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1|12 Biology Chapter 14 Ilmi Stars Academ y(whatsapp:0312-5969383)

2nd Year Biology

Federal & KPK Board

Chapter 14: Respiration

RESPIRATION

1) Definition

Process that produces energy in organism is known as respiration. It is a catabolic

process through which organisms generate ATP by breaking C-H bonds in food
substances.

2) Occurrence

 Respiration is basic characteristic of life.

 It occurs in all organism
3) Levels

Respiration occurs at two levels; cellular level and organismic level

a) Respiration at Cellular Level

 It is called internal respiration.
 It is also known as cellular respiration
 It is chemical in nature (catabolic)
 It involves breakdown of complex organic molecules into simple molecules
with release of energy
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b) Respiration at Organism Level

 It is called external respiration

 It involves inhaling of oxygen and exhaling of carbon dioxide
 It is mechanical in nature
4) Linkage between Internal & External Respiration

 Internal and external respirations are interlinked

 Oxygen is inhaled for internal respiration and carbon dioxide produced in
internal respiration is exhaled by external respiration
RESPIRATORY SURFACE

1) Definition

Site of gaseous exchange with environment is called respiratory surface

2) Characteristics

Respiratory surface has following characteristics for effective diffusion;

i) It must be moist and permeable: so that gases can pass through

ii) It must be thin: because diffusion is only efficient over distance of 1mm or less

iii) It should possess large surface area: for sufficient exchange of gases

iv) It should possess a good blood supply: for sufficient gaseous exchange

v) There should be a good ventilation mechanism to maintain a steep diffusion

gradient across the respiratory surface.

RESPIRATORY TRACT

Introduction

The human respiratory system can be divided into two regions, upper respiratory
tract and lower respiratory tract.
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UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

The upper respiratory tract includes nostrils, nasal cavity and pharynx

Nose

The nose is only externally visible part of the respiratory system

a) Structure

Human nose is composed of bones, cartilage and fatty tissues.

i) Nasal Cavities

 The external openings of nose are called nostrils and the inner hollow spaces
are called nasal cavities.
 There are two nasal cavities which are partitioned by means of nasal septum
( the part of nasal bone )
ii) Vestibules

The anterior parts of nasal cavities near the nostrils are called vestibules

iii) Mucous Membranes

Both the nostrils and nasal cavities are lined by ciliated mucous membranes.
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b) Functions

Nose hair, mucus and cilia serve as a defence mechanism against the harmful
pathogens and particulate matter present in the air.

 The mucus and cilia filter the air and prevent the entry of foreign particles
such as microorganisms, dust and particulate matter inside the respiratory
system.
 The mucus also helps in moistening the air.
 Cilia move the trapped substances to the pharynx for their removal.
 Underneath the mucous membrane, there are blood capillaries that help to
warm the air to about 30°C, depending upon the external temperature
Pharynx

 Pharynx is cone-shaped passageway leading from the oral and nasal cavities
to the oesophagus and larynx.
 The pharynx is part of the digestive system and also the respiratory system.
The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections; the
nasopharynx, the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx
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LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Lowery Respiratory tract consists of;

 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs
Larynx

The larynx is an enlargement in the airway at the top of the trachea and below the
pharynx.

a) Structure

i) Components

The larynx is composed primarily of muscles and cartilages.

ii) External Skeleton

External skeleton of larynx is made of cartilage plates that prevent collapse of the
structure. The plates are fastened together by membranes and muscle fibers.

iii) Glottis & Epiglottis

 The opening of the larynx is called glottis. It is also lined with mucous
membrane.
 A lid-like cartilage structure epiglottis partially covers the glottis and prevents
the entry of food to lungs during the swallowing.
iv) Vocal Cords

The vocal cords are composed of mucous membrane stretched horizontally across
the larynx.

b) Function

Larynx serves as a dual function:

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 an air canal to the lungs

 the organ of voice
Trachea

a) Structure

 The trachea or windpipe is a membranous tube.

 It consists of dense regular tissue and smooth muscle tissue reinforced with
15-20 C-shaped cartilage pieces of cartilage
 It is 10-12 cm long and 2 cm wide.
 It is lined with ciliated mucous membrane
b) Functions

 The trachea serves as passage for air, moistens and warms it while it passes
into the lungs.
 Protects the respiratory surface from an accumulation of foreign particles.
Bronchi and Bronchioles

i) Primary Bronchi

 The trachea divides to form two smaller tubes called primary bronchi.
 The right bronchus has a larger diameter, and is shorter than the left
bronchus.
ii) Secondary Bronchi

 The primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi within each lung.
 There are two secondary bronchi in the left lung and three in the right lung.
 In the secondary bronchi, the C-shaped cartilages are replaced with cartilage
plates.
iii) Tertiary Bronchi

The secondary bronchi, in turn, give rise to tertiary bronchi.

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iv) Bronchioles

 The bronchi continue to branch, finally giving rise to bronchioles which are
less than 1mm in diameter.
 The bronchioles also subdivide several times to become even smaller
terminal bronchioles.
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 The bronchioles and their terminal branches have no cartilage structures.

 They are responsible for controlling air distribution in the lungs.
 The bronchioles change diameter to either increase or reduce air flow.
Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli

i) Alveolar Ducts

The terminal bronchioles divide to form respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory

bronchioles give rise to alveolar ducts.

ii) Alveoli

 These alveolar ducts end at tiny air filled chambers called alveoli which are
the sites of gas exchange between the air and the blood.
iii) Characteristics of Alveoli

 They provide large surface area. There are over 700 million alveoli present in
the lungs.
 The wall of each alveolus is only 0.1 thick.
 On its outsides is a dense network of blood capillaries.
 Lining each alveolus is moist squamous epithelium. This consists of very thin,
flattened cells, reducing the distance over which diffusion must occur.
 Collagen and elastin proteins are also present in their walls which allow the
alveoli to expand and recoil easily during breathing.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LUNGS

The lungs are the principal organs of respiration.

Shape

Each lung is conical in shape, with its base resting on the diaphragm and its apex
extends to a point just above the clavicle.

Separation between Lungs

The right and left lungs are separated medially by the heart and mediastinum,
which is the area between the lungs.
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Relative Size & Structure

 The left lung (54% of total volume) is smaller than the right lung (56% of total
volume).
 The left lung has two lobes, superior lobe and inferior lobe.
 The left lung shares space with the heart.
 The right lung has three lobes; superior lobe, middle and inferior lobe
 The hilum is a triangular shaped depression of both the lungs where the
blood vessels and airways pass into the lungs.
Characteristics

 The lungs are spongy due to presence of alveoli

 Have large surface area
 Have large blood supply
Protection

 Protected by rib cage.

 Each lung is encased in a thin membranous sac called the pleura.
 It consists of two tough, flexible, transparent pleural membranes.
 These protect the lungs, stop them leaking air into the thoracic cavity and
reduce friction between the lungs and the wall of the thorax.
THE MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Introduction
 The lungs themselves neither draw in air nor push it out.
 Lungs compress and expand by the help of diaphragm and intercostal
muscles.

Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a large dome of skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic
cavity from abdominal cavity.
Intercostal Muscles
 There are two sets of intercostal muscles between each pair of ribs: the
external intercostal and the internal intercostal.
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 The muscle fibres run diagonally but in opposite direction in the two sets of
muscles.

Phases of Breathing
There are two phases of breathing; inspiration and expiration.
Structures Inspiration Expiration
It is active phase. It is passive in quite
Nature
expiration
> It contracts > It relaxes
> It is lowered > It moves up
Diaphragm
> It becomes flattened > It becomes more dome-
shaped
> External intercostal > External intercostal
muscles contract muscles relax
Intercostal > Internal intercostal muscles > Internal intercostal muscles
Muscles relax contract in rapid expiration
but stay relaxed in quite /
passive expiration
Moves upward and forward Moves downward and
Rib cage
backward
Area of thoracic Area of thoracic cavity Area of thoracic cavity
cavity increases decreases
Pressure inside Becomes lesser than Becomes greater than
thorax & lungs atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure
Air moves to lungs from Air goes out of lungs to
Air flow
outside outside

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

Respiratory Volumes or Lung Volumes

Respiratory volume is the amount of air inhaled, exhaled and stored within the
lungs at any given time.
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Factors Affecting Respiratory / Lung Volumes

Breathing occurs in a cyclical manner due to the movements of the chest wall and
the lungs.

 The resulting changes in pressure, causes changes in lung volumes.

 Lung / Respiratory volumes tend to vary, depending on the depth of
respiration, gender, age and in certain respiratory diseases.
Types of Respiratory / Lung Volumes

Tidal Volume

The amount of air which is inhaled or exhaled at rest is called tidal volume. The
average tidal volume is 500ml.

Inspiratory Reserved Volume

The amount of extra air inhaled (above tidal volume) during a deep breath is called
inspiratory reserved volume. This can be as high as 3000ml.

Residual Volume

Residual volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs-even after a forcible
expiration. This is about 1.5 liter.

Total Lung Capacity

The maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold Total lung capacity of human
is 6000ml.

CONTROL OF BREATHING (VENTILATION)

Introduction

Normally breathing is an involuntary process and is not controlled consciously.

However, some voluntary control is also possible.
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Involuntary Control
Involuntary control of breathing is carried out by a breathing entre located in the
medulla oblongata.
a) Inspiratory Centre

The ventral portion of the breathing centre acts to increase the rate and depth of
inspiration and is called inspiratory centre.

b) Expiratory Centre

The dorsal and lateral portions inhibit inspiration and stimulate expiration. These
regions form the expiratory centre.

Voluntary Control of Breathing

 Through the cerebral cortex it is possible to consciously increase or decrease

the rate and depth of the respiratory movement.
 A person may also stop breathing voluntarily.
 Occasionally people are able to hold their breath until the blood partial
pressure of oxygen declines to a level low enough that they lose
consciousness.
 After consciousness is lost, the respiratory centre resumes its normal
function in automatically controlling respiration.
Effect of Emotions

Emotions acting through the limbic system of the brain can also affect the
respiratory centre.

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN BLOOD

Introduction

 Approximately 97% of oxygen is carried by the red blood cells as

oxyhaemoglobin
 While 3% is transported as dissolved oxygen in the plasma
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 Binding of oxygen to haemoglobin occurs in the lungs and dissociation occurs

in the tissues.
Binding of Oxygen to Haemoglobin

 Binding occurs in the lungs.

 This binding is reversible that occurs in the lungs in the presence of enzyme
carbonic anhydrase.

 Each molecule of haemoglobin can bind with four molecules of oxygen to

form oxyhaemoglobin.
 At its high partial pressure oxygen binds with haemoglobin.
Dissociation of Oxygen

 Dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin occurs in the tissues.

 Binding of H+ to haemoglobin in the tissues releases oxygen from
haemoglobin
 High PCO2 also favours the release of oxygen in the tissues.
Oxygen Carrying Capacity of Blood

a) Definition

The ability of haemoglobin to bind with oxygen is called oxygen carrying capacity
of blood.

The oxygen carrying capacity of blood is directly proportional to the partial

pressure of oxygen (PO2).

b) 100% Saturation

 Maximum oxygen carrying capacity of arterial blood is 20 ml/100 ml of blood

(100% saturated) which is achieved at 100 mmHg PO2.
 The 5 ml of O2 is released to the tissues by each 100 ml blood.
c) Factors

Oxygen carrying capacity is sensitive to a variety of environmental conditions like;

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 rise in body temperature,

 drop in pH of blood and
 partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen
Amount of Oxygen Carried

a) At 100% Saturation

 The amount of haemoglobin is 15 gms/100 ml of blood.

 Since 1gm Hb can combine with 1.34 ml of O2, therefore 100 ml blood
combines with 20 ml O2 (100% saturated).
b) Normal Amounts

 Normally each 100 ml of arterial blood contains 19.4 ml O2 (i.e., it is 97%

saturated; PO2 is 95 mmHg)
 Each 100 ml of venous blood contains 14.4 ml O2 (i.e., it is 75% saturated;
PO2 is 40 mmHg).
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN BLOOD

Introduction

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three main ways:

 In the form of bicarbonate ions

 In the form of carboxyhaemoglobin
 Dissolved in plasma
1) As Bicarbonate Ions

Approximately 70% of carbon dioxide is carried in the blood as bicarbonate ions.

Transport of CO2 as bicarbonate ions can be explained in the following steps;
i) Formation of Carbonic Acid
 Transport of CO2 depends on the partial pressure of CO2. The partial pressure
of CO2 is higher in tissues than blood.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood, enters the red blood cells and
combines with water to form carbonic acid
 This reaction is catalyzed by enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
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ii) Dissociation of Carbonic Acid

Carbonic acid H2CO3 is an unstable compound and dissociates to form hydrogen

ions and bicarbonate ions.

iii) Formation of Haemoglobinic

 Accumulation of H+ ions increases acidity in the blood, i.e., it leads to the

decrease in pH.
 This does not occur since haemoglobin buffers the hydrogen formed.
 The hydrogen ion readily associates with oxyhaemoglobin (Hb4O2) to form
haemoglobinic acid (HHb) and oxygen is released to the tissue.

iv) Chloride Shift

 From inside of the erythrocytes negatively charged HCO3 ions diffuse to the
plasma.
 This is balanced by the diffusion of chloride ions, ( ), in the opposite
direction.
 This is achieved by special bicarbonate-chloride carrier proteins that exist in
the RBC membrane.
 Bicarbonate-chloride carrier protein moves the two ions in opposite
directions, maintaining the balance of ions on either side. This is called the
chloride shift or Hamburger’ phenomenon.
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v) Release of Carbon Dioxide

In lungs process reverses and bicarbonate ions combine with hydrogen ion to
release carbon dioxide and water.

2) As Carboxyhaemoglobin

 About 23% of carbon dioxide is carried as carboxyhaemoglobin.

 CO2 combines with the globin part of haemoglobin.
 The reaction depends upon the partial pressure of CO2.
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 When the PCO2 is higher in the tissues than blood, formation of

carboxyhaemoglobin occurs.
 When the PCO2 is higher in the blood than tissues as in case of lungs,
carboxyhaemoglobin releases its CO2.
3) As Dissolved CO2 in Plasma

 Only 7% of carbon dioxide is carried this way.

 This is rather inefficient way to carry carbon dioxide, but it does occur.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS

Introduction
 Respiratory pigments are coloured molecules, which act as oxygen carriers by
binding reversibly to oxygen.
 All known respiratory pigments contain a coloured non-protein portion e.g.,
haem in the haemoglobin.
 The two well-known respiratory pigments are haemoglobin and myoglobin
Haemoglobin
i) Occurrence
It is found in red blood cells.
ii) Structure
 It contains four globin protein chains,
 Each chain is associated with haem, an iron containing group.
 Iron combines loosely with oxygen and in this way oxygen is carried in the
blood.
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iii) Role

 It transports oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues.

 At high oxygen concentrations, the pigment combines with oxygen.
 At low oxygen concentrations the oxygen is quickly released.
Myoglobin

i) Occurrence

It is found in skeletal muscles and is the main reason why meat appears red.

ii) Structure

 It consists of one polypeptide chain.

 This chain is associated with an iron containing ring structure.
 This iron can bind with one molecule of oxygen.
iii) Role

 It serves as an intermediate compound for the transfer of oxygen from

haemoglobin to aerobic metabolic processes of the muscle cells.
 Myoglobin releases oxygen when the partial pressure of oxygen is below 20
mmHg.
 In this way it stores oxygen in resting muscle, only releasing it when supplies
of oxyhaemoglobin have been exhausted.
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Comparison of Haemoglobin & Myoglobin

Factor Haemoglobin Myoglobin

Chains It has four polypeptide chains It has one polypeptide chain
It has four iron containing It has one iron containing
Haem groups
haem groups per molecule haem groupsper molecule
It has four oxygen molecules It has one oxygen molecule
O2 Capacity
can bind per molecule can bind per molecule
Occurrence It is found in RBCs It is found in skeletal muscles
Role It transports oxygen It stores oxygen
It has less affinity with oxygen It has more affinity with
O2 Affinity
oxygen
It loses oxygen at PO2 60 It loses oxygen at PO2 20
O2 Release
mmHg mmHg

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

Introduction
 The hair around the nostrils, the mucous lining in the nose and pharynx and
the cilia which are mucous elevator, serve to remove foreign particles in the
inspired air.
 Continued inhalation of harmful substances results in the respiratory
disorders.
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION
The infections of the upper respiratory tract include sinusitis, etc.
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is an inflammation of the nasal sinuses. The sinuses are holes in the skull
between the facial bones.
Types
 Acute Sinusitis symptoms last 2 - 8 weeks
 Chronic Sinusitis symptoms last much longer
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Cause

Sinusitis is generally caused by cold and wet climate. Atmospheric pollution,

smoke, dust, overcrowding, dental infections, viral infections etc., also cause
sinusitis.

Symptoms

Fever, nasal obstruction, raspy voice, pus-like nasal discharge, loss of sense of
smell, facial pain or headache that is sometimes aggravated by bending over.

Treatment

 If a bacterial infection is present, antibiotics or sulpha drugs are usually

prescribed.
 Beside it the physician may also prescribe nebulization which can be useful in
reducing inflammation in the sinuses and nose and to accelerate recovery.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION

The infections of lower respiratory tract include, pulmonary tuberculosis etc.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Pulmonary Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious chronic bacterial infection of

lungs caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Damages

 When people have pulmonary tuberculosis, the alveoli burst and are
replaced by inelastic connective tissue.
 The cells of the lung tissue build a protective capsule around the bacilli and
isolate them from rest of the body. This tiny capsule is called tubercle.
 The tubercles can rupture, releasing bacteria that infect other parts of the
lung.
 About 15 percent of TB patients may develop the disease in an organ other
than the lung e.g. the lymph nodes, Gl tract, and bones and joints.
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Cause

Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Symptoms

There is a low-grade intermittent fever usually in the evening, night sweats, weight
loss, anorexia, depression, weakness and dry cough with sputum, dull ache in the
chest due to Inflammation of the pleura of the lungs.

Treatment

 Taking medicines for 9 months regularly can cure T.B disease. This is called
Daily Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS).
 This treatment is given to patients under supervision to ensure that the
“medicines intake” completely cures the patient.
DISORDERS OF THE LUNGS

There are many disorders that affect lungs. Emphysema and lung cancer are two
common examples of disorders of lungs.

Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is a malignant tumour which may develop due to uncontrolled cell
division of lung tissue / cells.

Cause

 Smoking is the main cause of lung cancer because tobacco smoke contains
many carcinogens.
 In addition to this, asbestos, arsenic, radiations such as gamma and x-rays,
the sun, and compounds in car exhaust fumes are all examples of
carcinogens.
Symptoms

 The first event appears to be thickening and callusing (over growth) of the
cells lining the bronchi.
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 Then there is a loss of cilia so that it is impossible to prevent dust and dirt
from setting in the lungs.
 The tumour may grow until the bronchus is blocked, cutting off the supply of
air to that lung.
Treatment

 The only treatment that offers a possibility of cure is to remove a lobe or the
lung completely before secondary growths have time to form.
 This operation is called pneumonectomy.
 Treatments also include chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
EFFECTS OF SMOKING

1) Cause of Lung Cancer

 Cigarette smoke contains many known carcinogens.

 Cigarette smoking causes about 87% of lung cancer.
2) Cancer in other Body Parts

 Carcinogens and other harmful chemicals of tobacco smoke can enter from
lungs to blood.
 Besides lung cancer, cigarette smoking is also a major cause of cancer of the
mouth, larynx and oesophagus.
3) Cause of Respiratory Disorders

Cigarette smoking causes other lung diseases e.g., chronic bronchitis, emphysema.

4) Early Morning Cough

Cigarette smokes contain chemicals which irritate the air passages and lungs,
causing early morning cough.

5) More Risks of Respiratory Infections

Smokers are likely to get pneumonia because damaged or destroyed cilia cannot
protect lungs from bacteria and viruses that float in the air.
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6) Breathing Difficulty

Almost immediately, smoking can make it hard to breathe. Within a short time, it
can also worsen asthma and allergies.

7) Cardiovascular Disorders

 Chemicals present in tobacco smoke can harden the blood arteries, which is
known as arteriosclerosis.
 There is increased risk of blood pressure problems and heart attack.
8) Teeth Decay

Chemicals in tobacco smoke stain the teeth and teeth decay increases in smokers.