MODAL ANSWERS

TEST – 1

1. 1. India is a geographically diverse country with variations across and within regions. In the light of this
statement, bring out the differences between Western and Eastern Coastal plains. Also highlight the
difference between the Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. (Answer in 250 words)
India is a country of great geographical extent and encompasses vast areas of diverse (all major) landmasses.
The country has snow peaked Himalayas, fertile river plains, plateaus, deserts, coastal plains and islands. The
diversity is not only limited to landmasses but it is also present within the landmasses. The Western
Himalayas are different from the Eastern Himalayas, the western coastal plains are different from eastern
coastal plains, among others.
Differences between Western and Eastern Coastal Plains
Western Coastal Plains
The western coastal plains are a narrow zone of plain land lying between the Western Ghats and the Arabian
Sea.
• They are an example of a submerged coastal plain. Because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and
provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha
Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important natural ports located along the west
coast.
• They are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south.
• The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta.
Eastern Coastal Plains
The Eastern coastal plains are a broader zone of plain land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal.
• The plains have well developed deltas, formed by the rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri
flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
• Because of its emergent nature, it has fewer ports and harbours. The continental shelf extends up to 500
km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours.
Differences between Himalayan and Peninsular rivers
• The Himalayan River system has a large catchment area upto 8.6 lakh square km, whereas the peninsular
river system has lesser catchment area upto 3.1 lakh square km.
• The valleys formed in the Himalayas are deep and V-shaped, whereas that in peninsular areas is shallow.
• The Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature in which water flows throughout the year. The peninsular
rivers, on the other hand, are non-perennial and they receive water only through rainfall.
• Meanders are more prominent in the Himalayan river system than the peninsular areas.
• The Himalayan rivers form bigger deltas at their mouths, compared to peninsular rivers. Rivers as well as
the Coastal plain have an important influence on the local environment, society and economy. Their
sustainable management is of paramount importance for sustainable development.

2. Although rivers are an integral part of the socio-economic life and culture of India; they are now in dire
state. Discuss. (Answer in 250 words)
India is a land of rivers. Hundreds of large and small, perennial and seasonal rivers drain the length and
breadth of the country. Rivers constitute the most useful natural resource in India as they are a great source
of water for irrigation, industry and domestic purposes.
India rivers are intertwined in the socio-cultural fabric of the lives of the people:
• Religious: Ablution baths, immersion of idols, use of river water in religious ceremonies has been a part of
Hinduism.
• Economic: For centuries and millenniums people in India have lived along the rivers. Most of the rivers
have been used to transport goods and carry trade. Various ancient manuscripts have references to the
same. The present government’s National Highways Project seeks to use this economic potential of the rivers
for transportation of goods and people.
 • Energy: Hundreds of large and small hydro-power projects have been built on Himalayan rivers to produce
electricity. Moreover, the water from the reservoir of these hydro-projects have been used to feed canals for
irrigation of agricultural fields across the country.
• Agriculture: The Great Northern plains of India and other fertile areas of the country have been formed by
depositional work of rivers in India. Every now and then, floods in these rivers renew the alluvium of the
plains and help sustain agriculture. These rivers provide water for irrigation and also help recharge ground
water level.
Rivers in Dire State:
However, over the years the rivers are facing constant degradation for following reasons:
• Pollution: Most rivers in India are very high on pollutants. The rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yamuna,
among others, are unsustainably pollutants. According to an assessment by the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB), the number of polluted stretches of the country’s rivers stands at 351 and the number of
critically polluted stretches where water quality indicators are the poorest is 45.
• Urbanisation: Rapid and unchecked urbanisation on the banks of major rivers has led to encroachment of
river banks and caused rampant pollution. Rivers have become a dumping ground for construction debris
leading to their choking in certain cities (e.g. Musi river in Hyderabad).
• Industrialisation: Development of Industries along the rivers and discharge of untreated industrial waste
into the rivers has been one of the major causes of degradation of rivers over the years.
• Waterflow: Various studies have found waterflow in a number of Indian rivers, including ganga to be
woefully inadequate. Construction of large hydro-power projects and channelisation of river water into
tunnels to generate electricity has led to drying up of the rivers at various stretches. In the case of the Ganga,
these projects also prevent sediments from going downstream. This affects the fertility of the delta
downstream and also destroys the unique self-purifying properties of the Ganga.
• Aquatic life: The depleted condition of major rivers is affecting the aquatic life in them. The pollution of the
rivers has turned it toxic for major species like Ganga Dolphin, Cauvery Mahseer. Besides, fish,otters, birds
deriving sustenance from major rivers are facing a threat.

Rivers are the lifeline of any emerging and well-developed civilization and ecosystem. Hence, the natural flow
of rivers must be conserved.

TEST – 2

1. AI is poised to revolutionize every sector, but we must comprehend its limitations.’”In the context of India,
discuss the advantages and obstacles linked to artificial intelligence. (Answer in250 words)

AI, or artificial intelligence, refers to the development of intelligent machines that can perform tasks that typically
require human intelligence. It involves the creation of algorithms and models that enable machines to process data,
learn from it, and make decisions or predictions. AI technologies include machine learning, natural language
processing, computer vision, and robotics. AI has the potential to revolutionize various industries by enhancing
efficiency, automating processes, enabling personalized experiences, and improving decisionmaking. However,
ethical considerations, data privacy, and the need for appropriate regulation are important factors to ensure
responsible and beneficial use of AI.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Indian context:

• Enhanced Efficiency: AI can automate repetitive tasks, improve productivity, and streamline processes across
sectors, leading to increased efficiency.

• Improved Healthcare: AI-powered technologies can aid in early disease detection, personalized treatments, and
remote healthcare services, particularly beneficial for India’s vast and diverse population.

• Agricultural Transformation: AI can assist in precision farming, crop monitoring, and yield prediction, improving
agricultural productivity and resource management.

• Accessible Education: AI can enable personalized and adaptive learning experiences, making quality education
accessible to all, including remote and underprivileged areas.
• Smart Cities: AI applications can optimize energy consumption, traffic management, and public services,
contributing to the development of sustainable and efficient smart cities.

Obstacles to AI implementation in India:

• Skill Gap: There is a shortage of skilled AI professionals, hindering the effective utilization of AI technologies and
their widespread adoption.

• Ethical Concerns: AI raises concerns about privacy, bias, accountability, and potential job displacement,
necessitating ethical guidelines and policies for responsible AI deployment.

• Data Challenges: Limited data availability, quality, and standardization pose hurdles to developing robust AI models
and algorithms.

• Infrastructure Limitations: Adequate technological infrastructure, such as high-speed internet connectivity and
computing resources, is necessary for AI implementation, which may be lacking in certain regions.

• Regulatory Framework: Clear regulations and frameworks are required to address legal and ethical implications,
data protection, and transparency issues associated with AI technologies.

Way Forward:

To overcome the challenges associated with AI implementation in India, the following solutions can be considered:

• Skill Development: Invest in AI education and training programs to bridge the skill gap, promoting AI related
courses and certifications at educational institutions and providing upskilling opportunities for professionals.

• Ethical Guidelines: Establish comprehensive ethical guidelines and regulations that address privacy, bias,
transparency, and accountability concerns, ensuring responsible and unbiased AI deployment

• Data Infrastructure: Improve data infrastructure by encouraging data sharing collaborations, creating data
repositories, and implementing data standardization measures to enhance data availability, quality, and accessibility.
• Technological Infrastructure: Invest in robust technological infrastructure, including high-speed internet
connectivity and computing resources, to support AI implementation across the country.

• Regulatory Framework: Develop clear and flexible regulatory frameworks that balance innovation and consumer
protection, fostering an environment that promotes responsible and ethical AI practices.

Conclusion - By focusing on these solutions, India can overcome the challenges and leverage the potential of AI to
drive economic growth, improve governance, enhance societal well-being, and create a sustainable and inclusive
future. It is essential for India to understand the benefits and challenges of AI, develop a skilled workforce, foster
ethical practices, address data-related concerns, invest in infrastructure, and establish appropriate regulations to
harness the transformative potential of AI in various sectors.

2. Discuss the various factors leading to increasing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in India.
Mention the important steps taken by the government in combating NCDs. (Answer in 250 words) 15
Introduction Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, are medical conditions
that are not caused by infectious agents and cannot be transmitted from person to person. These diseases
generally have long durations and progress slowly. Common examples of NCDs include cardiovascular
diseases (such as heart disease and stroke), cancer, chronic respiratory diseases (like chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease), and diabetes. NCDs are often influenced by lifestyle factors, such as unhealthy diets, lack
of physical activity, tobacco use, excessive alcohol consumption, and environmental factors. They are a
leading cause of death and disability worldwide, accounting for a significant burden on healthcare systems
and socioeconomic development.
Factors contributing to the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases(NCDs) in India:
• Changing Lifestyles: Urbanization, sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy dietary patterns, and increasing
consumption of processed foods high in fats, sugars, and salt.
• Tobacco Use: High prevalence of tobacco consumption, including smoking and smokeless tobacco, leading
to diseases like lung cancer, heart disease, and respiratory disorders.
 • Alcohol Abuse: Rising alcohol consumption, especially among the younger population, contributing to liver
disease, cardiovascular issues, and mental health disorders.
• Air Pollution: Exposure to high levels of air pollution, particularly in urban areas, linked to respiratory
diseases, cardiovascular problems, and cancer.
• Aging Population: Increasing elderly population with age-related diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension,
and arthritis.
• Limited Access to Healthcare: Inadequate healthcare infrastructure, poor primary healthcare services, and
lack of awareness leading to delayed diagnosis and inadequate management of NCDs.
• Socioeconomic Factors: Income inequalities, poverty, and limited access to nutritious food, education, and
healthcare exacerbating the risk of NCDs.
• Genetic Predisposition: Genetic factors influencing susceptibility to certain NCDs, including diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers.
• Lack of Public Health Initiatives: Insufficient public health campaigns focusing on NCD prevention, early
detection, and lifestyle modifications.
• Insufficient Health Policies: Inadequate implementation of policies and regulations targeting tobacco
control, alcohol consumption, and unhealthy food marketing.
Important steps taken by the Indian government in combating non-communicable diseases (NCDs):
• National NCD Control Program: Implementation of the National Program for Prevention and Control of
Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Stroke (NPCDCS) to raise awareness, provide screening and
early detection services, and promote healthy lifestyles.
• Tobacco Control Measures: Enactment of the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act (COTPA) to
regulate tobacco use, ban smoking in public places, and mandate pictorial health warnings on tobacco
products.
• Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Introduction of the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana
(PMJAY) to provide health coverage and financial protection for secondary and tertiary care, including NCD
treatments.
• National Mental Health Program: Implementation of the National Mental Health Program to address
mental health issues, including NCD-related mental health disorders.
• National Salt Reduction Initiative: Launch of the initiative to reduce salt consumption through
collaboration with food industries, public awareness campaigns, and promoting low-sodium alternatives.
• Yoga and Traditional Medicine: Promotion of traditional practices like Yoga and Ayurveda for preventive
and holistic healthcare, encouraging physical activity and stress management.
• National Cancer Control Program: Establishment of the National Cancer Control Program to improve
cancer prevention, early detection, diagnosis, treatment, and palliative care services.
• Food Safety and Standards Regulations: Implementation of regulations to ensure the availability of safe
and nutritious food, reducing the risk factors associated with NCDs.
Conclusion - Though the initiatives reflect the government’s commitment to addressing NCDs, promoting
healthier lifestyles, strengthening healthcare infrastructure, and providing affordable and accessible NCD-
related services to the population The factors requires a comprehensive approach encompassing health
promotion, awareness campaigns, improved healthcare infrastructure, effective policies, and community
engagement to reduce the burden of NCDs in India.

3. With reference to river systems, give a brief detail about the various types of drainage patterns.
Substantiate with suitable examples. (Answer in 150 words)
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the network of such channels is
called a ‘drainage system’. The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological time period,
nature and structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow.
The different types of Drainage Patterns are:
• Dendritic: The drainage pattern that represents the combination of broader valleys involving dense
networks of tributaries which project to be the example of Radiating branches of trees is called Dendritic
Pattern. This pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. Example: The Ganga
river system, The Godavari river system, Krishna river system etc
 • Parallel: It comprises numerous rivers which are parallel to each other and follow the regional slope. Due
to steep slopes, the streams are swift, straight thus they parallel to each other. River Narmada and river Tapi
are considered as prominent examples.
Trellis: This pattern occurs where sub parallel streams erode a valley along the strike of less resistant
formations, the parallel flowing pattern generated by Main River and its tributaries. Example: All the
extrapeninsular river systems represent this pattern and the most developed example is the Ganga river
system.
• Radial: It forms the drainage pattern that involves the channel of different systems. It represents
centrifugal flow (flow radially outward and downward from a central topographic high). Example:
Amarkantak (Narmada, Son, Hasdeo)
• Rectangular: This pattern is considered to be a specific type of Trellis pattern where tributaries merge with
the main river almost at a right angle (90 degree). It is indicative of streams following a prominent fault or
joint that breaks the rock into a rectangular block. Example: The Brahmani and Mahanadi river system.
• Deranged: A deranged drainage system is a drainage system in watersheds where there is no coherent
pattern to the rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been much geological disruption.
Example: This type of drainage is found in the glaciated valleys of Karakoram
• Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the pattern
is known as centripetal.
Since drainage patterns are the reflection of so many factors, it is evident that they are of very real
significance. They form one of the most immediate approaches to an understanding of geologic structure.

4. The longitudinal extent of India has its implications on the people of the country. In the above context,
analyse the need for having more than one standard time for India. (Answer in 250 words)
The Indian mainland extends between latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E. The
vast longitudinal extent of nearly 30° creates a time difference of nearly two hours between the easternmost
and westernmost parts of the country. For uniformity, India adopted a single centrally located standard time
for the entire country as UTC + 5.30. Indian Standard Time is measured at Shankargarh Fort in Allahabad
(Uttar Pradesh) along the line of longitude 82.5° east. However, for a long time there has been a demand
from North-Eastern States for a separate time zone.
Issues with Single time zone in India
• North Eastern states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, etc. witness sunrise as early as 4:30 am due to a single
time zone. In summer time the sun rises 90 minutes earlier in the eastern part of India than the western part.
When it is daylight in North-Eastern India it is not yet dawn in Western India, while when the sun sets in
Western India it is night time in North-Eastern India.
• People in the east stay up longer - keeping the lights on and using more electricity.
• Due to earlier sunrise and earlier sunset, these eastern states lose productivity because of the decrease in
office hours.
Two Time Zones:
Recently, a research paper proposed two time zones IST-I (UTC + 5.30 h) and IST-II (UTC + 6.30 h). The
proposed second time zone would follow standard meridian 89°52’E, which passes through the narrow
border between Assam and West Bengal. States west of the line would continue to follow IST (to be called
IST-I). States east of the line - Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands -would follow IST-II.
Benefits:
• Enhance Productivity: It will help in increasing productivity by maximum utilisation of daylight hours.
• Energy Efficient: It will also help to save energy (approximately 2.7 billion units every year) by realigning
office hours to daylight hours.
Challenges:
• Implementation: Difficult to implement in India due to lower literacy levels. People would then have to
adjust their clocks while crossing the time zonal boundary every time which may become a tedious process
especially to rural people.
• Chaos: Two time zones would cause unimaginable chaos in India, where many time-bound operations,
such as railway lines, operate on the basis of manual controls.
 Although, two time zones would lead to implementation issues and chaos, it will bring immediate and long
term economic and environmental benefits. Moreover, internationally, countries like the US, Russia and
China among others have shown how implementation challenges can be overcome.

5. What is the Inclusive growth of a nation? Discuss various initiatives taken by the government of India to
promote inclusive growth in India. (Answer in 150 words).
When the total value of final goods and services produced in an economy increases, we say that an economy
has grown in size. In turn when this growth results in benefits to all sectors and stratas of the society and if it
reduces the burden on the poor then this economic growth can be termed as Inclusive.
Besides, for economic growth to be inclusive it has to:
• Benefit the poor and socio-economically weaker groups.
• Reduce poverty faster and provide better living conditions.
• Reduce vertical as well as the horizontal inequalities in income and assets targeting all vulnerable groups.
• Be non-discriminatory and favourable across time and space, i.e. broad based in terms of coverage of
regions, creating large scale labour intensive employment opportunities etc.
Need of Inclusive Growth in India:
• Promoting inclusive growth requires policymakers to address both growth and income distribution, so it
requires an understanding of the relationships between growth, poverty and inequality.
• Economic growth is a prerequisite for poverty reduction when income distribution is held constant.
• Despite strong economic growth in the last decade, job growth averaged only approximately 2% a year in
the formal sector. Such growth is basically flat when adjusted for the growing population.
• It is estimated that about 80% of India’s labour work force works in the informal economy. Jobs in the
informal economy are typically insecure, with neither employment contracts nor regular pay, and very often
workers are engaged on a day-to-day basis. The working conditions in the informal economy therefore
resemble a low-productivity trap.
Recent Government initiatives to promote inclusive growth
• The government has created a dedicated department of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship for
honing the skills and job opportunities of the youth.
• PM Gram Sadak Yojana(PMGSY) has been initiated to boost rural connectivity and the economic and social
services which will result in increased agriculture income and employment opportunities for rural India.
• Saakshar Bharat Abhiyan was launched with an aim to improve the education quality at middle as well as
high school level.
• Schemes like Deen Dayal Upadyay Grameen Kaushal Yojana (DDU-GKY), Nai Manzil, Nai Roshni have been
launched for the economic empowerment of the rural youth and women.
• For improving the health, pan India schemes like National Health Mission, Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Yojana,
Ayushman Bharat, Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana and National Rural Drinking Water programme etc have
been launched by the government.
PM Garib Kalyan Yojana and Pm Jan Dhan Yojana to address the financial inclusion, through food security
and direct benefit transfer(DBT) have been launched.

A great deal of inequality and inequity exist in India but with proper implementation and monitoring of the
various schemes the inclusive growth of India can be achieved, which will help India achieve its target of
becoming a $5 trillion economy.

6. The issue of river pollution in India has been on a rise. What are the major causes for river pollution in
India? Also Discuss various steps taken by the Indian Government to address the issue of river pollution
India. (Answer in 150 Words)
River pollution in India is a serious environmental issue that affects millions of people who depend on the
rivers for their livelihoods and well-being. Some of the most polluted rivers in India are the Ganga, the
Yamuna, the Brahmaputra, and the Cauvery. These rivers receive large amounts of untreated wastewater and
garbage from urban and rural areas along their courses. The pollution not only affects the riverine
communities, but also the downstream regions that rely on the rivers for irrigation, drinking water, fishing,
and tourism.
 Causes of River Pollution India: One of the major environmental challenges facing India is water pollution.
The causes of river pollution in India are manifold, but some of the most significant ones are:
• Growing Population: The rapid pace of growth of population in India, is primarily responsible for the
significant increase in the level of pollution of rivers. With the increasing rate of growth of population, the
human activities around the bank of rivers also increased, which results in contamination of water.
• Rapid Urbanization: In India, there has been a significant shift in people from rural to urban areas in search
of improved income and living conditions. Changes in the physical and socioeconomic features of the urban
environment are likely as a result of this high human concentration. For rivers, urbanisation means increased
pollution.
• Untreated sewage: India generates more sewage than its treatment capacity, resulting in the discharge of
untreated domestic waste water into rivers. This causes organic and bacterial contamination, which poses
serious health risks to humans and animals, and degrades the quality of water resources.
• Industrial effluent: Industries such as thermal power plants, textile mills, chemical factories, and tanneries
release toxic chemicals and metals into rivers, either directly or indirectly. These pollutants affect the aquatic
ecosystem, reduce dissolved oxygen levels, and alter the pH and temperature of water.
• Agricultural runoff: The use of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides in agriculture leads to the leaching of
nutrients and chemicals into rivers. These substances cause eutrophication, which is the excessive growth of
algae and other plants that deplete oxygen and sunlight for other organisms. Some pesticides also persist in
the environment and accumulate in the food chain, causing bio-magnification and health problems.
Initiatives Taken by the Government to address river pollution in India:
The government of India has launched several initiatives to address the problem of river pollution, such as
the National River Conservation Plan, the Namami Gange Programme, and the Clean Ganga Mission. These
programmes aim to improve the sewage treatment capacity, monitor the water quality, restore the ecological
flow, and promote public awareness and participation. However, these efforts have faced many challenges,
such as lack of funds, coordination, enforcement, and public support. River pollution in India is a complex
and multifaceted issue that requires urgent attention and action from all stakeholders. It is essential to adopt
a holistic and integrated approach that considers the social, economic, cultural, and environmental aspects of
river management.

TEST – 3

1. How has the introduction of Goods and Services Tax changed the indirect tax regime in India? Discuss.
(Answer in 250 words).
The Goods & Service Tax (GST), which was introduced by Constitution (101st Amendment) Act, 2016
following the recommendation of Kelkar Task Force (2004), has replaced a plethora of indirect taxes such as
states’ sales tax, service tax, excise, etc., with a single central tax regime applied uniformly on all products
and services.
Changes introduced by GST in the indirect tax regime of India:
• GST is a comprehensive indirect tax that has subsumed most of indirect taxes and thus eliminates the
cascading effect of tax (i.e. tax on tax) that was evident under the earlier regime.
• Earlier, in the VAT structure, any business with a turnover of more than Rs 5 lakh (in most states) was liable
to pay VAT. Under the GST regime, however, this threshold has been increased to Rs 20 lakh, which exempts
many small traders and service providers.
• The use of technology in the entire process of GST right from registration to filing is an easier and
convenient compared process under the previous regime where businesses were required to get different
registrations such as VAT, excise, and service tax.
• Anti-Profiteering measures in GST ensures that every time there is a change in GST rates resulting in
rationalisation of tax rates, the benefit is being passed on to the consumers. Profiteering happens when you
inflate your product prices unfairly to create a higher profit margin. The GST regime does create an
opportunity for profiteering.
• GST being a PAN-India model tax system has made consumers vigilant before paying taxes. The earlier tax
regime was loaded with multiple taxes, which confused the consumers.
• Input tax-credit and implementation of E-way bill along with GST has reduced the extent of rampant tax
evasion in the country.
 The biggest benefit of GST was that it opened up the entire India as a single unified market allowing for free
movement of goods across states’ borders, as opposed to the earlier scenario where state borders became
barriers. GST allowed for faster movement of trucks and led to requirements for fewer warehouses across
several states. However, GST has multiple tax rate slabs for different categories of products – a fact that still
makes it more complicated than many expected. Goods and Services Tax is considered as the biggest post-
independence indirect-tax reformation in India as it has redesigned the whole concept of taxation. Being a
“ONE NATION ONE TAX”, it not only brought an excellent boost to the Indian economy and society but also
helped the country in attracting foreign investments.

2. What are direct and indirect taxes? Do you think that there is a need for the tax reforms in India? If yes,
suggest some recent reforms? (Answer in 250 words)

Direct taxes are so named since they are charged upon and collected directly from the person or organisation
that ultimately pays the tax (in a legal sense). Taxes on personal and corporate incomes, personal wealth and
professions are direct taxes. On the other hand, Indirect taxes are charged and collected from persons other
than those who finally end up paying the tax (again in a legal sense). For instance, a tax on sale of goods is
collected by the seller from the buyer.

WHY TAX REFORM?

Patterns of taxation (both in level and in composition) differ from country to country because of economic,
cultural, and historical factors. A poorly designed or improperly functioning tax system can lead to the following
problems, which tax reform attempts to address.

Insufficient Revenues: Most developing countries are plagued by chronic fiscal deficits and by inadequate social
and economic infrastructure. Increasing tax revenue provides an obvious avenue to address these problems.
Since the primary function of a tax system is to generate revenue, the first goal of tax reform must be to ensure
that this function is discharged adequately.

Distortions that reduce economic welfare and growth: Taxation frequently creates distortions in the economy
that reduce the real income of society by more than the amount of revenue raised by government. The
reduction in real income is often referred to as the economic efficiency costs of taxation. Poorly designed and
implemented tax systems can also encourage companies and individuals to waste effort on avoiding and evading
taxes. A second goal of tax reform, therefore, must be to reduce the efficiency costs of taxation.

Inequities: The poor often bear significant tax burdens. At the same time, many of the better-off pay little in
taxes because a large part of nonwage income, self-employment income, or in-kind income is excluded by design
or by weak administration. As a result, both horizontal equity (treating taxpayers with the same amount of
income equally, irrespective of the source of income) and vertical equity (distributing the tax burden among the
nonpoor in line with their ability to pay) suffer. Lifting the tax burden off the poorest households and ensuring
that actual tax structures become more equitable both horizontally and vertically is a third goal of tax reform.
Administrative problems: In most developing countries the administration of taxes is weak, and the problems of
evasion and corruption are serious. The weakness in tax administration stems from several interacting factors,
inducing unduly complex tax laws and procedures, poor information systems, corruption, and political
interference in tax administration. Strengthening tax administration, which will often require simplifying the
determination of the tax base, is a fourth objective of tax reform.

Recommendation for Tax reforms:

While salaried employees in the formal sector dutifully pay income tax, there is large-scale evasion from
informal sector, traders etc. This needs plugging.

Reduce rates, remove exemptions

• High rates are a recipe for low tax compliance.

• A lower rate for lower incomes and high rates for higher incomes will ensure better balance.
 • The threshold for income tax needs to be revised periodically to counter the effects of inflation.

• A plethora of exemptions and deductions, adding to litigation on these, needs to be removed.

• Once audited accounts are as per accounting standards, tax authorities should not have any discretion to
review the basis of accounting. This will ensure avoidance of unnecessary legal disputes.

Remove Anomalies:

Several anomalies have crept into the current direct tax system. These include dividend distribution tax, MAT,
surcharges / cess and interest rate arbitrage between delayed refunds and tax payments. Further, as net income
is taxed once, any gift, wealth or estate passing on to others from the taxed net Income should not be taxed
again.

An estimated 3.9 lakh cases are pending before several appeal forums. If laws are made simple, litigation will be
reduced. Online assessments should be encouraged. A differential tax for cash transactions may be considered,
to discourage offline modes of payment. Further, processes in assessment of tax, and for appeals thereafter,
should be simplified. Setting a time limit for assessments, appeals and hearings / passing of orders should be
specified and enforced.

TEST – 4

1. Discuss the types of justice, liberty and equality as laid in the preamble to the constitution of India.
(Answer in 250 words)
The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is based on the ‘Objective Resolution’, drafted and moved by Pandit
Nehru, and adopted by the constituent assembly. It is the introduction of the Indian Constitution and
explains the philosophy and objectives of the Constitution. It also presents the intention of its framers, the
core values and principles that we as a nation should follow. Type of justice, liberty and equality as
enshrined in the Constitution
JUSTICE: The term ‘justice’ in the Preamble embraces three distinct forms namely social, economic and
political. These are secured through various provisions of Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
1. Social justice denotes the equal treatment of all citizens without any social distinction based on caste,
colour, race, sex and so on. It means absence of privileges being extended to any particular section of society,
and improvement in the conditions of backward classes (SCs, STs and OBCs) and women
2. Economic justice denotes the non-discrimination between people on the basis of economic factors. It
involves removal of glaring inequalities in wealth, income and property.
3. Political justice implies that all citizens should have equal political rights, equal access to all political offices
and equal voice in the government.
LIBERTY: It means the absence of restraints on the activities of individuals, and at the same time, providing
opportunities for development of individual personalities. The preamble secures to all citizens of India liberty
of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. However liberty does not allow citizens to do whatever they
want certain reasonable restrictions are imposed as mentioned in the Constitution.
EQUALITY: the term means absence of any special privileges to any section of the society, and the provision
of adequate opportunities for all individuals without discrimination. The preamble secures to all citizens of
India equality of status and opportunity. This provision embraces three dimensions of equality namely civic,
political and economic.
1. The provisions in the constitution providing civic equality is Article 14 providing equality before the law
among others.
2. Political equality is ensured through Article 326 providing adult suffrage among others.
3. Economic equality is enshrined in Directive Principles such as Article 39 which provide for citizens’ right to
livelihood.
To conclude, it will not be wrong to say that the spirit or the ideology behind the Constitution is sufficiently
crystallised in the preamble. It encompasses all such values and ideals which ensure upliftment, development
and freedom for every citizen.
 2. Discuss the difference between FII (Foreign Institutional Investment) and FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)
and also bring out the relevance of FDI in the economic development of India. (Answer in 250 words)
Since independence, India has paid close attention to the importance of investment in encouraging economic
growth Foreign investment not only contributes to increased economic activity and jobs but it also promotes
the flow of technology into the nation and helps the sector become more competitive. Foreign investment
finds its way to a country in two ways: foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign institutional investment
(FII).
Difference between FDI and FII Foreign Institutional Investment (FII)
• FII or Foreign Institutional Investment is an investment made by an investor in the markets of a foreign
country.
• In FII, the companies only need to get registered in the stock exchange to make investments.
• They are short term in nature.
• With FII, there is always a fear of capital flight which is definitely not conducive for overall economic growth
of the country.
• FII investment does not provide any control or influence for the investors.
FDI
• It is an investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country.
• It refers to the conditions when a company or investor takes ownership and controls operation in a
business entity in another country.
• They are long term in nature.
• FDI brings technology, infrastructure and management (merger & acquisition, joint venture) along with
investment which is suitable for long term economic growth of a country.
• FDI investment results in the transfer of control or influence over the investee company.
Role of FDI in the economic development of India can be understood as follows:
• Boost in employment: One of the main reasons why developing countries like India want to attract the
more significant number of FDI is that this will increase the job opportunities in the country, hence creating
an expansion in the employment sector among youth and making them skilled.
• Increment in exports: Foreign enterprises have an extensive worldwide marketing network and marketing
data that aids in promoting domestic products around the world. As a result, FDI encourages export-oriented
initiatives that boost the country’s export performance.
• Advancement in various fields: For the development of an economy, it is important to have new
technology, proper management and new skills. FDI allows bridging the technology gap between foreign and
domestic firms to boost the scale of production which is beneficial for the betterment of the Indian economy.
Thus, FDI is also considered an asset to the economy.
• FDI encourages export from the host country: Foreign companies carry a broad international marketing
network and marketing information which helps in promoting domestic products across the globe. Hence,
FDI promotes the export-oriented activities that improve export performance of the country.
• Facilitates the stability in the exchange rate: If the economy successfully maintains a constant flow of
foreign capital through FDI, it simply translates into a flow of regular foreign exchange in the country. This
flow will help build a growing foreign exchange reserve, ultimately stabilising the exchange rates, which the
Central Bank maintains.
• Apart from these advantages, FDI helps in creating a competitive environment in the country which leads
to higher efficiency and superior products and services.

To attract FDI in India, the government has increasingly liberalized its FDI regime in various sectors including
finance, defence, insurance etc. FDI inflow has seen growth in the last decades owing to these reforms.
However, more reforms on subjects like land and labour as well as policy stability in terms of taxation etc.is
required to make the economy more attractive for FDIs and long-term rationale.

TEST – 5

1. Women’s participation in the Indian economy has been influenced and shaped by the patriarchal nature of
Indian society. Discuss. (Answer in 150 words)
 Patriarchy is a social and ideological construct which allots specific roles to men and women, with the
underlying theory that men are superior to women. Indian society is largely patriarchal in nature, with
certain exceptions in South India and Tribal habitations of North east. Patriarchy is so pervasive and
entrenched in Indian society that it has become a normal behaviour, custom or tradition. Its influence
pervades from the confines of our home, conversations, socialising of children, the media and of course, our
workplaces. Both women and men are victims of patriarchy and its biases.
Impact on women participation in economy
Gender stereotyping of roles: Jobs and roles at the workplace are stereotyped. Women are assigned jobs
that are usually considered “ladies’ areas of expertise”, such as front desk executives, secretaries and other
peripheral jobs. Most of the strategy-building, decision-making and Profit and Loss related roles are handled
by men.
Unequal Pay: Mind The Gap-State of Employment in India by Oxfam showed women on average are paid 34
per cent less than similarly qualified male workers for performing the same tasks. Women earning a regular
salary were paid, on average, Rs. 105 and Rs.123 less than male workers daily in urban and rural settings,
respectively; the corresponding figures for casual workers were Rs. 72 and Rs. 47 for urban and rural workers.
Drop outs: Nearly 20 million Indian women quit work between 2004-05 to 2011-12. The patriarchal nature of
Indian society is the biggest contributor to the above.
• 76 percent of both men and women tend to think of men as being better suited for careers and women as
more appropriate to be homemakers. This patriarchal mindset causes women to forgo their career for
marriage.
• Women have to perform the tasks of child rearing, looking after old parents and meet other social
obligations along with their job and profession. It often leads to women dropping off from employment.
Unpaid household work: The patriarchal nature of Indian society has led to over-representation of Women
in unpaid care and unpaid household work. A recent study by Oxfam found that unpaid work by women in
India could be equal to 3.1% of the GDP.
Harassment and discrimination: Women at workplaces are often subjected to sexual harrasments. The
#Metoo# movement has brought the instances of sexual harassment at workplace. Moreover, they face
discrimination in promotion and growth opportunities. Men are preferred in promotion as women are
deemed unfit for managerial positions.

The patriarchal nature of Indian society limits women’s participation in the economy. Patriarchy and its biases
need to be reformed to create equal opportunities for women in the economic sphere. Equal and increased
participation of women in the economy can translate into higher economic growth (i.e GDP growth can
increase by 27%). It can also have other positive externalities

2. What do you understand about Fiscal Consolidation? Discuss any two techniques of fiscal consolidation?
(Answer in 150 words)
Fiscal consolidation refers to a set of policies undertaken by the Government at the national and subnational
level to reduce their fiscal deficit. It is aimed at reducing the fiscal deficit and is the key indicator of the fiscal
health of the economy. Improved tax revenue realisation and better aligned expenditure are the techniques
of fiscal consolidation as the fiscal deficit reaches at a manageable level. Two techniques of fiscal
consolidation
• Improved tax revenue: Governments try to improve tax revenue realisation to increase the efficiency of tax
administration by means of reducing tax avoidance, eliminating tax evasion, enhancing tax compliance etc.In
India only 1 percent of the population pays tax resulting in a tax to GDP ratio of 16.6 percent, one of the
lowest among the emerging economies. Increasing the tax GDP ratio by widening the tax base and
minimising tax concessions and exemptions will help the government increase revenue.
• Control of wasteful expenditure: Governments take a number of steps to reduce the non-planned
expenditure, optimise the use of available resources and better target government subsidies through Direct
Benefit Transfer.
Fiscal deficit produces adverse effects as it results in an interest payment burden for the government and for
the economy it produces inflationary effect, and rising interest rate in the economy. As a result, the
government would have to borrow funds or perform deficit financing from the central bank. This may
 depreciate the currency and have negative impacts on the economy. In this backdrop it becomes imperative
to maintain fiscal discipline and adhere to strict fiscal rules.

TEST – 6

1. India’s cultural diversity is a challenge to its society. Explain. [Answer in 150 words]

By cultural diversity we mean the existence of different cultural groups, identified by cultural markers such as
language, religion, race or sect, in a society. India is an example of a culturally diverse nation and society. Cultural
identities per se can arouse intense passions and are often able to mobilize large numbers of people. Often
cultural differences are accompanied by economic and social inequalities, and this further complicates things.
Measures to address the inequalities or injustices suffered by one community can provoke opposition from other
communities

Challenges of cultural diversity:

• Regionalism: A feeling of loyalty to a geographic region accompanied by desire for greater political
independence can arise when culturally diverse groups are concentrated in different regions. Such feelings can be
fuelled by a sense of or existence of regional deprivation. It can pose a challenge for the society and nation by
inducing a competition for political autonomy and economic development. Example: demands for states like
Gorkhaland, Bodoland, Bundelkhand among others in India; also the “sons of the soil” movements in
Maharashtra, Assam and Karnataka.

• Communalism: Quite often a religious group in a society begins to perceive its own group as the only legitimate
or worthy group, with other groups as inferior, illegitimate and opposed. Such perception can result in clashes
between different religious groups and thereby destabilising peace and harmony in the society or the nation.
Example: communal violence against the Sikhs in 1985, violence against Hindus in Godhra in 2002 and post-
Godhra violence against Muslims in Gujarat in 2002.

• Uniformity: At times societies try to bring uniformity rather than accepting and respecting the cultural
differences. Attempts at bringing uniformity threaten practices of various groups and thus arouse violent
resistance. Example: the anti-Hindi movement in south India against the central government’s attempts to make
Hindi lingua franca of the country.

• Hegemony: In a culturally diverse society, some groups are in the majority while others could be in the
minority. It is seen that the majority groups at times try to control and influence the practices of the minorities.
This creates a sense of insecurity among the minority communities.

• Casteism: In a society like India where there exists intra-community hierarchy and disparities. Any attempts by
the government to address such disparities and bring equality are resisted by those higher up and better off.
However, cultural diversity has its benefits.

• Multiculturalism: Presence of different cultural groups in the society promotes multiculturalism, which is at the
core of democratic polity that envisages equality to all irrespective identity.

• Creativity: Diversity of opinion and views has been found to be an enabler of creativity. Thus, cultural diversity
can induce innovation and creativity by increased interaction and learning among diverse groups. • Inclusivism:
Acceptance of and respect for differences makes a society inclusive. Thereby, it reduces fear of being left out and
non-recognition.

• Tolerance: The cultural diversity of the Indian society has helped create tolerance as an intrinsic value of our
society. At times when various cultures witnessed ethnic cleansing and oppression of minorities, India stood as a
tolerance of differences.

The cultural diversity of India does pose a challenge in the forms of communalism, regionalism, among others
but it makes our society vibrant, inclusive and tolerant. The cultural diversity of the country and the values it has
imbibed in the people has made it an example for other nations of the world.
2. Why have institutions like caste panchayats continued to exist in India, despite their existence and
functioning being extra-constitutional and illegal? Comment. [Answer in 250 words] Informal groups of
village elders like Khaps or caste panchayats belonging to a caste or a community organisation representing a
clan or a group of related clans are popular in villages across the country. They are neither formally affiliated
to governmental bodies nor have any recognition or legal basis. However, these extra-constitutional
institutions have continued to wield a considerable influence on the lives of the people. Reasons for
continued existence of caste panchayats in India:
• Strong social base and clout: Caste and/or community is very dominant in India at village level. People’s
choices and daily life is in turn influenced by the caste and community they belong to. At times, various
decisions are taken at gatherings of community elders. Thus, caste and community panchayats have a strong
social base, which sustains them despite their illegality.
• Fear: Due to the huge social base and acceptance at village level, the decisions of the panchayats are
enforced and complied with without minimal or any resistance. People comply with the dikkats as they fear
social ostracism or at times other punitive measures, at times even death.
• Patriarchy: Men still rule the roost at the village level. Most of these panchayats are helmed by the elderly
men (Patriarchs) from the communities, who command social respect and are also feared by.
• Impressionable Local administration: The impunity with which these panchayats have continued can also
be associated with the impressionable local administration, who mostly have similar caste and community
allegiance. The local administration is often complicit with these extra-constitutional institutions.
• Top-down approach has not made a difference: Moreover, the top-down approach of enforcing changes at
the village level through laws has not made substantial difference on the ground.

Thus, caste and community panchayats have continued to function and exist because of the strong social
base they have at village level and the social respect that they command. The government must act at the
village level to root out these extra-constitutional institutions.

3. . How does a direct democracy differ from an indirect democracy? Illustrate with examples. [Answer in 150
words]
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly
or through freely elected representatives. As per the father of Indian Constitution Dr B R Ambedkar,
Democracy means a way of life which consists of the basic principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity.
Direct Democracy: A direct Democracy is one in which decisions relating to the laws and policies of the
government are taken by the people directly. It requires direct participation from the citizens of the country
in day to day decision making and administration of the government. There are namely four instruments of
direct democracy:
• Referendum - procedure in which a proposed legislation is referred to the electorate for acceptance
through direct voting.
• Initiative - method by means of which the people can propose a bill to the legislature for enactment.
• Recall - way for voters to remove a representative or an officer before the expiry of his/her term, when he
fails to discharge his duties properly.
• Plebiscite - method of obtaining the opinion of people on any issue of public importance. It is generally
used to solve territorial disputes. Switzerland is one of the countries where direct democracy is prevalent.
Here instruments of direct democracy (at the levels of the municipalities and federal level are practiced.) In
this form of government, every law, policy or bill is passed only when voted on by all the citizens of the
country. Here, all the people of the government come together to raise issues, enter into discussions to come
up with a direct say in the formulating laws and the affairs that influence them.
Indirect Democracy: Indirect democracy or popularly called representative democracy is the system of
government wherein people choose their representatives, to represent them in the Parliament. So, the
participation of the citizens is limited in taking important decisions and formulation of policies. India is the
best example of indirect democracy where the representatives chosen by citizens through adult suffrage
formulate policies on behalf of the people. Democracy, whether direct or indirect caters the aspirations of
the citizens and promotes policies favourable for development of people as Mahatma Gandhi rightly said “ I
understand democracy as something that gives the weak the same chance as the strong”
4. What are Genetically Modified crops? What are the advantages and disadvantages of GM crops? Also
discuss the status of GM crops in India? [Answer in 250 words]
Crops that have undergone genetic engineering processes to alter their DNA are referred to as genetically
modified crops. The goal is to give the plant a new characteristic that does not arise naturally in the species.
Modifications made improvements to the crop’s nutrient profile and resistance to certain pests, diseases, or
environmental factors are both important in food crops.
Advantages of GM Crops:
• It boosts output and increases farmer income.
• It lessens the use of pesticides and insecticides during farming, which may be excellent steps for improving
the availability of food.
• It can feed a population that is growing quickly due to the drastically higher yields.
• Smaller plots of land can yield greater yields.
Disadvantages of GM Crops:
• The production imposes high risks to the disruption of ecosystem and biodiversity because the “better”
traits produced from engineering genes can result in the favouring of one organism.
• It raises the expense of farming and makes farming more prone to marketization, which focuses on
unethical profits.
• In addition to endangering farmers, transgenic crops also threaten the environment and the trade.
• The majority of the negative consequences from GM crops are not captured by the present safety
evaluations. Additionally, the regulatory framework for GM crops in India has never undergone a full
evaluation of the GM risk assessment under Indian conditions.
Status of GM crop in India:
1. In India the only GM crop allowed for commercial cultivation is Bt Cotton.The Genetic Engineering
Appraisal Committee (GMEC) approved the commercial production of Mustard DMH-11.
2. In recent times there has been a push for the commercial cultivation of GM Mustard in India but due to
several reasons the commercial cultivation of GM Mustard is not being allowed in India. GM mustard is a
herbicide-tolerant crop, and farmers and campaigners claim that spraying hazardous chemicals on the plant
will have an adverse effect on the health of those who consume it.
3. Additionally, they contend that it does not fit the agricultural circumstances in India and is not
environmentally sustainable. Few Environmentalists, scientists, lawmakers, farmers, consumers, and
members of the higher court have questioned the necessity of Genetically Modified (GM) food as well as its
safety and effectiveness.
4. The committees associated with GM Mustard highlighted major weakness in the regulatory system and
called for utmost caution. The members of the Committee also pointed to the deficiencies in the safety
assessment of GM crops.
5. Governments must address the problems brought on by GM crops, particularly in the areas of safety
testing, legislation, industrial strategy, and food labeling.

5. What is BIMSTEC? In the multipolar world what is the significance of BIMSTEC? Also discuss the relevance
of BIMSTEC for India. [Answer in 150 words] 10
BIMSTEC is a regional organisation that was established in 1997 with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
Initially known as BIST-EC (Bangladesh-India-Sri Lanka-Thailand Economic Cooperation). The organisation is
now known as BIMSTEC and comprises seven members, with Myanmar joining towards the end of 1997, and
Bhutan and Nepal in 2004.
Significance of BIMSTEC
• Economical Importance: Around 22% of the world’s population live in the seven countries around the Bay
of Bengal, with a combined GDP close to $2.7 trillion.
• All seven countries have sustained average annual rates of growth between 3.4% and 7.5% from 2012 to
2016.
• Boosting Connectivity: Projects within the BIMSTEC can help in improving relations with its neighbors.
• Platform for resolving issues: The platform can help in addressing the challenges like terrorism, coastal
security, drug trafficking etc.
 • Freedom of Navigation: This can serve as a transit route between Indian and Pacific nations. • Countering
China: This prevents China from becoming the predominant political, military and economic power in the
Indian Ocean region.
Importance of BIMSTEC for India:
• For India, BIMSTEC aligns with its ‘Act East’ policy for greater regional cooperation in southeast Asia.
• It could also be seen as aligning with India’s larger goal to gain trade and security prominence in the Indian
Ocean region and to cater to the concept of the ‘Indo-Pacific’ region, a major focus of Quad countries.
• India also made efforts to enhance the pace of BIMSTEC’s progress in recent years.
• The BIMSTEC Energy Centre was set up in Bengaluru, along with the BIMSTEC Business Council, a forum for
business organizations to promote regional trade.
• It aims to create free-trade and power grid interconnectivity agreements, and a masterplan for transport
connectivity in the Bay of Bengal region (adopted at the current summit).
• India also made efforts to enhance the pace of BIMSTEC’s progress in recent years. The BIMSTEC Energy
Centre was set up in Bengaluru, along with the BIMSTEC Business Council, a forum for business organizations
to promote regional trade.

Despite signing a framework agreement for a comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in 2004, BIMSTEC
stands far away from this goal. BIMSTEC members have not adopted a Free Trade Agreement yet, they are
involved in multiple bilateral and multilateral free trade, preferential trade and economic cooperation
agreements with other countries. India should focus on having strong ties with BIMSTEC nations in the
multipolar world.

6. What is a Tropical Cyclone? Discuss the conditions required for formation of a cyclone? Also discuss the
importance and process of naming a tropical cyclone over the north Indian Ocean Region? [Answer in 250
words]
A tropical cyclone is a warm-core low pressure system, without any “front” attached, that develops over the
tropical or subtropical waters and has an organized circulation. Depending on the region and intensity, a
tropical cyclone may be called a hurricane, a typhoon, or a cyclone. Tropical cyclones can cause severe
damage to coastal areas and islands by flooding, storm surges, landslides, and wind damage.
The conditions required for cyclone formation are:
• A large area of warm water with a temperature of at least 26.5°C that extends to a depth of upper layers of
sea.
• A low-pressure system that creates a convergence of moist air near the surface and a divergence of dry air
aloft.
• A Coriolis force that deflects the wind and gives the cyclone a spin. The Coriolis force is stronger near the
poles and weaker near the equator, so cyclones usually form between 5° and 30° latitude in both
hemispheres.
• A lack of strong vertical wind shear, which is the change in wind speed and direction with height. Wind
shear can disrupt the cyclone’s structure and prevent it from intensifying.
Importance for naming tropical cyclones:
• It helps to identify each individual tropical cyclone and helps the public to become fully aware of its
development. Local and international media become focused on the tropical cyclone.
• It does not confuse the public when there is more than one tropical cyclone in the same area.
• The name of the tropical cyclone is well remembered by millions of people as it is an unforgettable event
and the associated name will be remembered for a long time.
• Warnings reach a much wider audience very rapidly, if a name is associated with it.
The World Meteorological Organisation and UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (UN
ESCAP) led Panel on Tropical Cyclones including regional meteorological (RSMC) as well as tropical cyclone
warning, prepares the names of the cyclones. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is among six RSMCs
in the world, and is mandated to issue advisories and name tropical cyclones in the north Indian Ocean
region. The naming of the tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean commenced in September 2004. The
naming is done by a panel of thirteen countries located in the Indian Ocean Region in the following manner:
• The Panel member’s names are listed alphabetically country wise.
 • The name will be used sequentially column wise.
• The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row in
column eight.
• The names which have been already used from the list are highlighted. The RSMC tropical cyclones, New
Delhi gives a tropical cyclone an identification name from the given name list. The identification system
covers both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. These lists are used sequentially, and they are not rotated
every few years as the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific lists.

TEST – 7

1. Examine the impact of British land revenue policy in India on the agrarian structure of the country.
(Answer in 250 words)

British East India Company (EIC) inherited a confusing and decadent land revenue policy devised by Akbar.
Warren Hastings made the first effort to streamline the existing system but the quinquennial settlement devised
by him failed miserably. Thereafter, the British introduced a number of land revenue systems across the country.
However, the policies had a deleterious effect on the agrarian structure of the country.

THE IMPACT OF BRITISH LAND REVENUE POLICY:

Negatives:

• In Bengal and Bihar where permanent settlement was introduced, absentee landlordism became rampant which
resulted in extortion and exploitation of the peasants.

• In the Ryotwari areas, most often the peasants were forced to mortgage their land and take loans to meet the high
revenue demands by the Company. This pushed the farmers into a vicious cycle of debt and poverty.

• At times the land revenue was arbitrarily and exorbitantly high with no provision for crop failures. Thus, in
situations of crop failures farmers were forced to borrow by selling their land rights.

• The Permanent Settlement provided the zamindars with the land ownership rights even though they previously
enjoyed only revenue collecting rights. This converted the peasants, the actual land owners, to tenants, ignoring their
rights.

• The British envisioned that the Zamindars in the Permanent Settlement areas would invest their surplus to increase
productivity but on the contrary it retarded the economic progress of Bengal. Most of the landlords did not invest in
development of agriculture, rather they focused on extracting most out of the peasants.

Positives:

• One of the positives of the land revenue policies was that waste and forest land came under cultivation.

• The other positive was that the land which was not a saleable commodity earlier, acquired value. This led to the
development of a land market - for the sale and purchase of land.

• The land revenue policies of Britiishers also helped in the commercialisation of Indian agriculture which was
predominately subsistence-based.

British policies changed the rural landscape to the very grassroot level. Extraction of high revenue under all three
systems led to growth of poverty and deterioration of agriculture. These policies are responsible for plaguing Indian
agriculture which makes implementation of land reforms cumbersome.

2. “The Revolt of 1857 was more than a Sepoy mutiny but less than a war of independence”. Examine.
(Answer in 250 words)

The Revolt of 1857 began on 10th May 1857 in the form of a mutiny by Company sepoys in Meerut. Historians
often called it the ‘first war of Independence.’ The significant accomplishment of this uprising was that it
overthrew the dominance of the East India Company. After the suppression of revolt, the British crown overtook
 the authority from the East India Company. In 1858, the British Parliament passed an act to recognise the
paramountcy of the British crown.

More than a sepoy mutiny:

• The Revolt of 1857 was not just confined to the army alone, the sepoys were joined by other elements of the
society including orthodox sections of the Hindus and the Muslims, peasants, dispossessed princes etc. Thus, the
sepoys were the chief players in the rebellion, and a large number of Indians participated in this struggle of
independence from an alien rule. Entire Awadh was in open rebellion.

• Moreover, though the greased cartridges provided the immediate trigger for the rebellion, it was a result of
resentments born out of diverse perceptions, including invasive British social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary
treatment of some rich landowners and princes.

• Also, the mutiny wasn’t uniform across the army. Armies of Bombay and Madras remained neutral whereas
Sikh and Gorkha regiments actively participated with the British to suppress the revolt.

Less than a war of independence:

• In the middle of the nineteenth century, nationalism in India was yet in its infancy. Different people
participating in the revolt didn’t feel they were part of a single nation having common existence. Thus, most of
the people who revolted against the British were either motivated for their own territories or some other self
interests.

• The revolt was marked by the absence of a national leader. Bahadur Shah, the then Mughal Emperor, was
compelled by the sepoys to lead the revolt.

• The revolt was confined to certain sections of the country and a vast majority of the people remained apathetic
and/or neutral like the moneylenders, zamindars and educated middle class.

• Moreover, a greater part of India remained unaffected as the revolt did not spread to southern India.

The revolt started in the form of sepoy mutiny but later took the shape of a larger rebellion. In the light of the
above arguments, it can be said that the revolt of 1857, was more than a sepoy mutiny but was less than a war of
independence.

TEST – 8

1. Economic critique of colonialism played a vital role in shaping the national movement in India. Discuss.
(Answer in 150 words)
The early leaders of the congress, the moderates, were the first to develop an economic critique of
colonialism. This was the most important contribution to the development of the national movement in
India. Eg: eye opening “Drain of Wealth Theory”. Additionally, it sparked the growth of India’s national
movement. The subject matter of this critique was heavily popularized through theater, which served as the
core of the nationalist movement’s agitation through widely-read pamphlets, newspapers, plays, songs, etc.
ECONOMIC SCRUTINIZATION AND NATIONAL MOVEMENT
• Literary sources: Work of Indian economists like Dadabhai Narorji’s Poverty and UnBritish Rule, MG
Ranade’s Essay on Indian economics and R.C Dutt’s Economic history of India exposed the true exploitative
nature of British colonialism and economic criticism gradually evolved into political criticism of the British.
• British biased industrialization: The drain of wealth theory identified the deliberate policy of the British of
discouraging indigenous industries in order to help the British manufacturers. The criticism that grew out of
the economic policies of the colonial government eroded the moral confidence of the people in the
Government, hence they started uniting against the British and forming political groups.
• Ruler-ruled antagonism: The economic nationalists created a situation in which the antagonism between
the rulers and the ruled went on developing. As it continued and when combined with other issues, struggle
for political power became inevitable.
• Analysis of poverty situation: Due to the efforts of the economic nationalist’s poverty became the central
theme of critique. They asserted it was the result of the colonial policies which had transformed India into a
 raw material producing industry. The ruin of artisans, handicrafts and impoverished peasantry fueled with
discontent joined the national movements.omic crit
The discovery that exploitation of India took place not only through the simpler forms of outright plunder but
by more disguised forms like foreign investment, discriminatory protective tariffs, and free trade was
preposterous. Hence economic nationalism prepared the ground for the national movement in the coming
years.

2. Recently, the Parliamentary Affairs Minister said that the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Bill is a
Finance Bill and not a Money bill. In the light of this statement differentiate between the finance bill and
the Money bill. How do both bills pass in Parliament? (Answer in 250 words)
What is the Finance Bill?
• Any Bill can be considered as a Finance Bill that relates to revenue or expenditure. More specifically, Article
117 of the Constitution deals with the special provisions relating to Financial Bills.
• Article 117 (1) indicates that a Bill that makes provision for any of the matters specified in clauses (a) to (f)
of Article 110 (1) can be introduced or moved only on the President’s recommendation and cannot be
introduced in the Rajya Sabha.
Examples of this first category of Financial Bill are Money Bill and other Financial Bills originating solely in
the Lok Sabha.
The second category of Finance Bill is dealt with under Article 117 (3) of the Constitution, which is more like
Ordinary Bill.
What is a Money Bill?
• A Money Bill is a specific type of Finance Bill, that must deal only with matters specified in Article 110 (1)
(a) to (g). It is a Financial Bill that is certified by the Speaker.
• Article 110 defines a “Money Bill” as one containing provisions dealing with taxes, regulation of the
government’s borrowing of money, and expenditure or receipt of money from the Consolidated Fund of
India.
What is the difference between a Money Bill and a Financial Bill?
• An Ordinary Bill or Financial Bill can originate in either house, but a Money Bill can only be introduced in
the Lok Sabha, as laid down in Article 117(1).
• An Ordinary Bill or the Financial Bill has the provision of including the Rajya Sabha’s (Upper House)
recommendations, however, the Money Bill does not make their inclusion mandatory. The President’s
recommendation is needed to introduce the Money Bill in Lok Sabha. It can be introduced only by a Minister.
Amendments relating to the reduction or abolition of any tax are exempt from the requirement of the
President’s recommendation. The Lok Sabha has the right to reject the Rajya Sabha’s recommendations
when it comes to Money Bills.
Prerequisites for any Financial Bill to become a Money Bill
• It must only be introduced in the Lok Sabha and not the Rajya Sabha.
• It can only be introduced on the President’s recommendation.
How is the Money Bill passed?
• Money Bill can originate only in the Lok Sabha, and after being passed, it was sent to the Rajya Sabha for its
recommendations.
• Within 14 days, the Rajya Sabha must submit the Bill back to the Lok Sabha with its non-binding
recommendations. If the Lok Sabha rejects the recommendations, the Bill is deemed to have passed by both
Houses in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha without the recommendations of the Rajya
Sabha.
• Even if the Rajya Sabha doesn’t respond with its recommendations within 14 days, the bill seems to be
passed.
• There is no provision for a joint sitting for differences over a Money Bill.
• Thus, when it comes to Money Bills, the Rajya Sabha only has a recommendatory role and is somehow
restricted.
How is the Ordinary Bill passed?
• It still requires the agreement of both Houses of Parliament to ensure their passage. It can very well be
rejected or amended by the Rajya Sabha, unlike Money Bill.
 • The President can summon a joint sitting of both Houses to resolve differences over a deadlock in passing
an Ordinary Bill.
What is the Supreme Court’s view?
• Over the last few years, the government has introduced multiple legislations through the Money Bill route,
the most notable of which are the Aadhaar Act, 2016, and the Finance Act, 2017.
• In November 2019, a five-judge Constitution Bench, headed by the (then) Chief Justice of India Ranjan
Gogoi, struck down amendments to the Finance Act, 2017 which was passed as a Money Bill, altering the
structure and functioning of various tribunals, and ruled that the amendments were “contrary to the
principles envisaged in the Constitution as interpreted by this Court”.
• Incidentally, CJI Chandrachud had been the lone dissenter in the Aadhaar ruling of 2018, criticising the
government for passing the Aadhaar Act as a Money bill while calling it a “fraud on the Constitution”.

TEST – 9

1. Analyze the functioning of Congress Ministries in provinces after the elections of 1937. (Answer in 250
words) 15

In 1937, the elections to the provincial assemblies were held as per the Government of India Act, 1935. The
Congress contested 716 out of 1161 seats and was able to form Ministries in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces,
Orissa, United Provinces, Bihar, NWFP and Assam. Moreover, congress ministries were formed in 8 out of 11
provinces. Although new constitutional reforms fell far short of India’s national aspiration, yet Congress decided
to contest the elections to the assemblies in the provinces to deepen the anti imperialist consciousness.

POSITIVE WORK UNDER CONGRESS MINISTRIES (1937-39)

Civil liberties:

• Laws giving emergency powers were repealed.

• Ban on illegal organizations, such as Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues was lifted.

• Press restrictions were lifted and Newspapers were taken out of black lists.

• Political prisoners, and revolutionaries were released from the jail.

• Deportation and internment orders were revoked.

• Powers of the police was curtailed and CID abusive authority of spying on politicians.

Agrarian reforms: In spite of many constraints, the Congress ministries managed to legislate a number of laws
relating to:

• land reforms, • debt relief, • forest grazing fee, • arrears of rent, • land tenures, etc.

Labour reforms: It was successful in bringing some reforms like

• Goodwill was sought to be created between labour and capital with mediation of ministries

• efforts were made to improve workers’ conditions and secure wage increases for them.

• Ministries treated militant trade union protests as law and order problems, and acted as mediators as far as
possible.

Social welfare reforms: Steps were taken to address discrimination and stimulate inclusion

• Measures for welfare of Harijans taken eg: temple entry, use of public facilities, scholarships, an increase in
their numbers in government service and police, etc.

• Attention given to primary, technical and higher education and public health and sanitation.

• Encouraged khadi through subsidies and other measures.

NEGATIVES:

Suppression of labour movements: Congress victory had aroused the hopes and aspirations of the industrial
working class, leading to increased labour militancy and industrial unrest in Bombay, Gujarat, UP and Bengal, at a
time when the Congress was being decisively drawn into a closer friendship with the Indian capitalists. This
resulted in a perceptible anti-labour shift in Congress attitudes, epitomized in the passage of the Bombay Trades
Disputes Act in 1938.

Failure to meet peasant expectations: The developments on the peasant front, where the rising militancy
before the elections had been harnessed by the Congress for its campaign, but later it found it difficult to rise up
to the expectations of its peasant voters who were hoping for some radical changes in the existing agrarian
relations. Gandhi emphasized that “these posts must be handled softly, not tightly. They are or ought to be
thorny crowns, never renowned.” via the Harijan newspaper. Thus, after the Second World War broke out in
October 1939, Congress ministers resigned, but they were still able to greatly benefit from council activity.
Congressmen showed how a movement may use state authority without being co opted to further its goals.

2. Recently, UNESCO recommended a universal ban on the usage of smartphones in schools. In light of this
statement, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the usage of smartphones by students. (Answer
in 250 words)

India has 1.2 billion mobile phone users and over 600 million smartphone users. That figure is expected to cross a
billion by 2026, according to a Deloitte study, indicating that a future world will be dependent on these small
devices. However, one place where smartphone usage has become controversial is the classroom.

Arguments against using smartphones by students:

• Engagement on social media: Children studying in schools are getting too engaged in social media, and playing
games leading to a complete decline in their focus on academic tasks.

• UNESCO’s rationale: UNESCO has clearly warned against an uncritical rush towards embracing digital products
in educational settings. There is little evidence of digital technology’s added value in education. But there is a
clear threat also, with the report highlighting that mere proximity to a mobile device was found to distract
students. This is more than sufficient for us to understand that mobile phones should not be allowed in the
education system.

• Addiction & anxiety issues: Psychologists also advocate that mobile phones are addictive in nature, and can
hinder concentration and social skills, and cause an increased number of anxiety and mental illness cases. ƒ
Students are vulnerable to cyber bullying, comparisons, unrealistic standards, resulting in depression, feelings of
inadequacy.

• Disparities among students: It might raise the disparities among students belonging to various socio-economic
backgrounds, because students with access to the latest expensive devices could experience an advantage, while
those with limited resources might feel left out or stigmatized. The presence of mobile phones also increases the
risk of theft, and schools may struggle to manage security.

• Healthy learning: It is argued that we should promote more face-to-face interaction to maintain academic
integrity and foster a healthy learning atmosphere. Because in those times when there were no mobile phones in
the class, then also learning happened.

Arguments in favor of using smartphones by students:

• Blanket ban is not an answer: In Finland, Australia, England and other developed nations, smartphones are
definitely there. A blanket ban definitely cannot be an answer.

• Edtech requirements: Smartphones are everywhere. Children have access to it, and parents are giving it to
them. Today’s school children were born with it. And with the increasing number of edtech products, which are
 coming into the market today with the world talking about digitalisation, including the government, it is not
reasonable to put such bans.

• Technology centric curriculums: The NEP (National Education Policy) gives a lot of importance to smartphones.
Even the state curriculum gives a lot of QR codes [for additional resources]. Researchers feel that this is the way
to go forward, with AI coming into the big picture.

• Frisking & additional pressure for school: In our country, if you ban it, children are bringing it discreetly to the
classes. Frisking happens inside the classrooms to see whether children are carrying it. So that brings in a lot of
pressure on the school administration.

Way ahead:

• Deciding the minimum age: Just like we have an age for the driving license, we have an age to be a voter,
similarly, we can actually have an age for this, because our job in schools is to prepare them for life, even to use a
smartphone in a better way.

• Middle path - digital learning spaces: The benefits of technology within the school can be addressed if the
schools could advance their digital learning spaces. Those should be open to the children to access, so that any
time if they need any important information, there should be a mechanism for the children to access the
information.

Sensitization: Before we give anything to the children, the adults around the children need to be sensitised. Any
decision on this issue must prioritise student wellbeing and align with the institution’s core values.

TEST – 10

1. “In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of Modern India.” Elaborate. (Answer in 250 words)

Lord Dalhousie was appointed the Governor General of India in 1848. He was an avid conqueror and spread the
extent of British rule to the regions of Punjab, Oudh, Satara, Jhansi and other parts. He was a core imperialist and
expansionist, still he initiated a number of reforms and his eight years of rule is considered one of the greatest
periods of British rule in India.

Reforms brought about by Lord Dalhousie:

• Territorial expansion: With the help of ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, Lord Dalhousie extended the British rule to new
frontiers and consolidated the previous conquests. His territorial acquisitions, thus, transformed the map of
India. By 1857, the company had annexed about 63% of the territories of the Indian subcontinent and had
subordinated over 78% of its population.

• Educational initiatives: During his tenure, the Wood’s Despatch was introduced in 1854. It brought seminal
changes in the Indian education system like creation of a separate department for the administration of
education in each province, a three-tier structured system of education from the primary to the university level
etc. He also promoted the technical education in the country.

• Connectivity and communication infrastructure: During Dalhousie’s Governor Generalship, nearly 4,000 miles
of electric telegraph lines were constructed, and the first railway line was laid in 1853 from Bombay to Thane.
Together, both the developments transformed the connectivity and communication infrastructure of the country
laying the foundation of modern India.

• Public Works Department: The modern postal system was initiated through a Post Office Act in 1854. In
addition, a separate Public Works Department was set up in 1854 for the first time.

• Changes in Military: Lord Dalhousie shifted the headquarter of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to Meerut. He
also transferred the army headquarter to Shimla so that the army could remain in touch with the Governor -
General.
• Irrigation works were undertaken on a large scale. The main stream of the Ganges canal was declared open in
April, 1854. The harbours of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were developed and a large number of light-houses
were constructed.

Other Reforms:

• He banned the female infanticide and human sacrifice which was prevelent in some part of India.

• He also passed the Religious Disability Act of 1850 and Widow Remarriage Act of 1855 for the social reforms in
the society.

• The construction of Ganga Canal was completed during his tenure.

• He was not only a conqueror but also a great administrator. Dalhousie was directly involved in all the aforesaid
reforms, hence he is aptly called the founder of Modern India.

2. Revolt of 1857 was the first war of Independence.’ In the light of the statement, discuss various causes of
the Revolt of 1857. Also, mention the reasons for the failure of the revolt. (Answer in 250 words)

On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, Sepoy Mangal Pandey of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry attacked his officers.
This turned into violent resistance. Later, this revolt shocked the foundation of the British empire in India. V. D
Savarkar was first to name the revolt as the first war of independence.

Major causes of Revolt of 1857:

• Political Causes: The East India Company created a lot of discontent and disaffection among the dispossessed
ruling families and their successors by her conquest. Policies like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse
angered the ruling sections of the society. This action also hurt the patriotic loyalty and sense of dignity of the
sepoys. Moreover, the British administration was considered alien in nature.

• Economic Vulnerabilities: British rule led to the breakdown of the village self-sufficiency, commercialization of
agriculture which burdened the peasantry, adoption of free trade imperialism from 1800, deindustrialization, and
drain of wealth all of which led to the overall decline of the economy. The only interest of the Company was the
collection of maximum revenue with minimum efforts. The peasants, Taluqdars, artisans, traders and common
men, all were the victims of the British policies.

• Socio-religious causes: The British policy of social exclusiveness and arrogant manner towards the Indians
created discontent among the Indians. They were infected with the feeling of racial superiority. The racial
arrogance of the British hurt the self-respect of the Indians. Due to laws like Abolition of Sati (1829), Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act (1856), Religious Incompetence Law(1856) etc an impression was created among masses
that their religion is under threat.

• Military Grievances: The extension of British dominion in India had adversely affected the service condition of
the Sepoys. They were required to serve in an area away from their homes without the payment of extra Bhatta.
An important cause of Military discontent was the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856, which made it
compulsory for the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required. The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the free
postage facility for them.

• Immediate cause: In January 1857, rumours had been taking rounds that the English cartridges were greased
with animal fat and flour was adulterated with bone dust. This did not create a new cause of discontent, but
supplied the occasion for the discontent to come out.

Reasons behind the failure of the revolt

• Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology: The rebellion swept off the British system of government and
administration in India. But they had no forward-looking plan. This made them rely on the outmoded feudal
system with Bahadur Shah at its head. The other prominent leaders of rebellion like Nana Saheb, Begum of
Awadh, Rani of Jhansi, etc., were also representatives of the old feudal world. This system had lost its vitality and
was unable to withstand the onslaught of the British.
• Lack of Unity among Indians: While sepoys of the Bengal army were revolting, some soldiers in Panjab and
south India fought on the side of the British to crush these rebellions. Similarly, there were no accompanying
rebellions in most of eastern and southern India. The Sikhs also did not support the rebels. Even the leaders of
rebellions were suspicious and jealous of each other and often indulged in petty quarrels.

• Lack of Support from the Educated Indians: The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt
because, in their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was the product of the
British system of education and they believed mistakenly that the British would lead the country towards
modernisation.

• Military Superiority of the British: Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority
in arms. While the rebels lacked discipline and a central command, the British continued to have a constant
supply of disciplined soldiers, war materials and money from the British. Sheer courage could not win against a
powerful and determined enemy who planned its strategy skillfully. Because of ill-discipline the rebels lost more
men and material than the British in every encounter.

The significance of 1857 is that unlike many battles against the British earlier, for the first time, simultaneously
there were rebellions in many regions, imparting an all-India character to the uprising. 1857 was remarkable not
only due to its unprecedented scale, covering almost half of India, but also due to its impact on the popular mind
everywhere. It was a source of inspiration for the freedom struggle that followed.

3. The British victory at Plassey on 3rd June, 1757 catapulted them from traders to front runners in the race
for an Indian Empire. Discuss. (Answer in 150 words)

The British East India Company (EIC) led by Lord Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula on the fields of Plassey. The victory
brought about a gradual change in the character of the company. After the war, the company did not remain
merely as a trading company but also became a military power possessing a considerable landed property. Thus,
the Battle of Plassey (1757) marked the political supremacy of the English EAst India Company in India.

From traders to political power:

• Before the battle, the British were primarily concerned with trading and increasing their profit by furthering
their trade in India. However, the victory made the British the virtual masters of Bengal. They began to influence
the political decisions in the province.

• They started to act as King Makers and regularly indulged in political affairs e.g. after the victory the rulers of
Bengal were changed frequently from Mir Jafar to Mir Qasim and again to Mir Jafar as they failed to meet the
companies aspirations/demands.

• Earlier the British army was mainly stationed to guard and protect the British factories and trade. But, the
revenues of Bengal enabled the company to organise a strong army, which was used to conquer the rest of the
country.

• They used the taxes collected from the Indians to buy Indian goods for export to Britain. The control of Bengal’s
revenue and monopoly over its trade strengthened the financial position of the company.

• It, along with its strong army, also helped it win the third Anglo-French war and eliminate French competition
both in trade and in race to an Indian Empire.

• Victory at Plassey also paved the path for the British to use the Bay of Bengal for mobilizing its troops, which
helped them conquer Marathas, French, Sikh etc.

This change was furthered by the comprehensive British victory against the three major powers in the Battle of
Buxar in 1764 and the signing of the Treaty of Allahabad, which gave the British the Diwani Rights of Bengal,
Bihar and Odisha. The British then utilized their newly gained wealth and military strength to drive their
European colonial competitors, the French and the Dutch, out of the remaining parts of India. The Plassey victory
marked the beginning of a sequence that eventually led to British hegemony over the subcontinent.
4. Examine the impact of Drain of Wealth in growth of nationalism during British rule. (Answer in 150 words)
‘The Drain of Wealth Theory’ was coined by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in
India. This theory asserts that there was a continuous transfer of the country’s resources from India to
England without adequate economic, commercial, or material compensation for India. Dadabhai Naoroji was
of the belief that colonial rule, which was depriving India of its wealth and prosperity, was what drove
poverty in India rather than internal problems.
Drain of Wealth fueled the rise of nationalism
• Poverty of Indian People: After more than a century of colonial rule, the crushing poverty of the vast
majority of Indians was evident to all. By the late nineteenth century, the earlier faith held by the Indian elite
that the British rule in India would adhere to benevolent economic policies resulting in prosperity had
disappeared. The severe poverty of Indians had been a continuous source of worry for nationalists since the
1870s.
• Underdevelopment of Industry: The early nationalist of believed that India was going through a process of
de-industrialisation and ruralisation under colonial rule. It was caused by two phenomena, both closely
related to colonial policies – decline of India’s indigenous industries and the failure to quickly develop the
modern industry.
• Public Finance: The early nationalist were critical to the financial policies of the colonial government
because of its deleterious effect on the resources of the country. Ranade stated in 1880 that any ‘further
increase of taxation must be adjourned as political insanity’. Similarly Naoroji bitterly remarked that the
colonial rulers were ‘screwing out more and more taxes, like squeezing a squeezed orange – inflicting
suffering and distress’.
• Agriculture: Almost 80% population of colonial India was dependent on agriculture, and revenue from land
formed the largest part of government collection in the nineteenth century. The land revenue demand was
high and it was strictly collected resulting in growing impoverishment of the peasantry. The nationalists
picked up this issue early and insisted that it was one of main causes of recurrent famines, India’s poverty
and decline of its agriculture. Almost all nationalists took up this issue, but it was R.C. Dutt who developed it
into a consistent campaign.
• Foreign Trade: Britain had exclusive control over India’s imports and exports throughout the rule. As a
result, the majority of international trade was limited to Britain. Moreover, the colonial government allowed
the exports of raw materials and dumping of finished goods in the country. They also promoted the forceful
commercialization of agriculture for their own good. R.C. Dutt also pointed out that ‘the Economic Drain from
India for Home Charges compelled that country to export more than she could import’. This excess was
forced and maintained even during the years of famine when the country itself needed foodgrains.

British businesses operating in India drained more resources by regularly sending profits and interest from
India to Britain. Hence, a significant portion of India’s national wealth was transferred to England without any
quid pro quo. This led to the emergence of economic nationalism in the Indian subcontinent between the
period between 1870s and 1905, which later resulted into emergence of a more robust nationalist ideology
in the country.

5. Discuss the Ecosystem factors in detail? (Answer in 150 words)

Ecosystem factors refer to the various components and processes that influence the structure, function, and
dynamics of an ecosystem. Ecosystems are complex and interconnected systems that consist of living organisms,
their physical environment, and the interactions between them. These factors play a crucial role in shaping the
health, diversity, and stability of ecosystems.

There are both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors that contribute to the functioning of ecosystems.
Here are some of the key ecosystem factors:

Abiotic Factors:

• Climate: This includes factors like temperature, humidity, precipitation, and sunlight. Climate directly affects
the types of organisms that can thrive in an ecosystem.
• Geology and Soil: The physical properties of soil, such as texture, composition, and nutrient content, influence
plant growth and nutrient cycling.

• Topography: The physical features of the land, such as elevation, slope, and drainage patterns, affect water
flow and nutrient distribution.

• Water Availability: The presence of water bodies and their availability can shape the types of organisms that
can inhabit an ecosystem.

Biotic Factors:

• Producers (Autotrophs): These are organisms, usually plants, that can produce their own food through
photosynthesis, using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.

• Consumers (Heterotrophs): These organisms obtain energy by consuming other organisms. They can be
herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters), or omnivores (eating both plants and animals).

• Decomposers: These organisms break down dead organic matter and waste, recycling nutrients back into the
ecosystem.

• Predator-Prey Relationships: The interactions between predators and prey help regulate population sizes and
maintain the balance of the ecosystem.

• Symbiotic Relationships: These include mutualism (both species benefit), commensalism (one species benefits,
the other is neither helped nor harmed), and parasitism (one species benefits at the expense of the other).
Disturbances:

• Natural Disturbances: Events like wildfires, storms, and floods are natural processes that can impact
ecosystems by shaping vegetation and habitat structure.

• Anthropogenic Disturbances: Human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and urbanization, can disrupt
ecosystems and alter their natural processes.

Succession:

• Primary Succession: This occurs in areas that were previously devoid of life, such as bare rock or newly formed
volcanic islands.

• Secondary Succession: This happens in areas where an existing ecosystem has been disturbed or partially
destroyed but the soil remains intact, such as after a forest fire.

Human Influence:

• Resource Utilization: Human activities can lead to overexploitation of resources, impacting biodiversity and
ecosystem health.

• Land Use Changes: Urbanization, agriculture, and infrastructure development can alter landscapes and
ecosystems.

• Introduction of Non-Native Species: Invasive species can outcompete native species and disrupt established
ecosystems.

These ecosystem factors are interrelated and interact in complex ways. Changes in one factor can have cascading
effects throughout an ecosystem, influencing the balance and sustainability of the system. Understanding these
factors is crucial for conservation efforts, sustainable resource management, and predicting the impacts of
environmental changes.

6. What is Ecological Niche? Discuss its importance. (Answer in 250 words)

The ecological niche is a fundamental concept in ecology that plays a crucial role in understanding how species
interact with each other and their environment. It refers to the specific role and position that a species occupies
 within an ecosystem, including its interactions with other species and its use of environmental resources. The
importance of ecological niches can be understood from several perspectives:

• Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability: Ecological niches help promote biodiversity within ecosystems. When
different species occupy distinct niches, they can coexist without directly competing for the same resources. This
promotes species diversity and contributes to the overall stability and resilience of ecosystems. If two species
were to have exactly the same niche, they would likely compete intensely, potentially leading to one species
outcompeting the other.

• Resource Allocation: Ecological niches define how species use resources such as food, water, and habitat. Each
species has evolved specific adaptations that allow it to utilize certain resources more efficiently than others. This
partitioning of resources based on niches reduces direct competition among species, allowing them to specialize
and thrive in their respective roles.

• Community Interactions: Niches influence the interactions among species in a community. Understanding the
niches of different species helps predict how they will interact, whether it’s through predation, competition,
mutualism, or other relationships. These interactions shape the structure and dynamics of communities.

• Ecosystem Functioning: Each species within an ecosystem contributes to various ecosystem processes, such as
nutrient cycling, energy flow, and carbon sequestration. By occupying specific niches, species perform functions
that collectively contribute to the overall health and functionality of the ecosystem.

• Species Coexistence: The concept of the niche allows for the coexistence of multiple species with similar
requirements. When species have slightly different niches, they can exist side by side, utilizing resources and
habitats in ways that minimize direct competition.

• Adaptive Radiation and Evolution: Over evolutionary time, species may diversify and adapt to fill various
niches within a habitat. This process, known as adaptive radiation, often occurs when a new ecological
opportunity becomes available, leading to the emergence of multiple specialized species from a common
ancestor.

• Conservation and Management: Understanding ecological niches is critical for effective conservation and
management of species and ecosystems. By identifying a species’ niche, conservationists can make informed
decisions about habitat preservation, restoration, and species recovery efforts.

• Ecosystem Responses to Environmental Change: Changes in environmental conditions, such as climate change
or habitat alteration, can impact ecological niches. Species may need to adapt or shift their niches to survive and
thrive in changing conditions. Understanding how niches may shift can help predict the impacts of environmental
change on ecosystems.

In summary, the concept of the ecological niche is essential for understanding the intricate relationships between
species and their environment. It helps explain how species coexist, interact, and contribute to the functioning of
ecosystems, making it a central concept in ecology and conservation biology.

TEST – 11

1. What do you understand by the term biodiversity? Also, mention the types and threats to biodiversity.
(Answer in 250 words)

As per the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), biodiversity is all the different kinds of life found in one area—the variety
of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of these
species and organisms works together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life.
Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to survive: food, clean water, medicine, and shelter. But
as humans put increasing pressure on the planet, using and consuming more resources than ever before, we risk
upsetting the balance of ecosystems and losing biodiversity. WWF’s 2022 Living Planet Report found an average
69% decline in global populations of mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians since 1970.

Types of Biodiversity
• Genetic Diversity: Genes are the basic building blocks of various life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the
variation of genes within species. Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical
characteristics are called species. Human beings genetically belong to the homo sapiens group.

• Species Diversity: This refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of species in a defined area. The
diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types. Some areas are richer in species
than others. Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity.

• Ecosystem Diversity: It deals with the study of different ecosystems in a certain location and their overall
effects on humans and the environment as a whole. It is one of the types of biodiversity along with species
diversity, genetic diversity, and functional diversity.

Significance of the Biodiversity

1. Economic role of biodiversity: For all humans, biodiversity is an important resource in their day-to-day life.
One important part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is seen as
a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
This concept of biological resources is responsible for the deterioration of biodiversity.

2. Scientific role of biodiversity: It is the ability to give clues about the evolution of life. Biodiversity also helps in
understanding how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems of which we are also a
species.

Threat to Biodiversity: Biodiversity loss continues to be largely invisible despite its victims being extremely
visible.

• Extinction: Based on current trends, the UN reckons, an estimated 34,000 plant and 5,200 animal species,
including one in eight of the world’s bird species, face extinction. About 30% of breeds of main farm animal
species are currently at high risk of extinction.

• Invasive Species: Another reason for the loss of biodiversity is the introduction of invasive species. Invasive
species include any plants or animals that are unnatural or non-native to an ecosystem. These species threaten
and often outcompete the plants and animals already present in a habitat.

• Deforestation: Forests are home to much of the known terrestrial biodiversity, but about 45% of the earth’s
original forests are gone, cleared mostly during the past century.

• Anthropogenic Causes: The core threat to biodiversity on the planet is the combination of human population
growth and resources used by that population. The human population requires resources to survive and grow,
and many of those resources are being removed unsustainably from the environment.

• Climate Change: The increase in global temperatures has had significant effects on the environment. Seasons
are coming earlier or later than expected, which can leave animals struggling to find resources to survive and
adapt. Additionally, climate change has led to a rise in sea levels and a decreasing amount of sea ice, which has
affected both animals in the sea and on land. As climate and temperatures continue to change, the threats to
biodiversity will only increase.

• Overexploitation of Natural Resources: Activities such as targeted hunting, fishing and gathering of animals,
plants and other natural resources threaten biodiversity. The loss of large populations of animals or plants in a
short amount of time can cause a rippling effect on the other wildlife in that region. For example, if a primary
predator is over-fished, there will be nothing to keep prey populations in check. Furthermore, overexploitation of
non-renewable resources will affect daily human life. India currently hosts 17% of the planet’s human population
and 17% of the global area in biodiversity hotspots. Thus, the protection and conservation of biodiversity should
be the utmost priority.

2. What is ecological succession? Discuss types of ecological succession with examples. (Answer in 150 words)

Ecology is the study of organisms, physical environment and interaction between them which include both biotic
and abiotic components. It is concerned with organisms, populations, communities and biomes. Ecological
succession is the process where composition of the biological community changes gradually over time. The time
scale can vary from decades or even millions of years. These changes occur due to change in their physical and
chemical environment along with the process of living, growing and reproducing of organisms.

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Primary Succession

• Primary succession occurs at a place where no colony existed in the past for example, new lakes formed after
glacier melting, Island formation after volcanic eruption.

• It is characterised by no soil availability which makes initial conditions inhospitable for new species to survive.
Such species are called pioneer species.

• Such conditions make the process relatively slower than the secondary succession. • Examples - Pioneer
species like lichens, algae, and fungi.

Secondary Succession

• Secondary succession occurs at a place where life existed till the recent past or colonisation already happened
but destruction and recolonisation taking place. For example, the regrowth of forests after wildfire, agricultural
crops.

• Due to soil availability there is a hospitable condition for survival of species for any number of times. Such
species are called intermediary species.

• Hospitable conditions make secondary succession relatively faster and smoother than primary succession.

• Example - Renewal after disease outbreak.

Ecological succession is a natural process bound to happen till it reaches the climax community after which
succession cannot go further. This does not mean there are no further changes in the community; rather there
will be new openings where secondary succession will occur.