TERMS COMMONLY USED IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

- Atomic radius
- Ionic radius
- Charge density
- Ionization energy
- Electron affinity
- Electronegativity
- Shielding / screening effect
- Nuclear charge
- Complex ion
- Hydrogen bond
- Lattice energy
- Coordinate bond
- Polarization
- Polarizing power
Definitions:

1. Screening effect / shielding effect:

Is the tendency of the inner electrons on inner energy levels to prevent the attraction of
outer elections by the nucleus. Screening effect increases with increase in the number of
energy levels; therefore screening effect increases down a given group; whereas screening
effect remains almost constant across a given period because the number of energy levels
remains constant.
2. Nuclear charge:

This is the ability of the nucleus to attract electrons towards itself. Nuclear charge depends
on the number of protons in the nucleus. Nuclear charge increases down a group and across
a given period because the number of protons increase.
Note:

The difference between nuclear charge and screening effect is known as effective nuclear
charge. Effective nuclear charge increases across a given period because the increase in
nuclear charge outweighs the increase in screening effect.
Effective nuclear charge / attraction decreases down a given group because the increase in
screening effect outweighs the increase in the nuclear charge.
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 3. Atomic radius:
For metals, it is referred to as metallic radius metallic radius is half the inter nuclear
distance between two nuclei of adjacent atoms in a lattice for example;

Mg Mg
x
Mg

𝑋
Atomic radius of Mg = .
2

For non-metals, it is referred to as covalent radius.

Is half the inter nuclear distance between two atoms covalently bonded to each other
by single covalent bond.
For example;
Chlorine Cl Cl

y
𝑦
Atomic radius of chlorine = .
2

Note:
(i) Generally, atomic radius is half the distance between two nuclei of two atoms
which are bonded together.
(ii) The atomic radius of an uncombined atom cannot be defined strictly because
of the uncertain boundary of electron clouds. But the distance between the
nuclei of chemically combined atoms can be measured accurately.
(iii) Ionic radius is half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent ions in an
ionic crystal.
For example;
Ionic radius of sodium ion (Na+) can be obtained from sodium oxide (Na2O)
as follows;

2
 Na+ O²-

𝑄
Q Ionic radius of Na+ = .
2

Na+
Ionic radius of chloride ion (Cl) can be obtained from the structure of mgcl2
as follows.
Cl-
Mg2+
Z
𝑍
Ionic radius of Cl- =
2

Cl-
(iv) All cations are smaller than the neutral atoms from which they are formed.
For example;
Sodium ion is smaller than sodium atom. This is because in the formation of
cations, electrons in the external shells of atoms are removed, this decreases
the screening effect, while the nuclear charge remains the same because
protons do not change and so the effective nuclear charge increases and
therefore, the cation become smaller.
(v) All anions are larger than the corresponding neutral atoms.
For example;
The chloride ion is larger than chloride atom. This is because electrons have
been added to complete the external shell, this increases the screening effect,
the nuclear charge remains the same because the number of protons are
unchanged; the effective nuclear charge decreased making the anion to
become bigger.

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 Variation of atomic radius down a given group.
For example;
Group (II): Elements Group (VII): Elements
Alkaline earth metals Halogens
Element Atomic radius Element Atomic radius
Be 0.112 Fluorine 0.72
Mg 0.160 Chlorine 0.99
Ca 0.197 Bromine 1.14
Sr 0.215 Iodine 1.33
Ba 0.219

Trend: Atomic radius increases down the group.

Explanation:

Nuclear charge increases as protons are being added to the nucleus as you move from one
element to the next down the group, screening effect increases because of extra shell of
electrons is being added. The increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear
charge making the effective nuclear charge to reduce hence increase in atomic radius.
Variation of atomic radius across period 3.

Element in period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic radius (nm) 0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.11 0.104 0.099

Atomic radius reduces / decreases across period 3.

Explanation:

Nuclear charge increases because the number of protons in the nucleus increases across a
period, screening effect remains almost constant because the number of energy levels
remain the same. The increase nuclear charge outweighs the screening effect, effective
nuclear attraction for elections increase, making the atomic radius to decrease.

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 4. Charge density:

This is the ratio of ionic charge to ionic radius.

Charge density = Ionic charge
Ionic radius

Example:

Calculate the charge density of the sodium ion given that its ionic radius is 0.785nm.
Solution:
Charge density of Na+ = +1
0.785

= + 1.274nm-1

Exercise:

Calculate the charge density of the following ions given the ionic radius in brackets.
(i) Aluminum ion (0.05nm)
(ii) Magnesium ion (0.065nm)
(iii) Lithium ion (0.06)
(iv) Beryllium ion (0.051nm)

5. Polarizing power:

Polarizing power of an ion is a measure of its ability to attract or pull electrons from another
atom or ion with negative charge.
Note:
An ion with a high charge density has high polarizing power.
Example:

Aluminum ion (Al³+) has a higher charge density and higher polarizing power than sodium
ion.

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 6. Electronegativity:
This is the power of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons to itself in a covalent
bond.
Electronegativity = Effective nuclear charge
Covalent atomic radius

That is to say:
Electronegativity is directly proportional to effective nuclear charge and inversely
proportional to atomic radius.
If there is a sufficient difference in electronegativity between two atoms, polarization will
be virtually complete, and ionization will have resulted.
For example:

A:B A and B have the same electronegativity.

Aδ- : Bδ+ A more electronegative than B
A- : B+ A much more electronegative than B.
Some electronegativity values of some elements are given below:

Halogens F Cl Br I
Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5

Alkali metals Li Na K Rb Cs
Electronegativity value 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7

Period 3 Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Electronegativity value 0.9 1.25 1.5 1.8 2.15 2.5 2.8

The most electronegative atoms are:

Fluorine with electronegative value 4.0.
Oxygen with electronegative value 3.5.
Nitrogen with electronegative value 3.0.

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Variation of electronegativity down a group.

Trend:

Electronegativity decreases down a group.

Explanation:

Atomic radius increases down a group, screening effect increases because an extra shell of
electrons is added, nuclear charge increases because protons are being added, effective
nuclear charge reduces making electronegativity to decrease because it’s directly
proportional to effective nuclear charge and inversely proportional to atomic radius.
Variation of electronegativity do across a period.

Trend:
Electronegativity increases across a period.
Explanation:
Atomic radius reduces across a period, screening effect remains almost the same because
there is no change in the number of energy levels, nuclear charge increases because extra
proton is added to the nucleus, effective nuclear charge increases, making electronegativity
to increase.
7. Electropositivity:

This is the tendency of an atom to donate electrons to form positively charged ions.

Electro positivity increases down a group because atomic radius increases, screening effect
increases because extra shell of electrons is added, nuclear charge increases because
protons added to the nucleus, the increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in
nuclear charge, effective nuclear attraction for outermost electrons reduce, making them to
be easily lost.
Trend:

Electro positivity decreases across a period.

Explanation:

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Note:
❖ The most electropositive elements are metals.
❖ The most electronegative elements are non-metals.
❖
8. Complex ion:

Is an ion in which atoms or group of atoms with lone pairs of electrons associate with a
central atom which is usually a metal.
Examples of complex ions;

Cu (NH3)4²+ structure

Cu Cl4²- Cl Cl
Cu²+

Cl Cl

Zn (NH3)4²+
H3N NH3

Zn²+

H3N NH3

9. Covalent bond:

This is a bond formed between two atoms with a small difference in electronegativity by
sharing of electrons between the atoms.
For example;
H-Br, Cl – Cl, C – H, N – H

10. Ionic bond:

This is a bond formed between highly electropositive atom and a highly electronegative
atom by transfer of electrons.
For example;

8
Na+ Cl-

11. Hydrogen bond:

This is a bond formed by the dipole-diploe attraction between a hydrogen atom of one
molecule and a highly electronegative atom of another molecule.
Hδ+ - Fδ- …………………. Hδ+ - Fδ-

Hydrogen bond

Hδ+ - Fδ- …………………. Hδ+ - Oδ- - H

Hydrogen bond

12. Ionization energy (I.E):

This can be defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from
a gaseous atom to form a unipositively gaseous ion.

M(g) M+(g) + e ∆H = First ionization energy of element M.

Where M represents a symbol of an element in the periodic table, ∆H is the amount energy.
OR

It can be defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from on mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of unipositively gaseous ions.

Ionization energy is the same as first ionization energy.

After removal of the first one mole of electrons, the energy required to remove the second
mole of electrons is known as second ionization energy.
M+(g) M²+(g) + e

Therefore, an element can have first, second, third, fourth …and nth ionization energies
until all the electrons have been removed.
The first ionization energy < second ionization energy < 3rd I.E < 4th I.E < 5th I.E etc.

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This is because as electrons are removed, the proton / electron ratio increases, this increases
the nuclear charge, the effective nuclear attraction for the remaining electrons increases.
This result into increase in ionization energy.
Quiz:
Explain / Why the second ionization energy is greater than the first ionization energy.

If electrons of an atom are removed from the same energy level, the difference between
successive ionization energies is not big, however, there is always a largest energy
difference if two electrons are being removed from different energy levels.
Illustration:
Sodium 1st I.E = 494 kδmol-1
Very large difference because the electrons are
2 I.E = 4500 kδmol-1
nd
being removed from difference energy levels.

Magnesium 1st I.E = 736 kδmol-1

2nd I.E = 1450 kδmol-1
3rd I.E = 1450 kδmol-1

Aluminum 1st I.E = 577 kδmol-1

2nd I.E = 1820 kδmol-1
3rd I.E = 2740 kδmol-1
4th I.E = 11600 kδmol-1
Question 1:
The table below shows the ionization energies in kδmol-1 for elements A, B, C, D and E.
Element 1st I.E 2nd I.E 3rd I.E 4th I.E

A 500 4600 6900 9500

B 740 1500 7700 10500
C 630 1600 3000 48000
D 900 1800 14800 21000
E 580 1800 2700 11600

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 a) Which one of these elements is an alkali metal? Give a reason for your answer.
b) State two elements which belong to the same group in the periodic table.
c) Select an element which is most likely to form a caution with +3?
d) Write the formula of the oxide of E.
Question 2:
The first six successive ionization energies of the elements of a given period of the periodic
table are shown in the table.
Element 1st I.E 2nd I.E 3rd I.E 4th I.E 5th I.E 6th I.E
A 1000 2260 3340 4540 6990 8490

B 786 1580 3230 4360 16000 20000

C 1520 2660 3950 5770 7240 8790

D 577 1820 2740 11600 14800 18400

E 1060 1900 2920 4960 6280 21200

F 1260 2300 3850 5150 6540 9330

G 494 4560 6940 9540 13400 16600

H 736 1450 7740 10500 13600 18000

a) State and explain the trend in the successive ionization energies.

b) State with a reason which element represents.
(i) An alkaline earth metal.
(ii) Noble gas
c) Write equation to show how
(i) The third electron is removed from A.
(ii) The second electron is removed from H.
d) Write the formula of;
(i) Oxide of D
(ii) Chloride of E
(iii) Nitride of B

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Note:

(i) Metals generally have low first ionization energy.

(ii) Non-metals generally have high first ionization energy.
(iii) Noble gases (or inert gases) have very high first ionization energy.

Metals are normally classified as electropositive elements because they can easily don not
electrons and form positive ions.
Metals are also reducing agents because they can easily donate electrons due to the low
ionization energy.
Na (g) Na+ (g) + e
Mg (g) Mg+ (g) + e

Non – metals are classified as electronegative elements because they have a high tendency
to gain electrons and form negative ions.
Cl (g) + e Cl (g)

Importance of ionization energy in the determination of the chemistry of an element.

The following information can be obtained from ionization energy.

❖ Atomic number of an element.
The successive ionization energies indicate the number of electrons present in an
atom.
For example;
Aluminum has 13 successive ionization energies indicating that the atomic number
of Aluminum is 13.
❖ Determination of metallic character of an element metals have low first ionization
energy (less than 800).
❖ Arrangement of electrons and distribution of energy levels.

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This shows that aluminum belongs to period 3 because it has three energy levels, shown
by the three distinct breaks, and has a valence of 3 because it has three electrons in the
outer most energy level.
Quiz:
Explain why there is a very large energy difference between the 3rd I.E and 4th I.E of
aluminum.

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Quiz:
The first eight ionization energies of an elements B are shown below;

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

Ionization energies 786 1580 3230 4360 16000 20000 23600 29100
a) To which group in the periodic table does B belong? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Plot a graph of logarithm of ionization energy against number of electrons.
c) Explain why the first ionization of B is smaller than its second ionization energy.

Factors that affect ionization energy:

1. Nuclear charge. The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the ionization energy.
2. Screening effect. The higher the screening effect, the lower the ionization energy.
3. Atomic radius.
4. Electronic configuration. When an electron is being removed from a sub shell which
is either full of electrons or half filled, the amount of energy required to remove an
electron will be high.
Quiz:

Explain why the ionization energy of magnesium is higher than that of Aluminum.

Variation of first ionization energy across.

Period 3:

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
I.E (kδmol-1) 500 737 577 786 1012 999 1255 1521
Electronic Configuration

Trend:

The first ionization energy generally increases across period 3 from sodium to argon.

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Explanation:

The nuclear charge increases because a proton is being added to the nucleus, screening
effect increases slightly (remains almost constant) because an electron is being added on
the same energy level. The increase in nuclear charge outweighs the screening effect,
effective nuclear attraction for the electrons increases resulting into an increase in energy
required to remove an electron.
However, the first ionization energy of aluminum is lower than that of magnesium because
of their electronic configuration.
Mg = 1s²2s²2p 3s²3p
6 1

For magnesium, 3s outer subshell has two electrons, it is completely filled and
thermodynamically stable, requires a lot of energy to remove the first electron.
For Aluminum, 3p outer subshell has only one electron, it is neither half-filled nor
completely filled, and therefore, unstable, requires less energy to remove an electron.

Also, the first ionization energy of phosphorus is higher than that of sulphur because of
their electronic configuration.

P = 1s²2s²2p63s²3p³, S = 1s²2s²sp63s²3p .4

For phosphorus, it has 3p outermost subshell having three electrons, it is half filled and
thermodynamically stable, requires much more energy to remove the first electron from
phosphorous.
For sulphur, it has 3p outermost subshell having four electrons, it is neither half-filled nor
completely filled, making it thermodynamically unstable, requires much less energy to
remove the first electron from sulphur.

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Question:

The table below shows the first ionization energy of period 2 elements.

Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
First ionization energy (kjmol-1) 520 899 801 1086 1403 1310 1681 2080

(a) Plot a graph of ionization energy against atomic number. (4 marks)

(b) Explain the shape of the graph. (10 marks)

Variation of ionization energy down the group.

For example;

Group II:

Element First ionization energy

Be 899
Mg 737
Ca 590
Sr 543
Ba 504

Trend:

The first ionization energy decreases down the group.

Explanation:

The nuclear charge increases due to extra protons added, screening effect increases because
of extra shell of electrons added, the increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in
nuclear charge, and the effective nuclear attraction for the electrons reduces making
ionization energy to reduce.
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 13. Electron affinity:

This is the heat given out when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form a
uninegatively gaseous ion.
Y (g) + e Y-(g)
O (g) + e O- (g)
Cl (g) + e Cl- (g)

Or

It is the heat given out when one mole of electrons is added to one mole of gaseous atoms
to form one mole of negatively charged gaseous ions.

Electron affinity is an exothermic process.

Note:

The first electron affinity of a given gaseous atom is always an exothermic process because
there is no repulsion between the existing electrons and an electron added.

For example:
S (g) + e S- (g) -217 kjmol-1
O (g) + e O- (g) -300 kjmol-1

The second electron affinity of a given gaseous atom always an endothermic process /
positive because there is repulsion between the gaseous ion and the second electron added.
Heat has to be supplied for the second electron to be accepted making it positive.

O- (g) + e O²- (g) +20 kjmol-1

S- (g) + e S2- (g) +150 kjmol-

Factors that affect electron affinity.

➢ Nuclear charge.
Electron affinity increases with increase in nuclear charge and decreases with
decrease in nuclear charge.

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 ➢ Screening effect.
Electron affinity decreases with increase in screening effect and it increases with
decrease in screening effect.
➢ Atomic radius.
When the atomic radius is small, the electron affinity is very high.
➢ Electron configuration of atom.
If an electron is being added to a half filled or completely filled subshell, less energy
will be given off.

Variation of electron affinity across period 3.

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Electron affinity -80 +67 -30 -135 -60 -200 -364
Trend:

The first electron affinity generally increases across the period.

Explanation:

This is due to decrease in atomic radius, the nuclear charge increases because a proton is
added to the nucleus, screening effect remains almost constant because an electron is being
added on the same energy level, the increase in nuclear attraction outweighs the screening
effect, the effective nuclear attraction increases leading to increase electron affinity.
The first electron affinity of magnesium is positive (endothermic).
Mg = 1s²2s²2p 3s²6

The 3s in magnesium has two electrons; it is completely filled and stable, the electron
added experiences more repulsion than nuclear attraction.
The electron affinity of phosphorous is lower than the expected because of its electronic
configuration.
P = 1s²2s²2p 3s²3p³.
6

The 3p in phosphorous has three electrons, it is half filled and stable, the electron added
experiences more repulsion than nuclear attraction.

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Variation of electron affinity down the group.

For example;

Group (VII) elements.

Element Electron affinity

Fluorine -323

Chlorine -364

Bromine -324

Iodine -295

The electron affinity generally decreases from chlorine to iodine, due to increase in atomic
radius. This is because the screening effect increases because an extra shell of electrons is
being added, nuclear charge increases because protons are being added to the nucleus, the
increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear charge, effective nuclear
attraction reduces hence a decrease in amount of energy given out.
The electron affinity of fluorine is unexpectedly low because fluorine atom has the smallest
atomic radius, electron added experience more repulsion from existing lone pair of
electrons than nuclear attraction.
Note

The chemistry of the first element in each group is different from the rest of the group
members.
For example;
1. The chemistry of lithium is different from the rest of the group(I) elements because;
(i) Lithium atom has the smallest atomic radium.
(ii) Lithium atom has the highest electronegativity value.

Some of the properties in which lithium differs the rest of the group members include,

- Lithium hydrogen carbonate exists in solution state.

- It burns in air to form ionic nitride.
- It burns in oxygen form a normal oxide.

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 - Lithium carbonate is decomposed by heat.
- Lithium hydroxide is also decomposed by heat.
- Lithium nitrate is decomposed by heat to form metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen gas.

2. The chemistry of beryllium is different from the rest of the group (II) elements
because,
- Beryllium atom has the smallest atomic radius.
- Beryllium has the highest electronegativity value amongst the group members.
- Beryllium lacks the d-orbital.

3. The chemistry of carbon is different from the rest of group (iv) members because;
- Carbon has the smallest atomic radius.
- Carbon has the highest electronegativity value.
- Carbon lacks the 2 d orbitals.
Some of the properties in which carbon is different from the rest of group(IV) members
include;

- Carbon forms gaseous oxides.

- Carbon forms multiple bonds with itself and with other non-metals.
- Carbon has ability to catenate (bond to itself to form long chains).
- Carbon has a maximum valence of 4.

4. The chemistry of fluorine in group (VII) is different from the rest of the members
in the group because;
- Fluorine atom has the smallest atomic radius.
- Fluorine atom has the highest electronegativity value.
- Fluorine molecule the lowest bond dissociation energy.
- Fluorine has the highest electrode potential.
- Fluorine lacks the d-orbital.

Some of the chemical properties in which fluorine differs the rest of the group (vii)
elements include;

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 - Fluoride reacts with water to form hydrogen fluoride and oxygen gas.
2F2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4HF (aq) + O 2(g)
- Fluoride reacts with carbon to form carbon tetra fluoride
2F2 (g) + C (s) CF4 (l)
- Fluorine can react with cold and dilute sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
fluoride, oxygen difluoride and water.
2NaOH (aq) + 2F2 (g) 2NaF (aq) + F2O (g) +H2O (l)
- Fluorine reacts with hot and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to form
sodium fluoride, water and oxygen gas.
4NaOH (aq) + 2F2 (g) 4NaF (aq) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

Diagonal Relationship

This is the similarity in chemical properties between elements in period two and period
three of the periodic table that are diagonally adjacent to each other in neighboring groups.
The following pairs of elements in the periodic table show a diagonal relationship;
- Lithium and magnesium
- Beryllium and Aluminum
- Boron and silicon
Reasons for diagonal relationship / why do they do so;

- Have similar charge density.

- Their electronegatives are the same.
- Their standard electrode potentials are similar.

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The following chemical properties shows how lithium resembles magnesium and how
lithium differs from other group(I) elements:

✓ Form ionic nitrides, Li N and Mg N on heating in nitrogen gas.

3 3 2

6 Li (s) + N (g) 2 2 Li N (s)3

3Mg (s) + N (g) 2 Mg N (s)

3 2

✓ Form normal oxides on heating / burring in air

2Mg (s) + O (g) 2 MgO (s)
4 Li (s) + O (g) 2 2 Li O (s)2

✓ Their hydrogen carbonates exists in only solution state.

✓ Their carbonates decompose to a metal oxide and carbon dioxide on heating.
Li2CO3 (s) Li O (s) + CO2 (g)
2

MgCO3 (s) MgO (s) + CO2 (g)

✓ Their hydroxides decompose on heating to form metal oxide and water.
Mg (OH) (s) 2 MgO (s) + H O (l) 2

✓ Their nitrates decompose on heating to form metal oxide nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen gas.
2Mg (NO ) (s)
3 2 2MgO (s) + 4NO (g) + O (g) 2 2

✓ Phosphates, carbonates, fluorides and hydroxides are slightly soluble in water.

✓ Halides of magnesium and lithium (except their fluorides) are soluble in organic
solvents.
✓ Their sulphates do not form alums.

The following shows how beryllium resembles aluminium and how beryllium differs from
the other group (ii) elements:

✓ Their carbides react with water to form methane gas.

Be2C(s) +4H2O(l) 2Be(OH)2(s) +CH4(g)
Al4C3(s) +12H2O(l) 4Al(OH)2(s) +3CH4(g)

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 ✓ Their compounds are mainly covalent.
✓ Both react with hot concentrated alkalis.
Be (s) + 2OH- + 2 H O (l)
2 Be (OH)42- (aq) + H (g). 2

2Al (s) + 2OH- + 6 H2O (l) 2Al (OH) (aq) + 3H2 (g)
4
-

✓ Their chlorides are easily hydrolyzed in water / fumes in moist air.

✓ Their oxides are amphoteric.
BeO (s) + 2OH- (aq) + H2O (l) Be (OH)42- (aq)
Al2O3 (s) + 2OH- (aq) + 3H2O (l) 2Al (OH) (aq) 4
-

✓ Their sulphates are soluble in water.

✓ Their hydroxides are amphoteric
Be (OH)2 (s) + 2OH- (aq) Be (OH)42- (aq)
Al (OH)3 (s) + OH- (aq) Al (OH) (aq)
4
-

✓ Their chlorides form dimers in vapor phase

Cl Cl
Be Cl
2 4 Be Be Al2Cl6 Cl Cl
Cl Cl Al Al Cl
Cl Cl Cl
✓ Their fused chlorides have low boiling point and conductivity.
✓ Both metals are passive to nitric acid.

Reasons for diagonal Relationship:

- Have the same charge density that is say ionic charge / ionic radius are very similar.
- Their electro negatives are the same.
- Their electrode potentials are the same.

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The ways in which boron resembles silicon and differs from aluminum:

- Both boron and silicon form covalent compounds.

- Both boron and silicon burn in air to form acidic oxides.
Si + O2 (g) SiO2
4B +3O2 2Bi2O3 (s)
- Their chlorides are hydrolyzed in water to form acids.
SiCl4 (l) + 2H2O (l) SiO2 (s) + 4HCl
BCl3 (l) + 3H2O (l) H3BO3 (aq) + 3HCl (aq)
- Both form volatile hydrides which easily ignite in air.

- Both react with magnesium and calcium when heated to form borides and silicide.
2B + Mg MgB2
6B + Ca CaB6
2Mg + Si Mg2Si
- When the oxides solidity they form glasses.
- Fluorides are also easily hydrolyzed.
BF3 + 3H2O 3HBF4 + B (OH)3
SiF4 + 4 H2O 2H2SiF6 + Si (OH)4

24
Group (II) Elements / Alkaline earth metals:

Element Symbol Atomic Atomic M.P B.P Electronegativity Electronic

No. radius °C °C configuration
Beryllium Be 4 0.89 1280 2900 1.47
Magnesium Mg 12 1.36 650 1105 1.23
Calcium Ca 20 1.74 850 1440 1.04
Strontium Sr 38 1.91 770 1370 0.99
Barium Ba 56 1.98 720 1140 0.97

Group (II) elements have a general electronic configuration of ns²

The melting point, boiling point and hardness decreases down the group. This is because
the atomic radius increases down the group resulting into corresponding decrease in bond
strength. The melting point of magnesium is lower than that of calcium because calcium
has a face-centered cubic; and magnesium has hexagonal closed-packed.

Chemical properties of group (II) elements:-

1. Reaction with Air.

They burn brilliantly when heated in air, forming the oxide and a nitride.
2Be (s) + O2 (g) 2BeO (s)
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
3Mg (s) + N2 (g) Mg3N2 (s)
2. Reaction with water.
Beryllium does not react with water at any condition. Magnesium reacts slowly with
cold water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) Mg (OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)
Heated magnesium catches fire in steam to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen
gas.
Mg (s) + H2O (g) MgO (s) + H2 (g)

25
 The rest of the group (II) elements that is strontium, barium and calcium reacts with
cold water to form a hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Y (s) + 2H2O (l) Y (OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(Y = Ca, Sr, Ba)
Their reactivity with water increases down the group due to the increasing solubility
of the hydroxides formed, and due to increasing negativity value of the standard
electrode potential.
3. Reaction with acids.
(a)Hydrochloric acid.
They all react with hydrochloric acid on warming to form their respective chlorides
and hydrogen gas.
M (S) + 2H+ (aq) M²+ (aq) + H2 (g)
(M = Be, Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba)
e.g
Be (s) + 2H+ (aq) Be²+ (aq) + H2 (g)

- Sulphuric acid
Dilute sulphuric acid. They all react with warm dilute sulphuric acid to form their
respective sulphates and hydrogen gas.
M (s) + H2SO4 (aq) MSO4 (aqors) + H2 (g)
(M = Be, Ba, Mg, Ca, Sr)
Their reactivity with warm dilute sulphuric acid decreases down the group due to
the decreasing solubility of the sulphate formed.
Hot and concentrated sulphuric acid
They all react with hot concentrated sulphuric acid to form a sulphate, sulphur
dioxide and water.
M (s) + 2H2SO4 (l) MSO4 (aq) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l).
Their reactivity with hot concentrated sulphuric acid reduces from Beryllium to
barium due to the decreasing solubility of the sulphate formed.
- Nitric acid

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 Beryllium is rendered passive to nitric acid. Magnesium reacts with very dilute nitric
acid to form magnesium nitrate and hydrogen gas.
Mg (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Mg (NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g).
Magnesium reacts with concentrated nitric acid to form oxides of nitrogen,
magnesium nitrate and water.
Mg (s) + 4HNO3 (aq) Mg (NO3)2 (aq) + 2NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Or
3Mg (s) + 8HNO3 (aq) 3Mg (NO3)2 (aq) + 2NO (g) + 4H2O (l)
4. Reaction with alkalis.
Only beryllium amongst group (ii) elements the react with alkalis to form beryllate
and hydrogen gas.
Be (s) + 2OH- (aq) + 2H2O (l) Be (OH)42- (aq) + H2 (g)
5. Reaction with non-metals:
They combine directly at high temperatures (when heated) with the highly
electronegative non-metals oxygen, the halogens, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus
and with carbon. All compounds formed are ionic.
For example;
Mg (s) + S (s) MgS (s)
Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) MgCl2 (s)
Sr (s) + Cl2 (g) SrCl2 (s)
3Mg (s) + N2 (g) Mg3Ns (s)
6Mg (s) + P4 (s) 2Mg3P2 (s)
2Be (s) + C (s) Be2C (s)
Ca (s) + 2C (s) CaC2 (s)
Calcium, strontium and barium can react / combine with hydrogen gas when heated.
Ca (s) + H2 (g) CaH2 (s)
Sr (s) + H2 (g) SrH2 (s)
Ba (s) + H2 (g) BaH2 (s)

6. Reaction with alkyl halide.

Magnesium can react with alkyl halides to form Grignard reagents in solution.
For example;
Mg (s) + CH3I CH3MgI (methyl magnesium iodide)

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Compounds of group (II) elements:

(a) Hydrides.
All form hydrides of general formula MH2
(Where M = Be, Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba)
They are prepared by heating the metal in dry hydrogen gas.
M (s) + H2 (g) MH2 (s)
Their reactivity with hydrogen gas reduces down the group.
The hydrides react with water to form hydrogen gas and a hydroxide.
MH2 (s) + 2H20 (l) M(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(b) Oxides of group (II) elements.
They can be represented by a general formula, MO.
They are prepared by heating the carbonates.
MCO3 (s) MO (s) + CO2 (g)
Or
By heating their nitrates.
2M (NO3)2 2MO + 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Barium oxide can be also be prepared by heating a mixture of barium carbonate and
carbon.
BaCO3 (s) + C BaO (s) + 2CO (g).
They can also form peroxides e.g. BaO2, SrO2.
The peroxides decompose on heating to form monoxide and oxygen gas.
2BaO2 (s) 2BaO (s) + O2 (g)
The peroxides dissolve in a cids to form a salt and hydrogen peroxide.
BaO2 (s) + H2 SO4 BaSO4 + H2O2 (aq)
BaO2 (s) + 2HCl BaCl2 + H2O2.
All the oxides are basic except beryllium oxide which is amphoteric.
BeO (s) + 2OH- (aq) + H2O (l) Be (OH)42- (aq)
Beryllium oxide does not dissolve in water, the other oxides dissolve in water to
form hydroxides, their reactivity with water increases from magnesium oxide to

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 barium oxide through calcium oxide and strontium oxide due to the increasing
solubility of the hydroxide formed.
MgO (s) + H2O (l) Mg(OH)2 (s)
BaO (s) + H2O (l) Ba(OH)2 (aq)
CaO (s) + H2O Ca(OH)2 (aq)
They react with acidic oxides to form salts.
For example;
6CaO + P4O10 2Ca (PO4)2
3

MgO + SO3 (g) MgSO4 (s)

(c) Hydroxides.
Hydroxide Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Sr(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
Solubility Insoluble 0.002 0.15 0.9 4
The solubility of the hydroxides increases from Be(OH)2 to Ba(OH)2 through Mg
(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2.
I.e. Be(OH)2 < Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2 due to increase in
cationic radius, causes lattice energy and hydration energy decreases but lattice
energy decreases more than hydration energy making the solubility to increase.

Only beryllium hydroxide is an amphoteric oxide.

Be(OH)2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) Be(OH)42- (aq)
The rest of the hydroxides are basic.

All hydroxides decompose on heating to form oxide and water

M (OH)2 (s) MO (s) + H2O (l)

(d) Carbides, calcium dicarbide CaC2,

calcium dicarbide is prepared by heating carbon (coke) and calcium oxide at
2000°C.
CaO (s) + C CaC2 (s) + CO (g)
Calcium dicarbide dissolves in water to form ethyne
CaC2 (s) + 2H2O (l) C2H2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Beryllium carbide dissolves in water to form methane
Be2C(s) +4H2O(l) 2Be(OH)2(s) +CH4(g)

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(e) Sulphate.
The order of the solubility of sulphates is;
BeSO4 > MgSO4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > BaSO4 due to increasing cationic radius,
lattice energy and hydration energy decreases, but hydration energy decreases more
than lattice energy, making the solubility to reduce.

(f) Carbonates.
The order of decomposition of the carbonates is;
BeCO3 < MgCO3 < CaCO3 < SrCO3 < BaCO3
This is mainly due to increase in cationic radius which results into increase in the
ionic character of the carbonates, making the thermostability of the carbonates to
increase.
They are prepared by precipitation.
M²+ (aq) + CO²3- MCO3 (s)
(g) Calcium phosphate, Ca3 (PO4)2
It is a rock used in the preparation of fertilizer – super phosphate made by reacting
sulphuric acid and calcium phosphate.
Ca3 (PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 (aq) Ca(H2PO4)2 (s) + 2CaSO4 (s)

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