of diameter 60mm (top
view of the cylinder)
3) Divide the circle into 12 equal parts
and mark the points 1,2,3,etc. as
shown.
4) Draw the front view of the cylinder as
a rectangle of sides 50mm (diameter)
and 120mm (cylinder height = pitch).
5) Divide the pitch into 12 equal parts
and mark the points 1’,2’,3’, etc. as
shown.
6) Draw vertical projectors from the
points 1,2,3, etc. and horizontal
projectors from the points 1’, 2’, 3’,
etc. These projectors intersect at P1,
P2, P3, etc. respectively.
7) Draw a smooth curve passing through
the points P0, P1, P2, etc. This is the
required helix.

Note:
• If the point is situated at the bottom
of the right vertical line, first half of
the helix will be seen and the later
half will be hidden in the case of left
handed helix.
• When the helix is to be drawn for
two revolutions, the cylinder height
should be taken as twice the length
of the pitch, and divided into 24
equal parts.

Fig.4 Construction of helix around a cylinder

Example:5
☞ Draw a helix of one convolution around a cone of base diameter 40mm and height of 80mm. The
pitch of helix is 60mm.

✍ Solution:
1) Assume the cone stands vertically.
2) Draw circle of diameter 40mm
(top view of the cone)
3) Divide the circle into 12 equal
parts and mark the points 1,2,3,
etc. as shown.
4) Draw a triangle of base 40mm and
height 80mm with O’ as apex
(front view of cone). Mark the
points 1’,2’,3’,etc. on the base as
shown.
5) On the axis line, mark 60mm from
the base to represent the pitch of
the helix. Divide this pitch into 12
equal parts and mark the points
1”, 2”, 3”, etc. as shown.
6) Draw horizontal line from 1” to
meet the generator 1’–O’ at P1.
7) Similarly, draw horizontal lines
from 2”, 3”,etc. to meet the
generators 2’–O’, 3’–O’, etc. at P2,
P3, etc. respectively.
8) Draw a smooth curve passing
through the points P0, P1, P2, etc.
This is the required helix.

5.3.4 Cycloidal curves
Fig.5 Construction of helix around a cone

Cycloidal curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls along a straight line or a circle without slipping.
The rolling circle is called the generating circle and the straight line or circle along which
it rolls is called the directing line or directing circle.
Application of cycloidal curves
• Cycloidal curves are used in the construction of dial gauges.
• They are used in the design of gear tooth system.
Construction of cycloidal curves
Cycloid
Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along
a straight line.

Example:6
☞ A coin of diameter 35mm rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the curve generated by a
point on the circumference of the coin. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:

Fig.6 Construction of cycloid

1) With C as centre and 35 mm diameter, draw a circle. Let P be the generating point.
2) Draw a horizontal line PQ of length equal to the circumference, πD (π x 35 = 110mm)
3) Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1,2,3,etc. as shown. Draw
horizontal lines through these points.
4) Divide the line PQ into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. as shown.
5) Through C, draw a line CB parallel and equal to PQ.
6) Draw vertical lines through the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. to intersect the line CB at C1, C2,
C3, etc. respectively.
7) With C1 as centre and radius equal to radius of circle (17.5mm), draw an arc to cut the
horizontal line through 1 at P1.
8) Similarly, draw arcs with C2, C3, etc. as centres and the same radius to cut the
horizontal lines through 2, 3, etc. at P2, P3, etc. respectively.
9) Draw a smooth curve through the points P, P1, P2, etc. It is the required cycloid.
To draw tangent and normal
1) Locate a convenient point D on the curve.
2) With D as centre and radius equal to the radius of the circle (17.5mm), draw an arc to cut the
line CB at C’.
3) From C’, draw a perpendicular to meet the line PQ at M.
4) Draw a line MN through D. This line MN is the required normal.
5) Draw a line ST through D, perpendicular to MN. This is the required tangent.

Epicycloid
Epicycloid is a curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls on
the outside of another circle without slipping.

Example:7
☞ A circle of diameter 40mm rolls on the outside of another circle of diameter 160mm without
slipping. Draw the path traced by a point on the smaller circle. Also draw a tangent and normal at
any point on the curve.

✍ Solution:
The angle (θ) subtended by the arc PQ at centre O can be calculated as follows.

θ Length of Arc PQ 2πr r

= = =
360 Circumference of directing circle 2πR R
Where, r = radius of rolling circle = 20mm
R = radius of directing circle = 80mm
r 20
θ = x 360o = x 360o = 90o
R 80
1) With any point O as centre and radius 80mm, draw an arc PQ which subtends an
angle θ(= 90o) at O.
2) Let P be the generating point. Extend the line OP up to C such that PC = r = 20mm.
With C as centre and radius 20mm, draw the rolling circle.
3) Divide the rolling circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1,2,3, etc. as shown.
With O as centre, draw arcs through these points up to OQ extension line.
4) With O as centre and OC as radius, draw an arc CB to represent the locus of centre.
5) Divide the arc PQ into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. as shown.
6) Draw radial lines through the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. to intersect the arc CB at C1, C2, C3,
etc. respectively.
7) With C1 as centre and radius equal to radius of rolling circle (20 mm), draw an arc to
cut the radial line through 1 at P1.
8) Similarly, draw arcs with C2, C3, etc. as centres and the same radius to cut the radial
lines through 2, 3, etc. at P2, P3, etc. respectively.
9) Draw a smooth curve through the points P, P1, P2, etc. It is the required epicycloid.

Fig.7 Construction of epicycloid

To draw tangent and normal

1) Locate a convenient point D on the curve.

2) With D as centre and radius equal to the radius of the rolling circle (20mm), draw an
arc to cut the arc CB at C’.
3) From C’, draw a radial line to meet the arc PQ at M.
4) Draw a line MN through D. This line MN is the required normal.
5) Draw a line ST through D, perpendicular to MN. This is the required tangent.
Hypocycloid
Hypocycloid is a curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls
along the inside of another circle without slipping.

Example:8
☞ A circle of diameter 50mm rolls along the inside of another circle of diameter 180mm without
slipping. Draw the path traced by a point on the smaller circle.

✍ Solution:

Fig.8 Construction of hypocycloid

The angle (θ) subtended by the arc PQ at centre O can be calculated as follows.
r 25
θ = x 360o = x 360o = 100o
R 90
1) With any point O as centre and radius 80mm, draw an arc PQ which subtends an angle,
θ(= 100o) at O.
2) Locate the point C such that PC = r = 25mm. With C as centre and radius 25mm, draw the
rolling circle.
 1) Divide the rolling circle into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1,2,3, etc. as shown. With
O as centre, draw arcs through these points up to line OQ.
2) With O as centre and C as radius, draw an arc CB to represent the locus of centre.
3) Divide the arc PQ into 12 equal parts and mark the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. as shown.
4) Draw radial lines through the points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. to intersect the arc CB at C1, C2, C3
etc. respectively.
5) With C1 as centre and radius equal to radius of rolling circle (25 mm), draw an arc to cut
the radial line through 1 at P1.
6) Similarly, draw arcs with C2, C3, etc. as centres and the same radius to cut the radial lines
through 2, 3, etc. at P2, P3, etc. respectively.
7) Draw a smooth curve through the points P, P1, P2, etc. It is the required epicycloid.
To draw tangent and normal
1) Locate a convenient point D on the curve.
2) With D as centre and radius equal to the radius of the rolling circle (25mm), draw an arc
to cut the arc CB at C’.
3) From C’, draw a radial line to meet the line PQ at M.
4) Draw a line MN through D. This line MN is the required normal.
5) Draw a line ST through D, perpendicular to MN. This is the required tangent.
 EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE
GEOMETRIC CURVES
1) Draw the involute of a circle of diameter 30mm and draw the tangent and normal at any
point on the curve.
2) Draw one and half turn of an involute of a circle of 50mm diameter.
3) A point P moves towards another point O, 75mm from it and reaches it while moving
around it once. Its movement towards O being uniform with its movement around it.
Draw the curve traced out by the point P.
4) Draw an Archimedean spiral of two convolutions, the greatest and the least radii being
115mm and 15mm respectively. Draw a tangent and normal to the spiral at a point,
65mm from the pole.
5) Draw a helix when the cylinder diameter is 80mm and pitch is 150mm.
6) Draw the helix of pitch of 60mm on a cylinder of 70mm diameter for one and half
revolution of cylinder.
7) Draw the helix of one convolution around a cone of base diameter 50mm and height of
100mm. The pitch of helix is 80mm.

CYCLOIDAL CURVES
8) Draw a cycloid formed by a rolling circle 50mm in diameter. Draw a tangent and normal
at a point 30mm above the directing line.
9) A circle of diameter 55mm rolls along a fixed straight line. Draw the path described by a
point P located at a distance of 20mm from the centre of the rolling circle for one
revolution of the circle.
10) A circle of 50mm diameter rolls on another circle of 175mm diameter. Draw and name
the curve traced out by a point on the small circle.
11) In an epicyclic gear train, a pinion of pitch diameter 40mm gears outside a fixed gear
wheel of 160mm diameter. A punch mark is made on the pinion at a distance of 10mm
from its centre. Trace the locus of the punch mark as the pinion rotates through one
complete revolution.
12) A circle of 45mm diameter rolls along the inside of another circle of 180mm diameter.
Draw the path described by a point on the circumference of the rolling circle for one
complete revolution. Draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
 Unit – VI
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES
6.1 Introduction
Assume that the surfaces of a solid is completely covered with a paper. If this
covering is opened out and laid on a flat surface, the flattened out paper is the
development of surfaces of the solid.

Fig.1 shows the development of surfaces of a square prism. It is very important

to note that every line on the development must be the true length of the
corresponding edge of the surface.

6.2 Practical applications

The knowledge of development of surfaces is essential in many industries such
as automobile, aircraft, ship building, packaging and sheet metal works.

It is most helpful in sheet metal works to manufacture the desired objects like
boilers, bins, containers, boxes, hoppers, chimneys, funnels, trays, buckets, etc. The
sheet metal is marked and cut according to the development, and then bent or rolled
to obtain the desired object.

6.3 Methods of development

The following two methods are mostly used for the development of surfaces of
solids.

a) Parallel line development: This method is used for the development of

cubes, prisms and cylinders. In this method, two parallel lines separated by a distance
equal to the height of the object are drawn. The two lines are called the stretch out

b) Radial line development: This method is used for the development of pyramids
and cones. In this method, the true length of the pyramid or the length of the extreme
generator of the cone is used as radius for drawing the arc, which is necessary for drawing
the development.
Example: 1
☞ Draw the development of a cube of side 40mm.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the top view and front view of the solid.

2) From the front view, draw horizontal lines from the base and top.
3) On the stretch out line (from the base), set–off distances A-B, B-C, etc. with
length equal to the base edge of the solid (i.e. 40mm)
4) From the point A, B, C, etc., draw vertical lines to intersect horizontal lines from
the top.
5) Draw the top surface and bottom surface (if needed) on any of the lines A-B, B-C,
etc. and complete the development.
(Note: The above procedure can be followed for drawing the development of all prisms).

Example: 2
☞ Draw the development of a square prism of base side 40mm and height 60mm.

✍ Solution:
Example: 3
☞ Draw the development of rectangular prism of base side 40x20mm and height 60mm.

✍ Solution:

Example: 4
☞ Draw the development of pentagonal prism of side 25mm and height 60mm.

✍ Solution:
Example: 5
☞ Draw the development of hexagonal prism of side 25mm and height 60mm.

✍ Solution:

Development of cylinder
The development of cylinder will be a rectangle of length equal to the
circumference of the base circle of the cylinder (π x d) and width equal to the height of
the cylinder.

Example: 6
Draw the development of a cylinder of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm long.
☞
✍ Solution:
 1) Draw the top view and front view of the solid.
2) From the front view, draw horizontal lines from the base and top.
3) On the stretch out line (from the base), mark a distance πd (π x 50 = 157mm) and
complete the rectangle.
4) Draw the top surface and bottom surface (if needed) as circles on the top and
bottom of the rectangle respectively.

Development of pyramids

The development of surface of a pyramid consists of a number of similar

triangles equal to the number of sides in the base of the pyramid.

The following two dimensions are required to draw the development of any
pyramid.
1) True length of the slant edge
2) The size of base edge

The true length of the slant edge of a pyramid can be measured directly from
the front view, only if that edge is parallel to the V.P.(i.e XY)

Example: 7
☞ Draw the development of a square pyramid of base side 40mm and height 60mm.

✍ Solution:
 • Draw the top view and front view of the pyramid and name the points as
shown.
• As there is no edge parallel to XY, the true length of the slant edge
cannot be measured directly form the front view.
• Therefore, with ‘o’ as centre and o–a as radius, draw an arc to cut the
horizontal line drawn from o at a1.
• Draw a vertical line upwards to cut XY at a1’.
• Join a1’ with apex o’ in the front view. Now the line o’a1’ represents
the true length of slant edge.

To draw the development

• Mark the point O at any convenient place.
• With O as centre and o’a1’ as radius, draw an arc.
• On the arc, mark a point A at suitable place.
• From this point, mark other point B, C, D, etc. with length equal to the size of
the base edge (i.e. 40mm)
• Join the points A, B,C, etc. by straight lines.
• Join the points A,B,C, etc. with O.
• Draw the base (if needed) on any of the lines, A-B, B-C, C-D, etc.
Note: The above procedure can be followed for drawing the development of
all pyramids.

Example: 8
☞ Draw the development of a pentagonal pyramid of base side 20mm and axis length 40mm.

✍ Solution:
Example: 9
☞ Draw the development of a hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis length 60mm.

✍ Solution:

Development of cone
The development of the cone will be an arc sector having radius equal to the slant length of the
cone and arc length equal to the circumference of the base circle.

The length of the arc can be determined by the following two methods.
Method 1: By calculating the angle (θ) subtended by the arc using the formula
R
θ = x 360
L
Where, R = Radius of the base circle
L = Slant length = √ R2 + H2
H = Height of the cone
Method 2:
1) Divide the base circle into 12 equal divisions.
2) Mark 12 equal divisions on the arc, each equal to length of one division of the base
circle.

Example: 10
☞ Draw the development of a cone of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

L = slant length = √252 + 602 =65

25
Subtended angle> θ = x 360 =138.5o
65

• Draw the top view and front view of the cone.

• Measure the slant length of the cone from the front view.
• With o a centre and slant length as radius, draw an arc sector with subtended
angle θ (138.5o)

Example: 11
A hexagonal prism of base edge 25mm and axis 70mm long stands on its base on the H.P.
☞ It is cut by a plane inclined at 30o to the V.P and passing through the midpoint of the axis.
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the prism.

✍ Solution:
Example: 12
A pentagonal prism of base side 20mm and height 60mm is cut by two plane as shown in
☞ fig.13(a). Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the portion between the cutting
places.

✍ Solution:

Example: 13
A cylinder of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm is cut by a cutting plane inclined at 45o
☞ and passing through the midpoint of the axis. Draw the development of the lower portion of
the cylinder.

✍ Solution:
 1) Draw the top view and front view of the cylinder. Divide the circle into 12 equal
parts and project these points on the front view.
2) Draw the development the whole cylinder as a rectangle of length equal to πd.
Divide the length into 12 equal divisions and name the divisions as shown in
the fig.14(b). Draw vertical line through each division point.
3) Draw cutting plane in the front view. Let the cutting plane cuts the cylinder at
1’, 2’, 3’,etc.
4) Draw horizontal lines through the cutting points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc to cut the
corresponding generators through A, B, C, etc. at 1, 2, 3, etc.
5) Join the points 1, 2, 3, etc. as a smooth curve with thick line. This will give the
required development.

Example: 14
Draw the development of the cylinder shown in fig.15(a).
☞
✍ Solution:

Example: 15
Draw the development of the truncated cylinder shown in fig.16(a).
☞
 ✍ Solution:

Example: 16
Draw the development of the truncated cylinder shown in fig.17(a).
☞
✍ Solution:
Example: 17
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and altitude 60mm is resting vertically on its base
on the ground with two sides of the base perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 40o to the H.P. The plane bisects the axis of the
pyramid. Draw the development of lateral surface of pyramid.
,

✍ Solution:

• Draw the top view and front view of the pyramid. Draw the development of the
whole pyramid.
• Draw the section plane line. Name the intersection points on the on the edges
o’a’, o’b’, o’c’, etc. at 1’,2’,3’,etc. respectively.
• From the intersection points 2’,3’,4’, etc., draw horizontal lines to intersect the
slant line o’a’ at 2”,3”,4”,etc.
• Mark the point 1 on the line O-A such that O-1 = o’–1”. Similarly mark the
point 2 on the line O-B such that O–2 = o’–2”.
• Mark all other points (3,4,5, etc) in the same way and join these points to
complete the development.

Example: 18
☞ Draw the development of the frustum of a square pyramid with bottom side 40mm , top side
20mm and axis length of frustum 30mm.
✍ Solution:

Example: 19
☞ A square pyramid of base side 20mm and altitude 40mm rests on its base on the H.P with
two sides of the base parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a plane bisecting the axis and inclined
at 30o to the base. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of the lower part of the cut
pyramid.

✍ Solution:
 Example: 20
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated pyramid shown in fig.21(a).
☞
✍ Solution:

Example: 21
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated pyramid shown in fig.22(a).
☞
,

✍ Solution:
Example: 22
A right circular cone rests on the H.P with it axis parallel to the V.P. The base diameter
☞ and height of cone are 60mm and 70mm respectively. This cone is cut by a plane inclined
at 30o to the H.P and perpendicular to the V.P and passing through a point 40mm above the
base on the axis. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cone, below the cutting
plane.

✍ Solution:

• Draw the top view and front view of the cone. Divide the base circle into 12
equal parts and project these points on the front view.
• Draw the section plane line. Name the intersection points on the projectors o’a’,
o’b’, o’c’, etc. as 1’,2’,3’,etc. respectively.
• From the intersection points 2’, 3’, 4’, etc., draw horizontal lines to intersect the
slant line o’a’ at 2”, 3”, 4”, etc.
• Calculate the slant length (L) and subtended angle (θ)
 • With any convenient point O as centre and slant length (L) as radius, draw an
arc A-A subtending an angle θ (143o) at O as shown.
• Divide this arc into 12 equal divisions, and join the division points with a as thin
lines.
• Mark the point 1 on the line O-A such that O–1 = o’1”. Similarly mark the point 2
on the line O-B such that O–2 = o’2”.
• Mark all other points (3,4,5, etc) in the same way and join these points as a
smooth curve.

Example: 23
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cone of base diameter 50mm and
☞ altitude 60mm shown in fig.24(a).

✍ Solution:
Example: 24
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cone of base diameter 50mm and
☞ altitude 60mm shown in fig.25(a).

✍ Solution:
Example: 25
Draw the development of the rectangular duct shown in fig.26(a).
☞

✍ Solution:

Steps:
• Consider the rectangular duct as two pieces
(Part–I and Part–II)
• Both the pieces are truncated rectangular prism.
• Develop each prism separately.
Example: 26
Draw the development of cylindrical 90o elbow pipe shown in fig.27(a).
☞

✍ Solution:

Steps:
• Consider the cylindrical elbow as two pieces
(Part–I and Part–II)
• Both the pieces are truncated cylinders.
• Develop each cylinder separately.
Example: 27
Draw the development of the three piece elbow shown in fig.28(a).
☞
Steps:
• Consider the cylindrical elbow as three pieces
(Part–I, Part–II and Part–III)
• Since Part–I and Part–III are similar, the
development of both the parts are also similar.
• Develop Part–II separately.

✍ Solution:
Example: 28
Draw the development of the three piece offset fitting shown in fig.29(a).
☞
Steps:
• Consider the cylindrical offset fitting as three
pieces (Part–I, Part–II and Part–III)
• Since Part–I and Part–III are similar, the
development of both the parts are also similar.
• Develop Part–II separately.

✍ Solution:
Example: 29
Draw the development of the Y–pipe shown in fig.30(a).
☞

✍ Solution:
Example: 30
Draw the development of the funnel shown in fig.31(a).
☞

Steps:
• Consider the funnel as three pieces
(Part–I, Part–II and Part–III)
• Develop Part –I and Part – III as cylinder.
• Develop Part –II as a frustum of cone.

✍ Solution:

R
θ = x 360
L
30
= x 360
74.85
= 144o
Example: 31
Draw the development of the tray shown in fig.32(a).
☞

✍ Solution:
1) Draw the front view and top view of the tray.
2) In the top view, PQRS represent the top corners, and ABCD represent the
bottom corners of the tray.
3) In the front view, with a’ as centre and a’–p’ as radius, draw an arc to
intersect the horizontal line extended from a’ at m.
4) Similarly, with c’ as centre and c’–r’ as radius, draw an arc to intersect the
horizontal line extended from c’ at n.
5) From m, draw a line vertically downwards. This line intersects the lines,
extended from the point A and B on the top view, at 1 and 2 respectively.
6) Similarly, draw a line vertically downwards from n. This line intersects the
lines, extended from the point C and D on the top view, at 3 and 4
respectively.
7) Join A–1, B–2, C–3, D–4, 1–2 and 3–4 as thick lines.
8) With A as centre and A–1 as radius, draw an arc to intersect the vertical line,
extended from P, at 5. With B as centre and B–2 as radius, draw an arc to cut
the vertical line, extended from Q, at 6.
9) Similarly with C and D as centres, and C–3 and D–4 as radii, obtain the points
7 and 8.
10) Join A–5, B–6, C–7, D–8, 6–7 and 8–5 as thick lines.
 EXERCISES

1) A cube of side 40mm is resting on the ground with one of its faces. Two of its
vertical faces make equal angles with the V.P. It is cut by a plane which is
perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o to the H.P and passing through a point
on the axis 30mm from the base. Draw the development of the lateral surfaces of
the lower part of the cone.
2) A cylinder of base diameter 40mm and height 50mm rests on its base on the H.P.
It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 50o to the H.P. The
cutting plane meets the axis at a distance of 15mm from the top. Draw the
development of lateral surface of the lower portion of the cylinder.
3) A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis 50mm rests on its base on the
H.P with two base edges perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o to the H.P meeting the axis at 20mm
from the vertex. Draw the development of lateral surface of the lower portion of
the pyramid.
4) A cone of base diameter 50mm and altitude 60mm rests on its base on the H.P. It
is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to one of the extreme
generators, 10mm away from it. Draw the development of the lateral surface of
the truncated cone.

5) Draw the development of the 6) Draw the development of the

truncated cylinder shown in fig.33. truncated cone shown in fig.34.
7) Draw the development of the pipe 8) Draw the development of the
shown in fig.35. T–pipe shown in fig.36.

9) Draw the development of the 90o 10) Draw the development of the
special elbow shown in fig.37. Y–pipe shown in fig.38.

11) Draw the development of a roof 12) Draw the development of the
flange shown in fig.39. pipe shown in fig.40.
13) Draw the development of lateral 14) Draw the development of a can
surface of the funnel shown in fig.41. shown in fig.42.

15) Draw the development of the tray shown in fig.43.

 Unit – VII(a)
PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
7.1 Introduction
A solid is a three dimensional object, having length, breadth and thickness. It is bounded
by plane surfaces, curved surfaces or combination of plane and curved surfaces. At least two
orthographic views are necessary to represent a solid on a flat surface. Sometimes additional
views are also required to describe the object completely.

7.2 Types of solids

Solids may be divided into two major types
(i) Polyhedron (ii) Solids of revolution

(i) Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a many sided solid figure bounded by only plane surfaces or faces. If all
the faces of a polyhedron are having the same size and shape, it is said to be a regular
polyhedron. The line along which two plane surfaces meet is called an edge of the solid.

The common regular polyhedron are as follows:

(a) Tetrahedron : It has four equal equilateral triangles as faces.
(b) Cube (or) Hexahedron : It has six faces, all equal squares.
(c) Octahedron : It is bounded by eight equal equilateral triangles.
(d) Dodecahedron : It has twelve equal and regular pentagons as faces.
(e) Icosahedron : It is bounded by twenty equal equilateral triangles.

Fig.1 Prisms
(f) Prism
A prism is a polyhedron which has two equal regular polygons parallel to each other and
joined by rectangular surfaces. The two parallel surfaces are called ends or bases. The
rectangular faces are called the lateral or side surfaces. Prisms are named according to the
shape of their ends. Example: Triangular prism, square prism, rectangular prism, pentagonal
prism, hexagonal prism, etc.

The imaginary line joining the centres of the ends of the prism is known as axis of the
prism. If the axis of the prism is perpendicular to its base, then it is said to be a right regular
prism.

(g) Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron consisting of a plane figure on its base and a number of
lateral faces of triangular shape. All the triangles meet at a common point called the apex or
vertex. Pyramids are named according to the shape of their base. Example: Triangular
pyramid, square pyramid, pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid, etc.

Fig.2 Pyramids

The imaginary line joining the centre of the base and the vertex is known as axis of the
pyramid. If the axis is perpendicular to the base, then it is called a right regular pyramid.

(ii) Solids of revolution

Solids of revolution are obtained by revolving a plane figure about a fixed axis.

(a) Cylinder
A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of
its sides which remain fixed. It has two equal circular bases. The line joining the centres of the
bases is the axis. It is perpendicular to the bases.
(b) Cone
A right circular cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a right angled triangle
about one of its perpendicular sides which is fixed. It has one circular base. The imaginary line
joining the centre of the base and the apex is the axis of the cone. It is perpendicular to the
base.

The lines joining the apex and points on the circumference of the base are all equal and
are called generators of the cone. The length of each generator is the slant length of the cone.

Fig.3 Solids of revolution

(c) Sphere
A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semi–circle about its diameter as the
axis. The midpoint of the diameter is the centre of the sphere. All points on the surface of the
sphere are equidistant from its centre.

(d) Frustums

Fig.4 Frustums
Fig.5 Truncated solids

 When a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base, thus removing the top
portion, the remaining portion is called its frustum.

(e) Truncated solids

When a solid is cut by a plane inclined to the base, it is said to be truncated.

7.3 Projection of solids

In first angle projection, the solids are assumed to be placed in first quadrant. The solids
may be placed in any one of the following positions relative to the principal planes (H.P and
V.P)
(1) Axis perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P.
(2) Axis perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P.
(3) Axis parallel to both H.P and V.P.
(4) Axis inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P.
(5) Axis inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P.
(6) Axis inclined to both H.P and V.P.
In all the above cases, the view that shows the true shape and size of base is drawn
first. Other views are then projected from this view. The true shape and size of the object will
be projected on a reference plane (H.P, V.P or A.V.P) which is perpendicular to the axis of the
object.
1) Axis perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P.

Fig.6 Projection of solids when its axis is perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P.
 In this case, the true shape of the base of the object will be projected on the H.P which
represents the top view. Hence, the top view is drawn first and the front view can be projected
from it.

2) Axis perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P.

Fig.7 Projection of solids when its axis is perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P.

In this case, the true shape of the base of the object will be projected on the V.P which
represents the front view. Hence, the front view is drawn first and the top view can be
projected from it.

3) Axis parallel to both H.P and V.P.

In this case neither top view nor front view will show the true shape of the base. The
true shape of the base will be projected on A.V.P which represents the side view. Hence, the
side view is drawn first. The front view and then the top view are projected from it.

Fig.8 Projection of solids when its axis is parallel to both H.P and V.P.

4) Axis inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P.

,

Fig.9 Projection of solids when its axis is inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P
 In this case, the projection of a solid is obtained in two stages.
• In the first stage, the axis of the solid is assumed to be perpendicular to H.P. For this
position, top view is drawn first and the front view is projected from it.
• In the second stage, the front view is tilted to the required angle. For obtaining the final
top view, project all the points vertically from this tilted front view and horizontally from
the first top view.

5) Axis inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P.

Fig.10 Projection of solids when its axis is inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P

In this case, the projection of a solid is obtained in two stages.

• In the first stage, the axis of the solid is assumed to be perpendicular to V.P. For this
position, front view is drawn first and the top view is projected from it.
• In the second stage, the top view is tilted to the required angle. For obtaining the final
front view, project all the points vertically from this tilted top view and horizontally from
the first front view.
6) Axis inclined to both H.P and V.P.
In this case, the projection of a solid is obtained in three stages.
• In the first stage, the axis of the solid is assumed to be perpendicular to one of the
reference planes (H.P or V.P). Front view and top view are drawn for this position.
• In the second stage, the axis of the solid is assumed to be inclined to one plane and
parallel to another plane. Front view and top view are drawn for this position.
• In the third stage, the required view drawn in the second stage will be tilted to another
given angle. The other view is projected from it.

In third stage,
• When the angle of inclination of the axis to the other plane is given, the third view is
drawn with an angle greater than the angle of true inclination. This angle is known as
apparent angle of inclination.
• When the angle of inclination of the plan (top view) to the other plane is given, the third
view is drawn simply with this given angle.

Conventions
The following conventions may be used while drawing the projection of solids.
• Corner points of a solid are denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C, D, etc.
• The projection of the corner points on the H.P (top view) are denoted by the lower–case
letter such as a,b,c,d,etc.
• The projection of the corner points on the V.P (front view) are denoted by the lower–case
letter with dash such as a’,b’,c’,d’,etc.
• The projection of the corner points on the A.V.P are denoted by the lower–case letter with
a double dash such as a”,b”,c”,d”,etc.
• The corner points which coincides with another visible point is denoted in each view within
a closed bracket such as (a), (a’), etc.
• An edge PQ of a solid is represented by a line pq in top view and a line p’q’ in front view.
• The hidden edges are shown in the corresponding view as dotted lines.
• The numbering may be done in anti–clockwise when the top view is drawn first.
• The numbering may be done in clockwise when the front view is drawn first.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO H.P AND PARALLEL TO V.P.

Example: 1
☞ A cube of side 50mm is resting on the H.P with one of its faces and two of its vertical faces are
parallel to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.1

1) As the base is resting on the H.P, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.

2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the cube is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a square
of side 50mm with two sides parallel to XY and name the corner points as shown in figure.
4) The points a,b,c and d represent the top corners of the cube. The points e,f,g and
h represent the bottom corners of the cube.
 5) As the bottom corners coincide with the top corners, the points e,f,g and h are
marked within the brackets as per convention.
6) Project each corner vertically upwards and draw the front view as shown in figure.
7) Name the top corners as a’,b’,c’ and d’, and the bottom corners as e’,f’,g’ and h’.
8) The edges c’g’ and d’h’ coincide with the edges a’e’ and b’f’ respectively. Hence they are
marked within the brackets.

Example: 2
☞ Draw the projection of a cube of side 40mm resting on one of its base on the ground with two
vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.2
1) As the base is on the ground, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.
2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the cube is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a square
of side 40mm with two sides inclined at 45o to XY and name the corner points as shown in
figure.
 4) Project each corner vertically upwards and draw the front view. Name the corners as
shown in figure.
5) The edge d’h’ coincide with the edge and b’f’. Hence it is marked within the brackets.

Example: 3
☞ Draw the projection of a triangular prism, base 40mm side and axis 50mm long, resting on one of
its bases on the ground with a vertical face perpendicular to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.3
1) As the base is on the ground, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.
2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the prism is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw an
equilateral triangle of side 40mm, with one of its sides perpendicular to XY and name the
corner points as shown in figure.
4) Project each corner vertically upwards and draw the front view. Name the corners as
,,
shown in figure.
Example: 4
☞ Draw the front view and top view of a square prism of base 40mm side and axis 70mm long,
resting on one of its base on the ground with one of its vertical faces making 30o to V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.4

1) As the base is on the ground, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.

2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the prism is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a square
of side 40mm with one side (cd) inclined at 30o to XY and name the corner points as
shown in figure.
4) Project each corner vertically upwards and draw the front view with a height of 70mm.
Name the corners as shown in figure.
5) The edge d’h’ is hidden while viewing from the front. Hence it is shown as dotted line.
Example: 5
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and 70mm height rests with one of its bases on the ground.
One of the faces of prism is parallel and nearer to V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.5

1) As the base is on the ground, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.

2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the prism is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a
pentagon of 30mm side with one side (de) parallel to XY and name the corner points as
shown in figure.
4) Project each corner vertically upwards and draw the front view with a height of 70mm.
Name the corners as shown in figure.
5) The edges d’i’ and e’j’ are hidden while viewing from the front. Hence they are shown as
dotted lines.
Example: 6
☞ Draw the projection of a cylinder of base 40mm diameter and 60mm height resting with its base on
the H.P.

✍ Solution:

1) As the base is on the H.P, the axis is

perpendicular to H.P.
2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis of the prism is
perpendicular to H.P, begin with the
top view. Draw a circle of 40mm
diameter.
4) Project the diameter points
vertically upwards and draw the
front view as a rectangle of 60mm
height and 40mm width

Fig.6

Example: 7
☞ Draw the projection of a square pyramid, base 40mm side and axis 60mm long, having its base on
the H.P. One of its sides makes an angleof 60o to V.P.

✍ Solution:

1) As the base is on the H.P, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.

2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a square of 40mm
side with one side (da) is inclined at 60o to XY. The centre o represents the apex of the
pyramid. Join all the corners with the apex o.
4) Draw vertical projectors from the corners a,b,c,d and the apex o.
5) Mark the apex o’ at 60mm above XY and the projector through o.
6) Join all the corners a’,b’,c’ and d’ in XY with the apex o’. This will represent the front view.

Fig.7

Example: 8
☞ Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal pyramid of 30mm side and 70mm height, resting on its
base on the H.P, with two base edges parallel to V.P.

✍ Solution:

1) As the base is on the H.P, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.

2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a hexagon of 30mm
side with two edges parallel to XY. The centre o represents the apex of the pyramid. Join
all the corners with the apex o.
4) Draw vertical projectors from the corners a,b,c,d,e,f and the apex o.
5) Mark the apex o’ at 70mm above XY and the projector through o.
6) Join all the corners a’,b’,c’,d’,e’ and f’ in XY with the apex o’. This will represent the front
view.

Fig.8 (Example 8)
Fig.9 (Example 9)

Example: 9
☞ Draw the projection of a cone of 40mm base diameter and height 60mm resting on the H.P with its
base.

✍ Solution:
1) As the base is on the H.P, the axis is perpendicular to H.P.
2) Draw the reference line XY.
3) Since the axis is perpendicular to H.P, begin with the top view. Draw a circle of 40mm
diameter. The centre o represents the apex of the cone.
4) Draw vertical projectors from diameter points and the apex.
5) Mark the apex o’ at 60mm above XY and the projector through o.
6) Join the projected diameter points in XY with the apex o’. This triangle will represent the
front view.
AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO V.P AND PARALLEL TO H.P.

Example: 10
☞ A cube of side 40mm is resting on the H.P on one of its edges, a face containing which makes 40o
with the H.P. Draw its projections when the axis is perpendicular to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) Since the axis is perpendicular to V.P, begin
with the front view. Draw a square of side
40mm, with one side inclined at 40o to XY and
name the corners as shown in the figure.
3) Project each corner vertically downwards and
draw the top view with a height of 40mm.
Name the corners as shown in the figure.
4) The edge dh is hidden while viewing from the
top. Hence it is shown as dotted line.

Fig.10

Example: 11
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis length 55mm is lying on the ground on one of its
rectangular faces. Draw its projection when the axis is perpendicular to V.P.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) Since the axis is perpendicular to V.P, begin with the front view. Draw a pentagon of side
30mm, with one of its sides lying in XY and name the corners as shown in the figure.
3) Project each corner vertically downwards and draw the top view with a height of 55mm.
Name the corners as shown in the figure.
4) The edges d’i’ and e’j’ are hidden while viewing from the top. Hence they are shown as
dotted lines.

Fig.11 (Example 11)
Fig.12 (Example 12)

Example: 12
☞ A square pyramid, base 40mm side and axis 65mm long, has its perpendicular to the V.P. one edge
of the base is inclined at 30o to the H.P and a corner contained by that edge is on the H.P. Draw its
projection.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) Since the axis is perpendicular to V.P, begin with the front view. Draw a square of side
40mm, with a corner (d’) in XY and a side (d’c’) inclined at 30o to XY. Name the corners as
shown in the figure. The centre o’ represents the apex of the pyramid. Join all the corners
with the apex o’.
3) Draw vertical projectors from the corners a’,b’,c’,d’ and the apex o’ to meet baseline (ac).
4) Mark the apex o at 65mm below the baseline, on the projector through o’.
5) Join all the corners a,b,c, and d in with the apex o. This will represent the top view.
6) The edge od is hidden while viewing from the top. Hence it is shown as dotted line.
Example: 13
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30mm and axis 60mm long rests on the H.P on one corner of the
base and one of the base edges containing that corner makes 45o with H.P. Draw its projection
when the axis is perpendicular to V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.13

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) Since the axis is perpendicular to V.P, begin with the front view. Draw a hexagon of side
30mm, with a corner (e’) in XY and a side (e’d’) inclined at 45o to XY. Name the corners as
shown in the figure. The centre o’ represents the apex of the pyramid. Join all the corners
with the apex o’.
3) Draw a base line below XY at convenient distance. Draw vertical projectors from the
corners a’,b’,c’,d’,e’,f’ and the apex o’ . Draw the top view with an axis height of 60mm
and mark the corner points as shown in the figure.
4) The edge oe and of are hidden while viewing from the top. Hence they are shown as
dotted lines.
AXIS PARALLEL TO BOTH H.P AND V.P.
Example: 14
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 40mm and axis length 60mm lies on the H.P on one of its longer
edges with the axis parallel to both H.P and the V.P. One of the rectangular faces containing the
resting edge is inclined at 30o to the H.P. Draw its plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.14
1) Draw the reference line XY.
2) As the axis is parallel to both H.P and V.P, begin with the side view. Draw a pentagon of
side 40mm with a corner (e”) in XY and a side (e”d”) inclined at 30o to XY. Name the
corners as shown in the figure.
3) Project these corners horizontally and draw the front view with a length of 60mm. Name
the corners as shown in the figure. The edges c’h’ and d’i’ are hidden while viewing from
the front. Hence they are shown as dotted lines.
4) Project the corners from the side view using mitre line (45o line) as shown. Project the
corners vertically from the front view.
5) Join the corresponding intersection points to obtain the top view. The edge ej is hidden
while viewing from the top. Hence it is shown as dotted line.
Example: 15
☞ A triangular pyramid of base edge 40mm and height 60mm is resting on the H.P on one of its base
edges with its axis parallel to both the H.P and V.P. Draw its plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.15

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) As the axis is parallel to both H.P and V.P, begin with the side view. Draw an equilateral
triangle of side 40mm with one side in XY. Name the corners as shown in the figure.
Locate the centre o” as the meeting point of the bisectors of any two angles.
3) Project the corners a”,b”,c” and the centre o” horizontally.
4) Mark the apex o’ at a distance 60mm from a vertical reference line, on the projector
through o”.
5) Join the corners with apex o’. This represents the front view.
6) Project the corners and apex from the side view using mitre line as shown. Project the
corners and apex vertically from the front view.
7) Mark the corresponding intersection points and complete the top view as shown.
Example: 16
☞ A square pyramid of base edge 30mm and axis 60mm long rests on the H.P on one of its corners
with its axis parallel to both the H.P and V.P. The edge containing the resting corner is inclined at
45o to the H.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.16

1) Draw the reference line XY.

2) As the axis is parallel to both H.P and V.P, begin with the side view. Draw a square of 30
mm with a corner in XY and a side inclined at 45o to XY. Name the corners as shown in
the figure. Locate the centre o”.
3) Project the corners a”,b”,c”,d” and the centre o” horizontally.
4) Mark the apex o’ at a distance 60mm from a vertical reference line, on the projector
through o’.
5) Join the corners with apex o’. This represents the front view.
6) Project the corners and apex from the side view using mitre line as shown. Project the
corners and apex vertically from the front view.
7) Mark the corresponding intersection points and complete the top view as shown.
AXIS INCLINED TO THE H.P AND PARALLEL TO THE V.P.

Example: 17
☞ A square prism of base side 35mm and axis length 60mm rests on one of its base edges on the H.P
with its axis inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.17
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a square of base side 35mm with two edges parallel to XY.
3) Project the plan vertically and draw the elevation with height of 60mm.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about the resting edge (f’g’) so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. First join the corners for top base (a–b–c–d).
Then join the corners for bottom base (e–f–g–h). Finally draw the longer edges (a–e, b–f,
c–g, and d–h).
7) Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines. Here, the base edge fg is hidden while viewing
from the top. Hence it is shown as dotted line.
Example: 18
☞ A cube of 30mm side rests on one of its corners on the H.P with its faces equally inclined to the
V.P. Draw the projection of the cube when its axis inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.18
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a square of base side 30mm with two edges inclined at 45o to XY.
3) Project the plan vertically and draw the elevation with height of 30mm.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about the resting corner(g’) so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners.
7) Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines. Here, the base edge fg, gh and the longer edge
cg are hidden while viewing from the top. Hence they are shown as dotted lines.
Example: 19
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis length 65mm is resting on the H.P on one of its
base corners such that its axis is inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.19
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a regular pentagon of side 30mm with one edge perpendicular to XY.
3) Project the plan vertically and draw the elevation with height of 65mm.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about the resting corner(h’) so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners. Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines.
Example: 20
☞ A hexagonal prism of base side 25mm and axis length 50mm is resting on the H.P on one of its
base edges such that its axis is inclined at 35o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.20
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a regular hexagon of side 25mm with two edges perpendicular to XY.
3) Project the plan vertically and draw the elevation with height of 50mm.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about the resting edge (i’j’) so that the axis is inclined at 35o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners. Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines.

Example: 21
☞ A cylinder of 50mm diameter and 80mm height rests on the ground with its axis inclined 45o to H.P
and parallel to V.P. Draw its projection.
✍ Solution:

Fig.21
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a circle of diameter 50mm. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and
name the division points as shown.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 80mm. Name the
points as shown in the figure.
Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about a point so that the axis is inclined at 45o to the XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the top and bottom bases as a smooth
curve (ellipse) by joining the corresponding points. Draw the longer edges (generators) by
joining two curves by common tangents.
7) Draw the hidden portion of the cylinder as dotted lines. Here the lower half of the bottom
base is hidden while viewing from the top.
Example: 22
☞ A square pyramid of base 40mm side and axis 70mm long is testing with one of its corners on the
H.P. Draw its projection when the axis is inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.22
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a square of side 40mm with two edges equally inclined to XY.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 70mm. Name the
points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about a corner (c’) so that the axis is inclined at 30o to the XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges by joining the
corresponding corners. Draw the slant edges by joining each corner with the apex o.
7) Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines. Here the base edges bc, cd and the slant edge
oc are hidden while viewing from the top.
Example: 23
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30mm and axis 80mm long is resting with one of its base edges
and the axis is parallel to the V.P and making an angle of 30o to the H.P. Draw the plan and
elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.23
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a hexagon of side 30mm with two edges perpendicular to XY.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 80mm. Name the
points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about the resting edge (c’d’) so that the axis is inclined at 30o to the XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges by joining the
corresponding corners. Draw the slant edges by joining each corner with the apex o.
7) Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines. Here the base edges bc, cd and de, and the
slant edges oc and od are hidden while viewing from the top.
Example: 24
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30mm and axis 60mm long lies with one of its triangular faces
on the ground so that the axis is parallel to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.24
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a hexagon of side 30mm with two edges perpendicular to XY.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 60mm. Name the
points as shown in the figure.
Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation so that the triangular face (c’d’o’) lies on XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges by joining the
corresponding corners. Draw the slant edges by joining each corner with the apex o.
7) Draw all the hidden edges as dotted lines. Here the slant edges oc and od are hidden
while viewing from the top.

Example: 25
☞ A cone of base diameter 35mm and height 70mm is standing on the ground with its base inclined
at 70o to the H.P and the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.
✍ Solution:

Fig.25
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a circle of diameter 35mm. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and
name the division points as shown.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 70mm. Name the
points as shown in the figure.
Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation about a point so that the base is inclined at 70o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first
plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base as a smooth curve (ellipse) by
joining the corresponding points. Draw slant edges (generators) by joining apex with the
curve by tangents.
7) Draw all the hidden portion of the cone as dotted lines. Here the lower half of the base is
hidden while viewing from the top.
Example: 26
☞ Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 60mm and axis length 80mm when it lies on the
ground on one of its generators with the axis parallel to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.26
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to the V.P.
2) Draw the plan as a circle of diameter 60mm. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and name
the division points as shown.
3) Project these points vertically and draw the elevation with height of 80mm. Name the points
as shown in the figure.
Stage II
4) Tilt the elevation so that one of its generators lies on XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new elevation and horizontal projectors from the first plan.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base as a smooth curve (ellipse) by
joining the corresponding points. Draw slant edges (generators) by joining apex with the
curve by tangents.
AXIS INCLINED TO THE V.P AND PARALLEL TO THE H.P.

Example: 27
☞ Draw the projection of a square prism of base 30mm side and axis 50mm long rests on one of its
rectangular faces on the ground with its axis inclined at 30o to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.27
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a square of base side 30mm with two edges parallel to XY.
3) Project the elevation vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 50mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners.
7) Draw all hidden edges as dotted lines. Here the base edge f’g’ is hidden while viewing
from the front. Hence it is shown as dotted line.
Example: 28
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 65mm long is resting on one of its rectangular
faces on the H.P such that the axis is inclined at 45o to the V.P. Draw its projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.28
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a pentagon of base side 30mm with one edge parallel to XY.
3) Project the elevation vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 65mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 45o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners. Draw all hidden edges as dotted lines.
Example: 29
☞ A hexagonal prism of side 25mm and axis 50mm long is lying on the ground with one of its longer
edges such that the axis is inclined at 35o to the V.P. Draw its projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.29
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a hexagon of base side 25mm with two edges perpendicular to XY.
3) Project the elevation vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 50mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 35o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges and longer edges by
joining the corresponding corners. Draw all hidden edges as dotted lines.

Example: 30
☞ Draw the projection of a cylinder of 60mm diameter and 100mm long, resting on the ground with
its axis inclined at 30o to V.P.
✍ Solution:

Fig.30
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a circle of diameter 60mm. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and
name the division points as shown.
3) Project these points vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 100mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.
Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 45o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the bases as a smooth curve by joining
the corresponding points. Draw the longer edges by joining two curves by common
tangents.
7) Draw the hidden portion of the cylinder as dotted lines.
Example: 31
☞ A square pyramid of base 40mm side and axis 70mm long is resting on one of its base corners on
the H.P. Draw its projections when the axis is inclined at 30o to the V.P.

✍ Solution:

Fig.31
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a square of side 40mm with two edges equally inclined to XY.
3) Project these points vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 70mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges by joining the
corresponding corners. Draw the slant edges by joining each corner with the apex o’.
7) Draw all hidden edges as dotted lines.
Example: 32
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30mm and axis 80mm long is resting one of its base edges and
the axis is parallel to the H.P and making an angle of 30o to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.32
Stage I
1) Assume that the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to the H.P.
2) Draw the elevation as a hexagon of side 30mm with two edges perpendicular to XY.
3) Project these points vertically downwards and draw the plan with height of 80mm. Name
the points as shown in the figure.

Stage II
4) Tilt the plan so that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY.
5) Draw vertical projectors from the new plan and horizontal projectors from the first
elevation.
6) Mark the corresponding intersection points. Draw the base edges by joining the
corresponding corners. Draw the slant edges by joining each corner with the apex o’.
7) Draw all hidden edges as dotted lines.
AXIS INCLINED TO BOTH THE H.P AND V.P.

Example: 33
☞ A square prism of base side 40mm and axis 70mm is resting on one of its base edges on the H.P
with its axis inclined at 45o to the H.P and 25o to the V.P. Draw its projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.33
Stage I
1) Draw the plan as a square of side 40mm with two edges parallel to XY.
2) Project the plan vertically and draw the elevation with height of 70mm.

Stage II
3) Tilt the elevation so that the axis is inclined at 45o to XY.
4) Project this elevation vertically downward and draw the second plan as explained
earlier.

Stage III
As the angle of inclination of the axis is given, the second plan is to be tilted with an angle
greater than this angle.
To find the angle of apparent inclination
• Mark a point p below XY as shown in the figure.
• Draw line po1 equal to true length of axis (70mm) and inclined at true inclination angle
(25o)
• With p as centre and radius equal to po (the length of the axis in the second plan), draw
an arc cutting at o on the horizontal line drawn from o1.
• Join po . Now, α is the angle of apparent inclination.
1) With po as the new axis, reproduce the second plan and project the final elevation from it.

Example: 34
☞ A cone of base 40mm diameter and 50mm long is resting on the ground on a point on its base
circle with its axis making an angle of 30o with the H.P and 45o with the V.P. Draw the plan and
elevation.

✍ Solution:

Fig.34

Follow the procedure as explained in Example 33.

Example: 35
☞ A hexagonal prism of base edge 30mm and axis 60mm long is resting on the ground on one of its
base edges. The axis is inclined at 35o to the H.P and the plan of the axis is inclined at 30o to the
V.P. Draw its projection.

✍ Solution:

Fig.35

For stage I and stage II, follow the procedure as explained in Example 33.

Stage III
• Tilt the second plan such that the axis is inclined at 30o to XY and project the final
elevation from it.

Example: 36
☞ A square pyramid of base edge 35mm and height 60mm rests on the H.P on one of its base
corners. The axis is inclined at 30o to the H.P and plan of the axis is inclined at 45o to the V.P.
Draw its projection.
✍ Solution:

Fig.36

For stage I and stage II, follow the procedure as explained in Example 33.

Stage III
• Tilt the second plan such that the axis is inclined at 45o to XY and project the final
elevation from it.

Example: 37
☞ Draw the projection of a regular hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30mm and axis 60mm long, when
it lies with one of its triangular faces on the ground, and the plan of the axis is inclined at 50o to
the H.P.
✍ Solution:

Fig.37

For stage I and stage II, follow the procedure as explained in Example 33.

Stage III
• Tilt the second plan such that the axis is inclined at 50o to XY and project the final
elevation from it.

EXERCISES ON PROJECTION OF SOLIDS

AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO H.P.

1) Draw the projection of a cube of side 40mm resting on the H.P on one of its faces with one
of its vertical faces inclined at 30o to the V.P.
2) Draw the projection of a square prism of base side 40mm and axis 70mm long with its
base on the H.P and two of its vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P.
3) Draw the projection of a pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 60mm resting on
the H.P on its base with one of the rectangular faces inclined at 40o to the V.P.
 4) Draw the projection of a cylinder of diameter 40mm and altitude 60mm when it rests on
the H.P on its base with its axis 40mm from the V.P.
5) Draw the projection of a hexagonal pyramid of base of side 30mm and altitude 60mm
when it rests on the H.P on its base with its base edge inclined at 45o to the V.P.
6) Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 40mm and altitude 60mm when it rests on
the H.P on its base with its axis 40mm from the V.P.

AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO V.P.

7) Draw the plan and elevation of a cube of side 40mm, which rests on the H.P with one of
its edges and on face is inclined at 30o to the H.P.
8) A hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 60mm rests on the H.P on one corners of
the base, a base edge containing which makes 45o with the H.P. draw its projection when
the axis is perpendicular to the V.P and the base is touching the V.P.
9) Draw the plan and elevation of a cylinder of base diameter 50mm and axis 80mm, when
the axis is perpendicular to the V.P.
10) A pentagonal pyramid of base 40mm side and axis 60mm long has its base in the V.P and
two of its base edges perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its projection.

AXIS PARALLEL TO BOTH THE H.P AND V.P.

11) Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 60mm long
resting on the ground with one of its rectangular faces and its axis parallel to both the
planes.
12) Draw the projection of a cylinder of base diameter 50mm and axis 70mm long resting on
the ground with its axis parallel to both the planes.
13) A hexagonal pyramid of base 30mm side and axis 70mm long is resting on the ground
with one of its corners. Draw the plan and elevation of the pyramid when its axis is
parallel to both the planes.
14) Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 40mm and axis 60mm long resting on the
ground with its axis parallel to both the planes.

AXIS INCLINED TO H.P.

15) A square prism of 40mm side and height 60mm rests with one of its base corners on the
H.P such that the axis is inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projection.
16) A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and height 60mm rests with one of its base edges
on the H.P such that the axis is inclined at 40o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projection.
17) A cylinder of 50mm base diameter and 80mm height rests on the ground with its axis
inclined at 45o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. Draw its projection.
18) Draw the projection of hexagonal pyramid of base side 20mm and height of axis 65mm
long stands directly upon the H.P at a distance 10mm from the V.P and rests with one of
the angular point of the base in contact with the H.P. The axis and two sides of the base
are parallel with V.P and the axis makes an angle 45o with H.P.
19) A cone of base diameter 50mm and height 70mm is standing on the ground with its axis
inclined at 45o to the H.P and the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.
20) A cone of base diameter 40mm and height 70mm is standing on the ground with its base
inclined at 60o to the H.P and the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw the plan and elevation.

AXIS INCLINED TO V.P.

21) Draw the projection of a square prism of base 40mm side and axis 60mm long rests on
one of its base corners on the ground with its axis inclined at 40o to the V.P.
22) A hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 50mm long is resting on one of its
rectangular faces on the H.P such that the axis is inclined at 30o to the V.P. Draw its
projection.
23) Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal pyramid of base 30mm side and axis 60mm
length is resting on the H.P with two of its base edges perpendicular to the H.P and the
axis is inclined at 45o to the V.P.
24) Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 50mm and axis 80mm height resting on
the V.P with its axis inclined at 60o to the V.P.

AXIS INCLINED TO BOTH THE H.P AND V.P.

25) Draw the projection of a square prism of side 40mm and height 60mm resting on the H.P
with one of its base corners. The axis is inclined at 45o to the H.P and 30o to the V.P.
26) A pentagonal prism of base side 40mm and axis 65mm is resting on the H.P with one of
its base edges on the ground such that the axis is inclined at 40o to the H.P and the plan
of the axis is inclined at 30o to the V.P.
27) Draw the projection of a cylinder of base diameter 50mm and axis 80mm height resting
on the H.P. The axis is inclined at 30o to the H.P and 45o to the V.P.
28) Draw the projection of a square pyramid of 30mm base edge and axis 70mm long when it
lies with one of its triangular faces on the ground and the axis is inclined at 45o to the V.P.
29) Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis 50mm
long when it rests on the H.P with one of its base edges such that the axis is inclined at
45o to the H.P and the plan of the axis is inclined at 30o to the V.P.
30) Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 60mm and axis 70mm long resting on the
H.P with one of its generators and the axis inclined at 45o to the V.P.
 Unit – VII(b)
SECTION OF SOLIDS
Need for sectional view
The invisible features of an object are shown by dotted lines in their orthographic
views. But, when the object contains too many invisible features, the dotted lines make the
views more complicated and difficult to interpret. In such cases, the sectional view is used. The
sectional view is necessary for the following purposes
• To show the invisible (internal) details
• To show the dimensions of hidden line details clearly.
• To avoid too many hidden lines, which make the orthographic view complicated.

Fig.1 Sectional view

Sectional view
A sectional view, or simply a section, is obtained when a portion of the object between
the cutting plane and the observer is assumed to be removed and the remaining portion is
projected.

Section plane or cutting plane

Fig.2 Cuzztting plane

 The imaginary plane which is assumed to cut the object is known as section plane or
cutting plane. Cutting planes are shown by using lines made up of alternate long and short
dashes, thick at the ends and thin elsewhere. The direction of viewing is shown by two arrows
on the thick ends.

Types of section planes

The following are the types of section planes
1) Horizontal section plane parallel to H.P and perpendicular to V.P
2) Vertical section plane parallel to V.P and perpendicular to H.P
3) Section plane inclined to H.P and perpendicular to V.P
4) Section plane inclined to V.P and perpendicular to H.P
5) Section plane perpendicular to both the planes

Section

Fig.3 Section and section lines

The surface produced by cutting an object by a section plane is known as section. The
section is indicated by continuous thin lines inclined at 45o to the axis or the main outline of the
section. Spacing between these hatching lines is uniform and should be chosen in proportion to
the size of the hatched section.

Types of sections
Apparent section: The projection of the cut section on the plane to which the cutting
plane is inclined is said to be the apparent section.

True shape of a section: If the cutting plane is parallel to any one of the principal
planes, the projection of the section show the true shape of the section. When the cutting
plane is inclined to the H.P or V.P, the true shape of the section will be obtained by viewing the
object perpendicular to the cut surface and drawing the projection of the section on an
auxiliary plane parallel to the cut surface. When the cutting plane is perpendicular to both the
H.P and V.P, the sectional end view will give the true shape of the section.
BIS code (IS 696 –19 72) for representation of materials

Materials Convention Materials Conventions

Metal Glass
Steel, cast iron, Glass
Copper, and its alloys,
Aluminim and its alloy

Lead, Zinc, Tin,

White metal etc.
Packing and insulation Liquids
materials Water, Oil, Petrol,
Porcelain, stonewares, marble Kerosene, etc.
slate, etc, Asbestos, Fibres,
Synthetic resin products, Paper,
Cork, Linoleum, Rubber, Leather,
Wax, insulation and filling
materials.
Wood Concrete
Wood, Plywood, etc. Brickwork
masonry,
Concrete,
Firebricks, etc

General procedure for drawing sectional views

1) Draw the front view and top view of the object in the required position.
2) Draw the cutting plane in the view in which it is seen as a straight line.
3) Mark the cutting points at which the edges of the object are cut by the cutting plane.
4) Number the visible points first, and invisible points next.
5) Project the cutting points to intersect the corresponding edges on the other view.
6) Join these intersecting points in proper order to get the required section.
7) Hatch the section and finish the views by drawing the outlines thick and the hatching lines
thin.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

SECTION PLANE PARALLEL TO THE H.P AND PERPENDICULAR TO THE V.P.

Example: 1
☞ A cube of 40mm side is resting on the ground on one of its edges with a vertical face inclined at
40o to the H.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to the H.P and 10mm away from the axis. Draw
its front view and top view.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cube in the given

position.
2) As the section plane is parallel to H.P, it will be
seen as a line in the front view. Draw a line VT in
the front view, parallel to XY and 10mm away from
o’ (axis).
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The
section plane cuts the edges a’b’ at 1’, b’c’ at 2’,
f’g’ at 3’ and e’f’ at 4’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the
corresponding intersection points 1,2,3 and 4. Join
these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4. This area
Fig.1
represents the sectional surface.
6) This area also shows the true shape of the section.

Example: 2
☞ A hexagonal prism of base 25mm side and axis 50mm long is lying on one of its longer edges with
its axis inclined at 35o to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane, at a distance of 45mm
above the ground. Draw its elevation and sectional plan.
✍ Solution:

Fig.2

1) Draw the projection of the hexagonal prism in the given position.

2) As the section plane is parallel to H.P, it will be seen as a line in the front view. Draw a line
VT in the final front view, parallel to and 45mm above XY.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the edges a’b’ at 1’, b’c’
at 2’,e’f’ at 3’ and f’g’ at 4’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the final top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1,2,3 and 4. Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4. This area represents the sectional surface. This
area also shows the true shape of the section.

Example: 3
☞ A square pyramid of base 40mm side and height 60mm has one of its base edges on the ground
and axis inclined at 30o to the H.P. It is cut by a horizontal plane passing through a point on the
axis at 20mm from the base. Draw the elevation, sectional plan and true shape of the section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.3

1) Draw the projection of the square pyramid in the given position.

2) Draw the cutting plane as a line VT in the final front view, parallel to XY and passing through
a point on the axis at 20mm from the base in the final front view.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the edges a’b’, b’o’, c’o’,
and c’d’ at 1’,2’,3’, and 4’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the final top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1,2,3 and 4. Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4. This area represents the sectional surface. This
area also shows the true shape of the section.

Example: 4
☞ A cone of 60mm base diameter and 80mm axis, lying with one of its generators touching the
ground. The axis of the cone is parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane which
passes through the midpoint of the axis. Draw the front view, sectional top view and true shape of
the section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.4

1) Draw the projection of the cone in the given position.

2) Draw the cutting plane as a line VT, parallel to XY and passing through the midpoint of the
axis in the final front view.
3) Name the points at which the generators and base edges are cut. The section plane cuts the
generators through d’,c’,b’,a’,l’,k’, and j’ at 2’,3’,4’,5’,6’,7’ and 8’ respectively and the base
edge at 1’ and 9’.
4) Project these points on the final top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. Join these points in proper order to obtain a smooth curve.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4–5–6–7–8–9. This area represents the sectional
surface. This area also shows the true shape of the section.
SECTION PLANE PARALLEL TO THE V.P AND PERPENDICULAR TO THE H.P.

Example: 5
☞ A cube of 40mm side is resting on the ground on one of its edges with two of its faces equally
inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to the V.P and 10mm away from the axis.
Draw its plan, sectional elevation and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cube in the given position.

2) As the section plane is parallel to V.P, it will be seen as
a line in the top view. Draw a line HT in the top view,
parallel to XY and 10mm away from o (axis).
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The
section plane cuts the edges ab at 1, bc at 2, fg at 3
and ef at 4 respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the
corresponding intersection points 1’,2’,3’ and 4’. Join
these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’. This area
represents the sectional surface. This area also shows
the true shape of the section.

Fig.5

Example: 6
☞ A cylinder of base diameter 60mm and axis 100mm long is lying on the ground on one of its
generators with its axis inclined at 30o to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to the V.P
and passing through one end of the axis. Draw the plan, sectional elevation and true shape of the
section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.6

1) Draw the projection of the cylinder in the given position.

2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, parallel to XY and passing through the right end of the
axis in the final top view.
3) Name the points at which the generators and base edge are cut. The section plane cuts the
generators through a,b,c,k, and l at 1,2,3,6 and 7, and the base edge at 4 and 5
respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1’,2’,3’,4’,5’,6’, and 7’. Join these points in proper order to obtain a smooth curve.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’–5’–6’–7’. This area represents the sectional
surface. This area also shows the true shape of the section.
Example: 7
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30mm and axis 80mm long, has one of its base edges on the
ground and axis inclined at 30o to the H.P. It is cut by a plane parallel to the V.P and passing
through a point 10mm away from the axis. Draw the sectional elevation, top view and true shape of
the section.

✍ Solution:

Fig.7

1) Draw the projection of the hexagonal pyramid in the given position.

2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, parallel to XY and 10mm away from the axis in the final
top view.
3) Name the points at which the edges and the base edges are cut. The section plane cuts the
slant edges oa, ob, and oc at 2,3, and 4 respectively. It also cuts the base edges fa, and cd
at 1 and 5 respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1’,2’,3’,4’,and 5’. Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’–5’. This area represents the sectional surface.
This area also shows the true shape of the section.
Example: 8
☞ A cone of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm rests on the ground with its base. It is cut by a
vertical plane perpendicular to the H.P and parallel to V.P at a distance 10mm away from the axis.
Draw its top view and sectional front view.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cone in the given

position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, parallel
to XY and 10mm away from o (axis) in the
final top view.
3) Name the points at which the generators
and base edge are cut. The section plane
cuts the generators through ob, oc, od, oe,
and of at 2,3,4,5 and 6 respectively. It also
cuts the base edge at 1 and 7 respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to
obtain the corresponding intersection points
1’,2’,3’,5’,6’, and 7’.
5) The point 4 cannot be projected directly.
Rotate 4 to 41 horizontally, and project 41
to 42 on o’a’. Draw a line parallel to XY
through 42 which cuts o’d’ at 4’.
6) Join these points 1’,2’,3’,4’,5’,6’, and 7’ in
proper order to obtain a smooth curve.
7) Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’–
5’–6’–7’. This area represents the sectional
Fig.8
surface. This area also shows the true
shape of the section.
SECTION PLANE INCLINED TO THE H.P AND PERPENDICULAR TO THE V.P.

Example: 9
☞ A cube of side 40mm is resting on the ground with one of its faces. Two of its vertical faces make
equal angles with the V.P. It is cut by a plane which is perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o
to the H.P and passing through a point on the axis 30mm from the base. Draw the elevation,
sectional plan and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cube in the given

position.
2) As the section plane is inclined to H.P, it will be
seen as a line in the front view. Draw a line VT,
inclined at 30o to XY and passing through a point
on the axis 30mm above XY.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The
section plane cuts the edges a’e’, b’f’, b’c’, c’d’
and d’h’ at 1’,2’,3’,4’, and 5’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the
corresponding intersection points 1,2,3, 4, and 5.
Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4–5. This
area represents the sectional surface but not the
true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

1) Draw a line X1Y1 parallel to VT at any convenient

distance.
2) Draw perpendicular projectors from cutting points

Fig. 9
on VT (i.e. from 1’,2’,3’,4’, and 5’).

3) Measure the distances of the points 1,2,3,4 and 5 from XY (in the top view).
4) Transfer these distances on the corresponding projectors from X1Y1 to obtain the points 11,
21, 31, 41, and 51. (For example,P1–11 = P–1)
5) Join these points in proper order and draw section lines for this area. This area shows the
true shape of the section.
Example: 10
☞ A cube of side 40mm is resting on the ground with one of its edges. Two of its vertical faces make
equal angles with the H.P. It is cut by a plane which is perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o
to the H.P and 10mm away from the axis. Draw the elevation, front view, sectional top view and
true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cube in the

given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT,
inclined at 30o to XY and 10mm away
from the axis. (This line is drawn as a
tangent to the circle of 10mm radius with
o’ as centre)
3) Name the points at which the edges are
cut. The section plane cuts the edges a’d’,
b’c’, g’f, and e’h’ at 1’,2’,3’,and 4’
respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to
obtain the corresponding intersection
points 1,2,3, and 4. Join these points in
proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4.
This area represents the sectional surface
but not the true shape.
To obtain true shape of the section
Follow the procedure as explained in
Fig.10
Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the
section.

Example: 11
☞ A square prism of base 45mm side, axis 90mm long has its base on the ground and its faces
equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 60o to the
H.P and passing through a point on the axis 65mm above the ground. Draw its front view, sectional
top view and true shape on auxiliary plane parallel to the sectional plane.
✍ Solution:

Fig.11
1) Draw the projection of the square prism in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, inclined at 60o to XY and passing through a point on the
axis 65mm above XY.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the longer edges a’e’,
b’f’, and d’h’ at 1’, 2’ and 5’ respectively. It also cuts the base edges b’c’ and c’d’ at 3’ and 4’
respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points 1,2,3, 4,
and 5. Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4–5. This area represents the sectional surface but
not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the section.
Example: 12
☞ A hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis length 70mm rests on one of its ends on the H.P
with two base sides parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at
30o to the H.P. The cutting plane meet the axis at 30mm from the top. Draw the front view,
sectional top view and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the hexagonal prism in the

given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, inclined at 30o
to XY and passing through a point on the axis
30mm from the top.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The
section plane cuts the longer edges a’g’, b’h, c’i’,
d’j’, e’k’ and f’l’ at 1’,2’,3’,4’,5’ and 6’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the
corresponding intersection points 1,2,3, 4,5 and 6.
Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1–2–3–4–5–6. This
area represents the sectional surface but not the
true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 9
to obtain the true shape of the section.

Fig.12

Example: 13
☞ A cylinder of base diameter 40mm and height 50mm rests on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a
plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 50o to the H.P. The cutting plane meets the axis at a
distance of 15mm from the top. Draw the font view, sectional top view and true shape of the
section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.13
1) Draw the projection of the cylinder in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, inclined at 50o to XY and passing through a point on the
axis 15mm from the top.
3) Name the points at which the generators and base edges are cut. The cutting points are
1’,2’,3’, etc.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points 1,2,3,
etc. Join these points in proper order to obtain a smooth curve.
5) Draw section lines in this area. This area represents the sectional surface but not the true
shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the section.
Example: 14
☞ A square pyramid base 40mm side and axis 70mm long has its base on the ground and all the
edges of the base equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the V.P
inclined at 45o to the H.P and bisecting the axis. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true
shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the square pyramid

in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT,
inclined at 45o to XY and passing through
the midpoint the axis.
3) Name the points at which the edges are
cut. The section plane cuts the slant
edges o’a’, o’b’, o’c’ and o’d’ at 1’,2’,3’
and 4’ respectively.
4) Project the points 1’ and 3’ on the top
view to obtain the corresponding
intersection points 1 and 3.
5) The points 2’ and 4’ cannot be projected
directly. Draw a line through 2’ parallel to
XY, cutting o’c’ at p’. Project p’ to p on oc
in the top view. With o as centre and
radius op, draw an arc cutting ob at 2 and
od at 4.
6) Join the points 1,2,3, and 4 in proper
order. Draw section lines in this area. This
area represents the sectional surface but
not the true shape.

Fig.14
To obtain true shape of the section
Follow the procedure as explained in
Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the
section.
Example: 15
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25mm and axis 50mm rests on its base on the H.P with two base
edges perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o to
the H.P meeting the axis at 20mm from the vertex. Draw the elevation, sectional plan and true
shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the hexagonal pyramid

in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, inclined
at 30o to XY and passing through a point on
the axis 20mm from the vertex.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut.
The section plane cuts the slant edges o’a’,
o’b’, o’c’, o’d’, o’e’, o’f’ at 1’,2’,3’,4’,5’ and 6’
respectively.
4) Project the points 1’,3’,4’, and 6’ on the top
view to obtain the corresponding intersection
points 1 and 3.
5) The points 2’ and 5’ cannot be projected
directly. Draw a line through 2’ parallel to XY,
cutting o’a1’ at p’. Project p’ to p on a
horizontal line from o in the top view. With o
as centre and radius op, draw an arc cutting
ob at 2 and oe at 5.
6) Join the points 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 in proper
order. Draw section lines in this area. This
area represents the sectional surface but not
the true shape.
To obtain true shape of the section
Follow the procedure as explained in Example :
Fig.15
9 to obtain the true shape of the section.

Example: 16
☞ A cone of base diameter 50mm and axis 70mm long is resting on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a
section plane perpendicular to the V.P, inclined at 30o to the H.P and passing through a point
40mm from the base. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cone in the

given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT,
inclined at 30o to XY and passing through
a point on the axis 40mm from the base.
3) Name the points at which the generators
are cut. The cutting points are 1’,2’,3’,
etc.
4) Project these points on the top view to
obtain the corresponding intersection
points.
5) The points 4’ and 10’ cannot be projected
directly. Draw a line through 4’ parallel to
XY, cutting o’g’ at p’. Project p’ to p on og
in the top view. With o as centre and
radius op, draw an arc cutting od at 4 and
oj at 10.
6) Join the points 1,2,3, etc. in proper order
to obtain a smooth curve. Draw section
lines in this area. This area represents the
sectional surface but not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in
Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the
section.
Fig.16

Example: 17
☞ A cone of base diameter 50mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on the ground. It is cut
by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P, inclined at 75o to the H.P and passing through the
apex. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.17
(Note: When the section plane passes through the apex of a cone, it does not cut any other
generators. The true shape obtained will be an isosceles triangle).

1) Draw the projection of the cone in the given position.

2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, inclined at 75o to XY and passing through the apex.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the base edge at 1’ and
3’, and apex at 2’ respectively.
4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points.
5) Join the points 1,2,and 3 in proper order. Draw section lines in this area. This area
represents the sectional surface but not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the section.
Example: 18
☞ A cone of base diameter 50mm and altitude 60mm rests on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the V.P and parallel to one of the extreme generators, 10mm away from it. Draw
the elevation, sectional plan and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

Fig.18
(Note: When a cone is cut be a section plane parallel to one of its extreme generators, the
resulting section obtained will be a parabola).
1) Draw the projection of the cone in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line VT, parallel to and 10mm away from o’g’ (extreme
generator).
3) Name the points at which the generators are cut. The cutting points are 1’,2’,3’, etc.
 4) Project these points on the top view to obtain the corresponding intersection points.
5) Join the points 1,2,3, etc. in proper order to obtain a smooth curve. Draw section lines in
this area. This area represents the sectional surface but not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 9 to obtain the true shape of the section.
The true shape of the section is a parabola.

SECTION PLANE INCLINED TO THE V.P AND PERPENDICULAR TO THE H.P.

Example: 19
☞ A cube of 30mm side lies on the ground with one of its edges and a face is inclined at 30o to the
H.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined at 35o to the V.P and meeting the axis at 10mm from the
front end of the cube. Draw the top view, sectional front view and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

Fig.19
 1) Draw the projection of the cube in the given position.
2) As the section plane is inclined to V.P, it will be seen as a line in the top view. Draw a line
HT, inclined at 35o to XY and meeting the axis at 10mm from the front end of the cube.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the edges ae, bf, bc, cd
and dh at 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the corresponding intersection points
1’,2’,3’, 4’, and 5’. Join these points in proper order.
5) Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’–5’. This area represents the sectional surface but
not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

1) Draw a line X1Y1 parallel to HT at any convenient distance.
2) Draw perpendicular projectors from cutting points on HT (i.e. from 1,2,3,4, and 5).
3) Measure the distances of the points 1’,2’,3’,4’ and 5’ from XY (in the front view).
4) Transfer these distances on the corresponding projectors from X1Y1 to obtain the points 1’1,
2’1, 3’1, 4’1, and 5’1.
5) Join these points in proper order and draw section lines for this area. This area shows the
true shape of the section.

Example: 20
☞ A pentagonal prism of base side 40mm and axis length 80mm is lying on the H.P on one of its
rectangular faces with its axis parallel to both the H.P and V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to
the H.P and inclined at 30o to the V.P. The section plane meets the axis at 16mm from one of its
ends. Draw the top view, sectional front view and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the pentagonal prism in the given position.

2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, inclined at 30o to XY and passing through a point on the
axis 16mm from one end in the top view.
3) Name the points at which the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the longer edges af, bg,
and ej at 1,2 and 5 respectively. It also cuts the base edges bc and de at 3 and 4
respectively.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the corresponding intersection points 1’,2’
and 5’.
5) The points 3 and 4 cannot be projected directly. Project 3 and 4 on the side view to get 3”
and 4”. Project 3” and 4” on the front view to get 3’ and 4’.
6) Join these points in proper order. Draw section lines in the area 1’–2’–3’–4’–5’. This area

Fig.20
To obtain true shape of the section
Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 19 to obtain the true shape of the section.

Example: 21
☞ A cylinder of diameter 60mm and height 80mm is lying on the H.P with its axis parallel to both the
H.P and the V.P. A vertical plane inclined at 25o to the V.P cut the cylinder and passes through the
midpoint of the axis. Draw its sectional front view, top view and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

1) Draw the projection of the cylinder in the given position. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts
and obtain the corresponding generators on the other views.
2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, inclined at 25o to XY and passing through a midpoint of
the axis.

Fig.21
3) Name the points at which the generators and the edges are cut. The section plane cuts the
generators at 2,3,4,7,8 and 9. It also cuts the left base edge at 1 and 10, and right base edge
at 5 and 6.
4) Project these points on the front view to obtain the corresponding intersection points.
5) The points 1,5,6 and 10 cannot be projected directly. Project these points on the side view to
obtain 1”,5”,6” and 10”. Then project these point on the front view to obtain 1’,5’,6’ and 10’.
6) Join the points 1’,2’,…10’ in proper order to obtain a smooth curve. Draw section lines in this
area. This area represents the sectional surface but not the true shape.
To obtain true shape of the section
Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 19 to obtain the true shape of the section.
Example: 22
☞ A square pyramid of base side 40mm and axis 60mm long resting on the H.P on its base with one
of its base edges inclined at 30o to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the H.P and
inclined at 45o to the V.P passing through a point 10mm away from the axis. Draw the top view,
sectional front view and true shape of the section.

✍ Solution:

Fig.22
1) Draw the projection of the square pyramid in the given position.
2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, inclined at 45o to XY and passing through a point 10mm
away from the axis.
3) Name the cutting points in the top view and project these point on the front view to obtain
the corresponding intersection points.
4) Join these points in proper order. Draw section lines in this area. This area represents the
sectional surface but not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 19 to obtain the true shape of the section.
Example: 23
☞ A hexagonal pyramid of base side 20mm and axis 50mm rests on the H.P on its base with two
edges parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a vertical plane inclined at 30o to the V.P and cutting the
pyramid at 5mm from the plane of the axis. Draw the top view, sectional front view and true shape
of the section.

✍ Solution:

Fig.23

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 22.

Example: 24
☞ A right circular cone of base diameter 60mm and axis length 80mm rests on its base on the H.P. It
is cut by a plane, perpendicular to the H.P, inclined at 60o to the V.P and passing through a point
15mm away from the axis. Draw the plan, sectional elevation and true shape of the section.
✍ Solution:

Fig.24

1) Draw the projection of the cone in the given position.

2) Draw the section plane as a line HT, inclined at 60o to XY and 15mm away from the axis in
the top view.
3) Name the cutting points in the top view and project these points on the front to obtain the
corresponding intersection points.
4) Join these points in proper order to obtain a smooth curve. Draw section lines in this area.
This area represents the sectional surface but not the true shape.

To obtain true shape of the section

Follow the procedure as explained in Example : 19 to obtain the true shape of the section.
 EXERCISES ON SECTION OF SOLIDS

SECTION PLANE PARALLEL TO THE H.P.

1) A cube of 40mm side is resting on the H.P on one of its edges and one face is inclined at 30o
to the H.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to the H.P and 15mm away from the axis.
Draw its front view and sectional top view.
2) A square prism of base 35mm side and axis 65mm long is lying on one of its rectangular
faces with its axis inclined at 40o to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section plane, at a
distance of 20mm above the ground. Draw its elevation and sectional plan.
3) A hexagonal pyramid of 30mm base side and 60mm height is lying with one of its triangular
faces on the ground and its axis is parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane passing
through a point on the axis 2omm from the apex. Draw the front view, sectional top view
and true shape of the section.
4) A cone diameter of base 35mm and axis 45mm long is resting on its base on the ground. It
is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P., parallel to H.P. and 15mm above the base of
the cone. Draw the sectional top view.
5) A cone of base diameter 50mm and 70mm long is lying on the ground on its base edge with
its axis inclined at 30o to the H.P and parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a horizontal section
plane passing through the midpoint of the axis. Draw the front view, top view and true
shape of the section.

SECTION PLANE PARALLEL TO THE V.P.

6) A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis 65mm long is lying on the ground on one of
its longer edges with its axis inclined at 35o to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to
the V.P and cut the axis at a distance of 30mm from its end. Draw the plan and sectional
elevation.
7) A cylinder of 50mm base diameter and axis 70mm long is resting on the H.P with its axis
inclined at 45o to the V.P and parallel to the H.P. It is cut by a plane parallel to the V.P and
passing through the midpoint of the axis. Draw the top view, sectional front view and true
shape of the section.
8) A square pyramid of base side 40mm and axis 60mm long lies on the H.P on its base with
its base edges making equal angles to the V.P. It is cut by a vertical section plane parallel to
V.P, at a distance of 15mm away from the axis. Draw the plan, sectional elevation and true
shape of the section.
9) A cone of base diameter 50mm and altitude 60mm rests on the H.P with one of its
generators. A section plane parallel to the V.P cuts the cone at a distance of 15mm away
from the axis. Draw its sectional front view, top view and true shape of the section.
SECTION PLANE INCLINED TO THE H.P.
10) A cube of side 40mm is resting on the ground on one of its faces with a vertical face inclined
at 30o to the V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the V.P, inclined at 45o to the H.P and
passing through a point on the axis 30mm from the base. Draw the elevation, sectional plan
and true shape of the section.
11) A pentagonal prism of base side 30mm and length 70mm is lying on the H.P on one of its
rectangular faces with its axis perpendicular to the V.P. It is cut by a plane parallel to the
V.P, inclined at 45o to the H.P and passing through a distance 10mm from the axis. Draw
the front view, sectional top view and the true shape of the section.
12) A hexagonal prism of base side 30mm and axis length 70mm rests on the H.P on one of its
ends with two rectangular faces parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the
V.P and inclined at 45o to the H.P. The cutting plane meets the axis at 30mm from the top.
Draw the front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
13) A cylinder of diameter 40mm and height 60mm rests on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a
plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 30o to the H.P. The plane bisects the axis.
Draw the front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
14) A square pyramid of base 40mm side and axis 65mm long has its base on the ground and
one edge of the base is inclined at 30o to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular
to the V.P, inclined at 45o to the H.P and passing through the midpoint of the axis. Draw its
front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
15) A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30mm and height 75mmmm is resting on the ground with
its axis vertical. It is cut by a plane inclined at 30o to the H.P and passing through a point on
the axis 30mm from the base. Draw the elevation, sectional plan and true shape of the
section.
16) A cone of base diameter 40mm and height 50mm rests on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a
sectional plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 40o to the H.P. The cutting plane
meets the axis at 20mm from the vertex. Draw the sectional plan, elevation and true shape
of the section.
17) A cone of base diameter 50mm and altitude 60mm lies on the H.P on one of its generators
with its axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P and
inclined at 15o to the H.P. The cutting plane meets the axis at 20mm from the base. Draw
the front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.

SECTION PLANE INCLINED TO THE V.P.

18) A square prism of base side 30mm and axis length 60mm lies on the H.P on one of its
longer edges with its axis parallel to both the H.P and V.P. It is cut by a vertical plane
inclined at 45o to the V.P. The cutting plane meets the axis at 15mm from one of the ends.
Draw the plan, sectional elevation and true shape of the section.
19) A cylinder of diameter 40mm and axis length 60mm lies on the H.P on one of its generators
with its axis parallel to the H.P and inclined at 30o to the V.P. It is cut by a plane
perpendicular to the H.P, inclined at 30o to the V.P and passing through the midpoint of the
axis. Draw the sectional front view, top view and true shape of the section.
20) A hexagonal pyramid with base side 30mm and axis 60mm long, rests with its base on the
H.P, such that two of its base edges are perpendicular to the V.P. A section plane
perpendicular to the H.P, inclined at 45o to the V.P is passing through the pyramid at a
distance of 15mm from the axis. Draw the sectional elevation, top view and true shape of
the section.
21) A right circular cone of base diameter 40mm and axis length 60mm rests on its base on the
H.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to the H.P, inclined at 45o to the V.P and passing
through a distance of 10mm away the axis. Draw the plan, sectional elevation and true
shape of the section.
 Unit – VIII
ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS
8.1 Introduction
In orthographic projection, two or more views are required to describe the object
completely. More technical knowledge and good imagination skill are needed to visualize and
interpret the orthographic projection. This difficulty can be overcome by providing three
dimensions of an object in one drawing. Pictorial drawings are very useful for this purpose. The
following are the types of pictorial drawings.

8.2 Isometric projection

Isometric projection is a type of pictorial projection in which the three dimensions of an
object are shown in one view. In isometric projection, there are three principal axes namely
height axis, length axis and width axis. These three axes are equally inclined (120o) to the
plane of projection.

Fig.1 Isometric projection

 • The three lines (OX, OY and OZ) are making 120o with each other are called isometric
axes.
• The lines parallel to any other isometric axes are called isometric lines.
• Any line which is not parallel to any of the isometric axes is said to be a non–isometric
line.
• The planes containing the faces of the cube and all the planes parallel to these planes
are called isometric planes.

8.3 Isometric scale

In isometric projection, the dimensions of the object are fore–shortened. Therefore, it is
necessary to convert true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and marking the sizes.
This is conveniently done by constructing and making use of an isometric scale.

Construction of isometric scale

Fig.2 Isometric scale

1) Draw a horizontal line OC of any length.

2) From O, draw two line OA and OB inclined at 30o and 45o respectively.
3) Mark divisions of true length on the line OB.
4) From each division point, draw vertical lines to OC, meeting OA at respective
points.
5) The divisions obtained on OA give lengths on isometric scale.
The dimensions of object in isometric projection are reduced in the ratio √2 : √3
i.e. isometric length = 0.815 x true length
8.4 Isometric drawing or isometric view
Drawing of isometric projection using isometric scale is inconvenient and time
consuming. It is convenient to use the true length of the object for the case in construction and
measuring the dimensions directly from the drawing. The view of an object drawn with the true
scale is called isometric drawing or isometric view.

8.5 Comparison of isometric projection and isometric drawing

Isometric projection Isometric drawing

1. It is the view drawn with the shortened isometric scale It is the view drawn with the true scale.
2. The dimension of the object cannot be directly The dimension of the object can be measured
measured from the view. directly from the view.
3. It requires comparatively more time for drawing the It requires comparatively less time for drawing
view. the view.

8.6 Dimensioning of isometric drawings

The general principles of dimensioning of orthographic drawings are applicable to
isomeric projections also. However, the dimension and extension lines, dimension figures,
slope lines and guidelines are drawn parallel to the concerned isometric axis. The notes are
written so that it can be read from the bottom.

8.7 Methods of drawing isometric views

The following methods are used in drawing isometric views:
(1) Box method (2) Offset method
1) Box method
This method is used when the non–isometric lines or their ends lie in isometric planes.
The object is assumed to be enclosed in a rectangular box. Initially, the box is drawn in
isometric. The ends of the lines for the inclined edges are then located by measuring on or
from the outlines of the box. Isometric view of prisms and cylinder are drawn by using box
method.
2) Offset method
This method is adopted for objects in which neither non–isometric lines nor their ends lie
in isometric planes. In this method, the offsets are drawn first in orthographic views to locate
corners. Then these offsets are transferred to the isometric view to obtain the corresponding
corners.

Hints for preparing isometric drawings

1) In isometric drawings, vertical lines will be drawn vertical while, horizontal lines will
be drawn inclined at 30o to the horizontal.
2) Hidden features need not to be shown in isometric drawings.
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF PLANE FIGURES

Example: 1
☞ Draw the isometric view of a square of 40mm side.
✍ Solution:

Fig.3(a)
Fig.3(b)
1) From any point ‘a’, draw a vertical line ad = 40mm.
2) Draw a line ab = 40mm inclined at 30o to the horizontal.
3) Complete the rhombus abcd, which is the required isometric view of the square.
4) Similarly, the other views of a square in isometric drawing can be constructed.

Example: 2
☞ Draw the isometric view of a rectangle shown in fig.4(a)
✍ Solution:

Fig.4(a)
Fig.4(b)
 1) From any point a, draw a vertical line ad = 40mm.
2) Draw a line ab = 20mm inclined at 30o to the horizontal.
3) Draw a line bc = 40mm parallel to ad and draw a line cd = 20mm parallel to ab. Now
abcd is the required isometric view of the rectangle.
4) Similarly, the other views of a rectangle in isometric drawing can be constructed.

Example: 3
☞ Draw the isometric view of a triangle shown in fig.5(a)
✍ Solution:

Fig.5(a)
Fig.5(b)

1) Enclose the triangle ABC in the rectangle ABDE.

2) Draw the isometric view abde of the rectangle.
3) Mark a point c in de such that dc =DC.
4) Draw the required isometric view abc of the triangle.
5) Similarly the other views of the given triangle in isometric dewing can be constructed.

Example: 4
☞ Draw the isometric view of a hexagon shown in fig.6(a)
✍ Solution:
1) Enclose the hexagon in a rectangle ABCD.
2) Draw the isometric view abcd of the rectangle.
3) Mark the point 1 in ab such that a–1 =A–1.

Fig.6(a)
Fig.6(b)

4) Similarly mark the other points 2,3,4,5 and 6.

5) Draw the required isometric view 1–2–3–4–5–6 of the hexagon.
6) Similarly the other views of the given hexagon in isometric drawing can be constructed.

Example: 5
☞ Draw the isometric view of a circle of 50mm diameter.
✍ Solution:

Fig.7(a)
Fig.7(b)

Circle will appear as ellipse in isometric drawings. It can be drawn by the following two
methods.
1) Method of points 2) Four centres method

The procedure for four centres method is as follows:

1) Enclose the circle in a square ABCD and name the quadrant points as 1,2,3, and 4.
2) Draw the isometric view abcd of the square.
3) Join d with 1 & 2. Join b with 3 & 4. They intersect each other at x and y.
4) With d as centre and radius equal to d–1, draw arc 1–2.
5) With b as centre and radius equal to b–3, draw arc 3–4.
 6) With x as centre and radius equal to x–2, draw arc 2–3.
7) With y as centre and radius equal to y–1, draw arc 1–4.
8) The ellipse 1–2–3–4 gives the required isometric view of the circle.
9) Similarly the other views of the given circle in isometric dewing can be constructed.

Arcs in isometric view

Example: 6
☞ Draw the isometric view of the plane figure shown in fig.8(a).
✍ Solution:

Fig.8(a)
Fig.8(b)
1) Enclose the plane figure in a rectangle ABCD.
2) Draw the isometric view abcd of the rectangle.
3) Points 1,2,3 and 4 are marked at a distance equal to the radius of the arcs (R=10mm)
4) Draw perpendiculars from 1 and 2 meeting each other at m.
5) Similarly, draw perpendiculars from 3 and 4 meeting each other at n.
6) With m as centre and m–1 as radius, draw the arc 1–2.
7) With n as centre and n–3 as radius, draw the arc 3–4.
8) Complete the isometric view by drawing remaining straight lines.

Fig.8(c)
Fig.8(d)
(Note: Follow the same procedure to draw the isometric view of a semi–circle by
considering it as two arcs of equal radius).

ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASIC SOLIDS

Example: 7
☞ Draw the isometric view of a cube of side 40mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.9(a)
Fig.9(b)
Example: 8
☞ Draw the isometric view of a square prism of side 40mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.10(a)
Fig.10(b)
Example: 9
☞ Draw the isometric view of a hexagonal prism of side 30mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.11(a)
Fig.11(b)
Example: 10
☞ Draw the isometric view of a square pyramid of side 40mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.12(a)
Fig.12(b)

Example: 11
☞ Draw the isometric view of a hexagonal pyramid of side 30mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.13(a)
Fig.13(b)
Example: 12
☞ Draw the isometric view of a cylinder of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.14(a)
Fig.14(b)

Example: 13
☞ Draw the isometric view of a cone of base diameter 50mm and height 60mm.
✍ Solution:

Fig.15(a)
Fig.15(b)
Example: 14
☞ Draw the isometric view of a frustum of a cone of base diameter 60mm, top diameter 30mm and
height 60mm.

✍ Solution:

Fig.16(a)
Fig.16(b)
 BOARD EXAMINATION – QUESTION PATTERN
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – I
Time: 3 Hrs. Max.Marks: 75
[Note: Answer all the questions in the drawing sheet only. Assume missing dimensions suitably]

Part A
Answer all questions. Each question carries five marks. 3 X 5 = 15
Note: Three questions will be asked (1 to 3). One question from UNIT I, II and III.
(Lettering, Geometric constructions and Projection of Points.)

Part B
Answer any four questions. Each question carries fifteen marks. 4 X 15 = 60
Note: Six questions will be asked (4 to 9). Minimum one question from each unit.
TOTAL = 75
___________________________________________________________

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – II
Part A
Answer all questions. Each question carries five marks. 3 X 5 = 15
Note: Three questions will be asked (1 to 3). One question from UNIT I, II and III.
[Construction of polygon, Development of regular polygon and Projection of solids (axis
perpendicular to one plane)].
Part B
Answer any four questions. Each question carries fifteen marks. 4 X 15 = 60
Note: Six questions will be asked (4 to 9). Minimum one question from each unit.
TOTAL = 75
___________________________________________________________

INTERNAL MARKS

Assignment Drawing = 10
Test = 10
Attendance = 5
Total = 25
,
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –I
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Time – Three hours

(Maximum Marks : 75)

[N.B : (1) Answer all questions in the drawing sheet.

(2) First angle projection is to be followed.
(3) All dimensions are in mm.
(4) Credit will be given for neatness.
(5) Assume missing dimensions suitably. ]

PART – A
(Marks : 3 x 5 = 15)
[N.B : (1) Answer ALL questions.
(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

1. Rewrite the following statements in single stroke vertical capital letters as per IS 9609
recommendation for a height of 8mm. “Drawing is the language of Engineers”.
2. Divide a circle of 50mm diameter into 8 equal divisions.
3. A point C is 25 mm below the H.P and 35mm behind the V.P. Draw its front view and top view.

PART – B
(Marks : 4 x 15 = 60)

[N.B : (1) Answer any FOUR questions.

(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

4. Redraw the figure 1 to its full size and dimensions it as per the Indian Standards.
5. Construct an ellipse when the distance of focus from the directrix is 50mm and the
eccentricity of ellipse is 2/3. Also draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
6. A ball thrown up into the air reaches a maximum height of 60 metres and falls at a distance
of 90 metres from the place where it is thrown. Trace the path of the ball.
7. A line AB 50mm long is parallel to the V.P and inclined at an angle of 30o to the H.P. The end A
is 20mm above the H.P and 15mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line.
8. Draw the front view and top view for the object shown in isometric drawing in figure 2.
9. Draw the front view and left side view for the object shown in isometric drawing in figure 3.
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(kjpg;ngz;fs; : 4 x 15 = 60)

[Fwpg;G: (1) vitNaDk; ehd;F tpdhf;fSf;F kl;Lk; tpilasp.

(2) midj;J tpdhf;fSk; rk kjpg;ngz;fs; ngWk;. ]

4. ,e;jpa tiuaWg;gpd;gb> glk; 1-I mjd; KO mstpw;F kPz;Lk; tiue;J msTfisf;

FwpapLf.
5. ,af;Ftiu(directrix)apy; ,Ue;J Ftpikaj;jpd; njhiyT 50mm kw;Wk; ikatpyF
tpfpjk; 2/3 cs;s ePs;tl;lk; tiuf. ePs;tl;lj;jpd; VNjDk; xU Gs;spapy; ,Ue;J
njhLNfhL kw;Wk; nrq;NfhL tiuf.
6. Nky;Nehf;fp vwpag;gLk; xU ge;J mjpfgl;rkhf 60m cauj;ij mile;J> vwpag;gl;l
,lj;jpy; ,Ue;J 90m J}uj;jpy; jiuia milfpwJ. ge;J nrd;w ghijia tiuf.
7. 50mm ePsKs;s AB vd;w NfhL V.Pf;F ,izahfTk;> H.Pf;F 300 rha;thfTk; cs;sJ. Kid
A MdJ 20mm H.Pf;F NkYk;> 15mm V.Pf;F Kd;dhYk; cs;sJ. Nfhl;bd; tPoiy tiuf.
8. glk; 2-y; Kk;Kfj; Njhw;wj;jpy; fhz;gpf;fg; gl;Ls;s nghUspd; Kd; gf;fj; Njhw;wk;
kw;Wk; Nky; gf;fj; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
9. glk; 3-y; Kk;Kfj; Njhw;wj;jpy; fhz;gpf;fg; gl;Ls;s nghUspd; Kd; gf;fj; Njhw;wk;
kw;Wk; ,lJ gf;fj; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –I
Solution – Model Question Paper
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –II
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Time – Three hours

(Maximum Marks : 75)

[N.B : (1) Answer all questions in the drawing sheet.

(2) First angle projection is to be followed.
(3) All dimensions are in mm.
(4) Credit will be given for neatness.
(5) Assume missing dimensions suitably. ]

PART – A
(Marks : 3 x 5 = 15)
[N.B : (1) Answer ALL questions.
(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

1. Construct a pentagon of side 40mm.

2. Draw the development of hexagonal prism of side 25mm and height 60mm.
3. Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal pyramid of 30mm side and 70mm height,
resting on its base on the H.P, with two base edges parallel to V.P.

PART – B
(Marks : 4 x 15 = 60)

[N.B : (1) Answer any FOUR questions.

(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

4. A coin of diameter 35mm rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the curve
generated by a point on the circumference of the coin. Also draw a tangent and normal at
any point on the curve.
5. Draw the development of lateral surfaces of the object shown in figure 1.
6. A hexagonal prism of base edge 30mm and axis 60mm long is resting on the ground on one
of its base edges. The axis is inclined at 35o to the H.P and the plan of the axis is inclined at
30o to the V.P. Draw its projection.
7. A cylinder of base diameter 40mm and height 50mm rests on its base on the H.P. It is cut
by a plane perpendicular to the V.P and inclined at 50o to the H.P. The cutting plane meets
the axis at a distance of 15mm from the top. Draw the font view, sectional top view and
true shape of the section.
8. Orthographic views of an object shown in figure 2. Draw its isometric view in full size.
9. Draw the isometric view of the object shown in figure 3 in full size.
 jkpo; tbtk;
[Fwpg;G: (1) midj;J tpdhf;fSf;Fk; tiuglj; jhspy; tpilaspf;fTk;.
(2) Kjy; Nfhz tPoy; Njhw;wk; filgpbf;fTk;.
(3) midj;J msTfSk; kpkP-y; cs;sd.
(4) Neh;j;jpahd glq;fSf;F chpa kjpg;G mspf;fg;gLk;.
(5) tpLgl;l msTfis ePq;fNs Njh;e;njLj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.]

gFjp - m
(kjpg;ngz;fs; : 3 x 5 = 15)
[Fwpg;G: (1) midj;J tpdhf;fSf;Fk; tpilasp.
(2) midj;J tpdhf;fSk; rk kjpg;ngz;fs; ngWk;. ]

1. 40mm gf;f msT nfhz;l xU Iq;Nfhzj;ij tiuf.

2. 25mm gf;f msT kw;Wk; 60mm cauk; nfhz;l xU mWNfhz gl;ilf; $k;gpd;
gug;G tphpit tiuf.
3. 30mm gf;fk; kw;Wk; 70mm cauk; nfhz;l xU mWNfhz gl;ilf; $k;ghdJ mjd;
mbg;gf;fk; H.PYk;> ,uz;L mbg;gf;f tpspk;Gfs; V.Pf;F ,izahfTk; ,Uf;Fk;
tifapy; epd;Ws;sJ. mjd; tPoy; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
gFjp - M
(kjpg;ngz;fs; : 4 x 15 = 60)

[Fwpg;G: (1) vitNaDk; ehd;F tpdhf;fSf;F kl;Lk; tpilasp.

(2) midj;J tpdhf;fSk; rk kjpg;ngz;fs; ngWk;. ]

4. 30mm tpl;lKs;s xU fhrhdJ Neh;f;Nfhl;bd; kPJ eOthky; cUz;L nry;fpwJ>

tl;lg; ghpjpapy; cs;s xU Gs;spapd; %yk; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; tistpid tiuf.
NkYk; tistpd; VNjDk; xU Gs;spapy; ,Ue;J njhLNfhL kw;Wk; nrq;NfhL tiuf.
5. glk; 1y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s nghUspd; gug;G tphpit tiuf.
6. 30mm gf;f msT kw;Wk; 60mm mr;R ePsk; nfhz;;l xU mWNfhz gl;lfkhdJ>
mjd; xU mbg;gf;f tpspk;G jiuapd; kPJk;> mr;rhdJ H.Pf;F 35o rha;thfTk;> top
viewy; mr;rhdJ V.Pf;F 30o rha;thfTk; ,Uf;Fk; tifapy; cs;sJ. ,jd; tPoy;
Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
7. 40mm tpl;lk; kw;Wk; 50mm cauk; nfhz;l cUisahdJ> mjd; mbg;gf;fk;
jiuapd; kPJ ,Uf;Fk; tifapy; cs;sJ. V.Pf;F nrq;Fj;jhfTk;> H.Pf;F 50o
rha;thfTk; kw;Wk; Nky;gf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;J mr;rpd; kPJ 15mm J}uj;jpYk; nry;Yk; xU
ntl;LjskhdJ ,jid ntl;LfpwJ. ,jd; Kd;gf;fj; Njhw;wk;> ntl;L Nky;gf;fj;
Njhw;wk; kw;Wk; ntl;Lg; gug;gpd; cz;ikahd tbtk; Mfpatw;iw tiuf.
8. xU nghUspd; nrq;Fj;J tPoy; Njhw;wq;fs; glk; 2-y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjd; Kk;Kf
rk Njhw;wj;ij KO mstpw;F tiuf.
9. glk; 3-y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s nghUspd; Kk;Kf rk Njhw;wj;ij KO mstpw;F tiuf.
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –II
Solution – Model Question Paper
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –I
BOARD EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER
October 2015
Time – Three hours
(Maximum Marks : 75)
[N.B : (1) Answer all questions in the drawing sheet.
(2) First angle projection is to be followed.
(3) All dimensions are in mm.
(4) Credit will be given for neatness.
(5) Assume missing dimensions suitably. ]

PART – A
(Marks : 3 x 5 = 15)
[N.B : (1) Answer ALL questions.
(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

1. Rewrite the following statements in single stroke vertical capital letters as per IS
9609 recommendation for a height of 8mm.
“Poor lettering spoils the appearance of the drawings”.
2. Divide a straight line of 80mm length at an angle of 30o into six equal parts.
3. A point G is 50mm above the HP and 30mm behind the VP. Draw the projections.

PART – B
(Marks : 4 x 15 = 60)
[N.B : (1) Answer any FOUR questions.
(2) All questions carry equal marks. ]

4. Redraw the figure 1 to its full size and dimensions it as per the Indian Standards.
5. Draw an ellipse having the major axis of 70mm and the minor axis of 40mm
using concentric circles method.
6. Draw a hyperbola when half the transverse axis, double ordinate and absissa are
50mm, 120mm and 40mm respectively.
7. A straight line 70mm long is in the VP and perpendicular to the the HP. Draw the
projection if the end is 10mm above the HP.
8. Draw the front view and top view for the object shown in isometric drawing in
figure 2.
9. Draw the front view and right side view for the object shown in isometric drawing
in figure 3.
 jkpo; tbtk;
[Fwpg;G: (1) midj;J tpdhf;fSf;Fk; tiuglj; jhspy; tpilaspf;fTk;.
(2) Kjy; Nfhz tPoy; Njhw;wk; filgpbf;fTk;.
(3) midj;J msTfSk; kpkP-y; cs;sd.
(4) Neh;j;jpahd glq;fSf;F chpa kjpg;G mspf;fg;gLk;.
(5) tpLgl;l msTfis ePq;fNs Njh;e;njLj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.]

gFjp - m
(kjpg;ngz;fs; : 3 x 5 = 15)
[Fwpg;G: (1) midj;J tpdhf;fSf;Fk; tpilasp.
(2) midj;J tpdhf;fSk; rk kjpg;ngz;fs; ngWk;. ]

1. IS 9609 ghpe;Jiug;gb gpd;tUk; mwpf;ifia xw;iw tPr;R nrq;Fj;J

NgnuOj;Jfspy; 8kpkP cauj;jpy; vOJf:
“Poor lettering spoils the appearance of the drawings”.
2. 80kpkP ePsKs;s xU Neh;f;Nfhl;bid 30o Nfhzj;jpy; MW rk gFjpfshfg;
gphpf;fTk;.
3. xU Gs;sp G MdJ fpilkl;lj;jpypUe;J 50kpkP NkyhfTk; kw;Wk; nrq;Fj;J
jsj;jpw;F 30kpkP gpd;dhYk; mike;Js;sJ. mjd; tPoy; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
gFjp - M
(kjpg;ngz;fs; : 4 x 15 = 60)
[Fwpg;G: (1) vitNaDk; ehd;F tpdhf;fSf;F kl;Lk; tpilasp.
(2) midj;J tpdhf;fSk; rk kjpg;ngz;fs; ngWk;. ]

4. ,e;jpa juj;jpw;Nfw;g glk; 1-I mjd; KO mstpw;F kPz;Lk; tiue;J

msTfisf; FwpapLf.
5. 70kpkP Kf;fpa mr;R kw;Wk; 40kpkP rpwpa mr;rhf nfhz;l xU ePs;tl;lj;ij
nghJika tl;l Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp tiuf.
6. ghjp FWf;F mr;rpd; msT 50kpkP> ,ul;il xUq;fpize;jpd; msT 120kpkP
kw;Wk; absissad; msT 40kpkP ePsKs;s gutisaj;ij tiuf.
7. 70kpkP ePsk; nfhz;l xU NfhlhdJ nrq;Fj;J jsj;jpYk; fpilkl;lj;jpw;F
nrq;Fj;jhfTk; cs;sJ. mjd; KidahdJ fpilkl;lj;jpw;F 10kpkP NkNy
,Ue;jhy; mf;Nfhl;bd; tPoy; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
8. glk; 2-y; Kk;Kfj; Njhw;wj;jpy; fhz;gpf;fg; gl;Ls;s nghUspd; Kd; gf;fj;
Njhw;wk; kw;Wk; Nky; gf;fj; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
9. glk; 3-y; Kk;Kfj; Njhw;wj;jpy; fhz;gpf;fg; gl;Ls;s nghUspd; Kd; gf;fj;
Njhw;wk; kw;Wk; tyJ gf;fj; Njhw;wq;fis tiuf.
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS –I
Solution – October 2015