Introduction to scheduling networks

Time, as well as cost, is an important factor in project control; therefore, if a project is to

proceed efficiently and on time, it must be carefully planned and scheduled in advance.

A network is essentially a model of the logic and calculation employed when planning a project.
It displays a series of operations which must be followed in order to complete a project.

Historical background

It is claimed that network analysis originated in the United States from two separate spheres at
approximately the same time, in the latter half of the 1950s. One of the techniques developed
was referred to as the critical path method (CPM) and the other as the program evaluation
research task(PERT) – which has since become known as the program evaluation review
technique.

Both methods are essentially network-oriented techniques using the same principle. PERT and
CPM are basically time-oriented methods in the sense that they both lead to determination of a
time schedule for the project. The significant difference between two approaches is that the
time estimates for the different activities in CPM were assumed to be deterministic while in
PERT these are described probabilistically. These techniques are referred as project scheduling
techniques.

Types of network

Types of network

There are three basic methods of preparing a network diagram:

1. ‘activity-on-the-arrow’ (arrow diagram), in which arrows represent activities and nodes

represent events

2. ‘activity-on-the-node’ (precedence diagram), in which nodes represent activities and arrows

represent their dependencies

3. PERT – a method of network analysis which enables the uncertainty associated with the
estimation of activity durations to be taken into consideration.

The same logical steps are used to present any of the types of network. Once the basic
principles of network planning are understood, it will become a simple matter to comprehend
network systems in general.

Advantages of network analysis

• The allocation of times to activities is more accurate when using network planning than is the
case with the Gantt chart method.

• It shows the relationships and interdependencies between activities – the way some activities
depend upon or influence others.

• It enables resource and time restraints to be included in the plan before its evaluation.

• Possible bottlenecks during the construction period can be foreseen.

• It enables closer control of complex projects, since any deviation from the schedule is quickly
noticed.

• Critical activities can be highlighted.

• Modifications of policy can be included easily and the implications assessed quickly.

• It provides a more accurate and effective basis for the preparation of Gantt charts, resulting in
improved control.

Disadvantages

• It is a tedious and exacting task if attempted manually. Depending upon what is required, the
number of activities that can be efficiently handled without the aid of a computer is not very
high.

• Staff will require special training to prepare and read networks.

Introduction to Arrow diagrams

Network components

a. Activities are elements of work entailed in a project. They are operations which consume
time and other resources such as labour, plant etc. The symbol used to represent an activity is
an arrow, the arrowhead indicating the flow of the network.

b. A node represents an event, which is the point at which an activity or group of activities
starts or finishes. The symbol used to represent a node is a circle.
Conventions

Two conventions are adopted in preparing arrow diagrams.

1. The network flows basically from left to right. The arrowhead on the activity line indicates
the direction of operations for the network.

2. Head nodes have a higher number than tail nodes. Activities must begin and end at a node.
The preceding node is the tail node and the succeeding node is the head node for each activity.
The tail node is often referred to as the ‘i’ node and the head as the ‘j’ node. Each node in the
network is given a number in ascending order and each activity must have a unique identity.

The dependency rule

The following two basic rules govern the construction and analysis of network diagrams.

1. An activity cannot begin until its preceding event has finished.

2. An event is not completed until all activities entering it have been completed.

This applies equally to either a single chain of activities or where a group of activities is involved

In the Fig above, Activities 7–8 and 7–9 cannot start until Activity 6–7 has been completed.

A node from which two or more activities generate is known as a ‘burst’ node and the diagram
is said to contain a ‘burst’

In the Fig above, Activity 17–18 cannot begin until Activities 15–17 and 16–17 have both been
completed.

A node into which two or more activities terminate is known as a ‘merge’ node and the diagram
is said to contain a ‘merge’.
Activities 30–35 and 30–40 in the Fig. below cannot begin until Activities 20–30 and 25–30 have
both been completed. Where two or more activities must be completed before two or more
activities can start, the diagram is said to contain a ‘cross’.

c. The duration is the estimated time required to complete an activity. When calculating the
duration of a project, add the duration of an activity to the time at which its start event was
achieved. The unit of time in which duration is measured should be consistent throughout the
network.

Parallel activities

When two or more activities connect between the same tail and head nodes, and therefore
have identical activity identification, the activities are said to be parallel, as shown below

It is undesirable to include parallel activities in network logic, as it results in confusion when

referring to, or analysing, the network. A means of avoiding inclusion of parallel activities in
network logic is to introduce dummy activities.

d. A dummy activity represents no actual operation and uses no resources – but can be used to
give a distinct identity to another activity. The symbol used to represent a dummy activity is a
broken line and an arrowhead to indicate the direction of travel.

Dummy activities have two main applications – one known as a distinguished restraint and the
other as a logic restraint.
Distinguished restraints are used only to maintain the unique numbering system and represent
no consumption of time or resources.

In this instance the dummy has been placed before the activity – but it could just as correctly
have been positioned after the activity. When it comes to analysing the network, it may be
found that placing the dummy in front of the activity facilitates a more accurate analysis.

Logic restraints are used to ensure that logic of the network is maintained where this cannot be
achieved using activity arrows.

Care should be taken to ensure that the direction of the logic restraint is correct. If the dummy
arrow pointed in the opposite direction, the logic would change to read Activities 13–15 and
14–16 are dependent on Activity 12–14, and Activity 13–15 is also dependent on Activity 11–13.

The use of dummy activities in arrow diagram networks is largely indispensable.

Network preparation and management

The stages to be considered in the management of a project, namely:

Planning

Planning a network involves the determination of the number of activities involved and their
organisation into a logical sequence.

To reduce a project’s duration to a minumum, in planning a network, it is desirable that:

• something is happening all the time

• as many activities as possible occur as soon as possible

• as many activities as possible occur at the same time.

Practical example:

Set out and prepare the excavations and formwork to a stage where the job is ready for the
pouring of a concrete strip footing.
The planning determines that the following activities are necessary:

• set out

• excavate trenches

• order materials

• construct the formwork

• erect the formwork.

or

It is desirable to have as many activities as possible occurring as soon as possible, to reduce

project duration. Where activities can be performed concurrently, without inconveniencing
others, a network should be planned in this way. Figure 8.17 represents the network being
planned with this principle in mind. To reduce the duration required to complete this task, the
activities of ordering materials and constructing formwork have been planned to coincide with
the activities of setting out and excavating foundations.

Scheduling

The ultimate objective of the scheduling phase is to prepare a time chart showing the start and
finish times for each activity as well as its relationship to other activities of the project.

Moreover the schedule must pinpoint the critical path activities which require special
attention if the project is to be completed in time.

1. Durations must be measured in the same unit throughout the network – that is days, weeks
or hours. Don’t mix the units.

2. Consistency of position should be maintained when indicating durations – that is, either place
the duration above the activity line throughout or place it below throughout.
Controlling

Controlling entails monitoring the network to determine whether it is proceeding as planned.

The actual performance can be compared with the planned performance. Problem areas within
the work can be detected and remedial action started to rectify the situation.

e. The critical path

The critical path is the path or paths through a planned sequence of activities of a network
which indicates the shortest possible time in which the project can be completed.

As there is no tolerance allowed along this path, it is critical that each activity be completed in
the specified time. Any circumstances which create delays, and which cannot be swiftly
rectified, will automatically extend the completion date of the project.

Once established, this path should be illustrated in such a manner in the network diagram that
it is easily identified. For example, it can be shown with parallel lines across the activities and/or
thickened arrow lines. Whatever the method used to indicate the critical path, a legend should
be used to clarify its meaning.

The node

Earlier, the node was defined as being the point at which an activity or group of activities starts
or finishes.

To establish an easier means of monitoring and analysing a network, further information needs
to be provided. The circular node will be divided into four parts by means of two diagonal lines
and information inserted into various sections of the node, as follows: