CHAPTER 4 | Getting the Map into the Computer “"He's leading us to disaster!" cried the Head of the Air Force, He was shaking with fear. in the seat behind him sat the Head of the Army who was even more terrified. “You don't mean to tell me we've gone right out of the atlas?” he cried, leaning i forward to look, “That's exactly what |am telling you!” cried the Air Force man, “Look : for yourself, Here's the very last map in the whole flaming atlast We went off that over an hour ago!” He turned the page. As in all atlases, there were two completely blank pages at the very end, “So now we must be somewhere here,” he said, putting a finger on one cof the blank pages.” Where's here?” cried the Head of the Army. The young pilot was still grinning broadly. He sald to them, “That's why they always put two blank pages at the back of the atlas. They're for new countries. You're meant to fill them in yourself.” | Roald Dahl, The BFG, p.161~163 (1982) 4.1 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL MAPS “Most people think of maps as drawings on paper, Maps hang on walls, lie in map drawers, and fill the pages of books, atlases, street guides, newspapers, and magazines. Maps roll off the nation’s printing presses in the millions each year, and they fill the spaces in every ! car's glove compartment, neatly folded or not! The traditional paper maps of our everyday | world can be called reat maps, because they are touchable. We can hold them in our hands, | fold them up, and carry them around, The computer, in contrast, has forced us to reconsider this simple definition of a map. In the digital era, and especially within GTSs, \ maps can be both real and virtual. "7118 Chapter 4 Getting the Map Into the Computer A virtual map is a map waiting to be drawn, It is an arrangement of information inside the computer in such a way that we can use the GIS to generate the map however and whenever we need it. We may have access to map information about roads, rivers, and forests, for example, but may decide that only the forests and rivers need be shown on any map that the GIS produces. Every real map is simply a rendering of the viral map on a display medium, which gives the map the form that it takes. Ia many cases, the medinm wwe use is paper, but increasingly we view the map on a computer screen, Unless new field data have been collected, using maps within 2 GIS means that somehow they have already been turned from real into virtual maps. Another way to say this is that a paper map has gone through a conversion, from a paper or analog form into a digital or number form. We start with paper, or sometimes film, Mylar. or some other medium, and we end up with a set of numbers inside files in the computer. This conversion process is called geocoding, which we can define as the conversion of spatial information ‘into computer-readable form. Some GIS vendors would be pleased to help you acquire the data you need, but at an immense price, Studies have shown that finding the sight maps, and converting these maps from real to virtual form by geocoding, takes up anywhere between 60% end 90% of both the time and money spent on a typical GIS project. Fortunately, this is « once-only cost. As soon as we have the map in digital form, we can use itia a GIS over and over again for different uses and projects unless it needs an update. As time goes by, fewer and fewer maps will exist solely on paper and not digitally. Digital map data for use in GIS really fails into three categories. Bither the data alreaciy exist and all we have to do is find or buy them; or they don’t exist and we have to geocode paper maps or maps oa some other medium. A third case is that the maps don’t even exist, perhaps becanse the earth’s surface has changed, and here we often tun to remote sensing, aerial photography, or field data collection by surveyors or the global positioning system (GPS) to get our first map of a new location. Also, sometimes the maps we need already exist, but whoever geocoded them is not interested in sharing the data with you, even for price! Even when we can get the maps we need in digital form, they may aot suit ene particular type of GIS, or may be out of date or not show the features we ‘want, The bottom line is that sooner or later, and usually sooner, we end up geocoding at Jeast some of our own maps. Before we cover the ways that maps-can be converted into mumbers—scanning and digitizing—we will take a look ai how we might go about finding digitel map data that already exist. If we are successful, with a little effort, some conversion programs, and knowledge of GIS data formats, we can reuse one of the many maps already available to us. Many of these maps can be read straight into a GIS, sometimes without any need 0 research the way the files and numbers are structured. In this chapter we take a guided tour of the various flavors of data, their formats, and the way the information in the maps has been structured during geocoding, : ‘These days, very few GIS projects have to start with no data at all, The vast amount of deta that is collected and made available by the vations branches of government is en excellent base on which to start building. The trick is knowing where to look, what te do when you find what you want, and how to get the data into your GIS.Section 4.2 FINDING EXISTING MAP DATA 119 4.2. FINDING EXISTING MAP DATA The search for paper maps is often started in a map library or on 2 map library website. The libraies most Jikely to cay maps and to support carlographie research are the research libraries in the largest cilies or those attached to major universities. Map librarians make use of computer networks to share information and conduct searches, They are jncreasingly making census and other digital maps available both in libraries and via computer networks. Anether place to look for map information is in books. A starting point is GIS Data Sources by Drew Decker (2000). Maps for America, by M. M. Thompson (1987) of the USGS, is a good survey of existing published maps for the United States. Another information source, especially internationally, is the Zwentory of World Topographic Mapping (Bonme, 1993). ‘The appendices in John Campbell’s book Map Use and Analysis (Campbell, 2001) show how to use map series and their indices, and many other information sources are listed, especially Chapter 21, “U.S, and Canadian Map Producers: and Information Sources,” duplicated on the book website at: hetp://[Link]/ earthaci /geccraphy/canphellée/1inke@/appalinké .aatm.. A great deal of informa- tion not only about map dats online, but also open source software for display, is contained in, Mapping Hacks: Tips & Tools for Electronic Cartography (Erle, Gibson and Walsh, 2005). In many cases, state and local governments keep collections of paper maps. A local pianning or building permit office can often find maps of your property or of parks and ‘business properties. Make sure to call ahead. How goad the service of providing maps to the public is depends a great deal on. the office and its policies and services. Some larger agencies have their own map division. A state highway authority, park service, of industrial development orgenization may have its own maps available, sometimes free or at litle cost, Commercial companies sell cartographic data and some will conduct map data searches. Imagery from most commercial vendors can be searched and browsed using an online database. Many commiercial services offer not only packaged existing data for your use, but will digitize or scen data and even write the data in GIS founat for you at a cost. Two companies offering such servicés are TeleAtlas ([Link]) and Yahoo, which references locations with its).own WOEID (Where On Earth Identification) georeferencing system, ‘Obviously, each company has its own strengths and types of map for sale. ‘Commercial companies are not, however, for the novice, They are primarily used by large corporations, governments, the real estate indusiry, and so on. For a fisst cut, the usually free public data ave the best starting point, and in many cases enongh, evea many times more than you will ever need to work with your GIS, Digital map data by public agencies have been dominated by data from the federal government, In the United States, digital map data created at the federal lovel for its own tise are the property of the Americar people, with the obvious exception of seusitive data of use in national security—althongh recently even spy satellite data have been made available. The Freedom of Information Act gearantees everyone the right 10 get copies of digital map data used by the federal government, subject to a distribution or copying cost that may not exceed a reasonable marginal cost of providing the data,120 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer Not ali data has to be extracted from the government using the act, however Government agencies bave made it their mission to make map data as freely accessible as possible to nny interested party. Computer networks have made this not omly accessible to almost any computer user but have also made it more flexible, 4.2.1. Finding Data on the Web ‘The best way to begin 2 data search is to use the World-Wide Web (WWW). Most computers ate equipped with web browsers, such as Opera, Firefox, Safari, Chrome, or Intemet Explorer, that allow you to search the web using keywords ar in ofher ways. The WWW is an inierlinked set of computers and servers, or data repositories on the Internet. ‘A new generation of geobrowsers is malking Internet search increasingly geographic. Each major agency has a WWW server, or gateway, through which data can be searched and downloaded. Simply enormous amounts of data are available through this mechanism. While many U.S. government agencies create and distribute digital maps, data from dhe agencies, each one with its own different types, have been most used in GISs. The agencies are the U. S. Geclogical Survey (USGS), part of the Departruent of the Interior; the U. 8, Bureau of the Census; and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), both part of the Department of Commerce. Data they supply cover the land and its features, the population, and the weather, atmosphere, and oceans across the United States. There are many other agencies that supply on-line spatial data, including NASA, EPA, FEMA, and so forth. Bach of the three main agencies is wouth covering here in detail, Finding information in any of them kas been made much easier by several public information service and computer network services, especially over the Intemet. In many cases there are data clearinghouses that locate data across agencies. 4.2.2 U.S, Geological Survey Digital cartographic data from the USGS are distributed pubiicly through an on-line depository with its own search system that links to the Seamless Data Server called the National Map Viewer (neep: / [Link] .gov/viower btn), The USGS digital data fall into six categories: digital line graphs (DLGs), digital elevation models (DEMS), iand-use and land-cover digital data, digital cartographic text (Geographic Names Information System, GNIS), digital orthophotoguads (DOQ), and digital raster graphics (DRG). The National Map viewer portal is shown in Figure 4.1, The USGS continues to improve coverage of the United States and distributes the map daia products via a seamless server that is linked to the National Map viewer. The user first specifies an area of interest by browsing the map on-line, then sets up a query where data sets are identified. The server “clips” these data from the master data files, and transfers them via the file transfer protocol directly to a user in many common formats, including those supported by the majority of GIS packages. These data models and structures were covered in chapter 3, and most GIS packages support them directly. For examplea search for data for Santa Cruz. Island, California, produced 38 data sets in seven categories (boundaries, hydrography, imegery, Land usefland cover, structates and transportation) supplied by USGS, NOAA, the U.S. Forest Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Figure 4.2). Clicking on tae Landsat data, a query was sent automatically to the National Map Seariless Data server, which delivered a Landsat image from 2002, with two images joined together in GeoTIEFSection 4.2. FINDING EXISTING MAP DATA 121 Figure he National Map Viewer. Seer hap amavinwogtcegs gor siawser tm, format and on NADB83. These date were imported straight into both ArcView 3.2 and uDig, (Figure 4.3) by uncompressing the wansfer file and simply reading it from the software. Many GIS packages support direct importing of data in the most commonly used iguee 4,2: Searching for and downloading dta from the national sp via te USGS sesmfese data scree:Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer nwrionded in Pgae 4.2, ntadced ina the ng (ef a AscView ght Cl soiware packages. government data formats, including use of metadate to provide coordinates and projection information. The USGS also distributes data on land cover derived from classifications of NOAA's AVHRR (advanced very high resolution radiometer) measurements, These data are distributed by the BROS Data Center on the Internet, with = ground resolution of 1 kilometer. Biweekly composites show a vegetation index for Nozth Ainerica and the world at this resolution. There are also Landsat images and the Multi-resolution Land Character- ization database, a land use coverage consistent nationwide, Data sets of topfeal interest are often added fo the National Map viewer, for exarnple inuricane tracks, as are data sets acquired from collaborating agencies and local governments, 423 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ‘The NOAA concentrates on marine and aeronautical navigation systems that electronically ‘integrate digital charts, global positioning sysiem-based locations, snd real-time environ- ‘mental information. Examples are the daily weather map, satellite and radar images, and ‘maps used by pilots and air traffic control. The NOAA charts must be cutied aboard all large ships in U.S. waters. NOAA includes agencies such as the National Geodetic Survey, which maintains accurate GPS control for the country, the National Weather Service, and the Satellite and Information Service, which operates and distributes data for several important mapping satelifes. ‘The National Geophysical Datn Center, pat of NOAA, has relessed numerous digital map data sets, both giobal and national, most recently including detailed bathyme- try of the ocean and land-surface, topography at one minute of latitude and longitude resolution, as well as geodetic and magnetic data for the earth’s surface (Figure 4.4). NOAA maintains several map data portals that support interactive query for date using ESRI's Intemet Map Server, Data are supplied in various formats, again weil supported by GIS software, For example, the world topographic dataset shown in Figure 4.5 displayed in QuantumGIS was downloaded, unzipped, and opened directly by the software. NOAA also hosts the National Geodetic Survey, responsible for the nation's geodetic contro) data and coordinator af datoms, grid systems and more, A particularlySection 4.2 FINDING EXISTING MAP DATA 123 a a ARIE Data & Information © sephelat Bea cone 8 Goa. caret Figure 4.t: Goonpatll data poral for NOAA, useful set of fools is on-line and available at meeps / [Link]/t0018/. These tools support conversion of geospatial data among the many map projections, coordinate systems and datums in common use with GIS.124 Chapter 4 © Getting the Map into the Computer { 424 U.S, Bureau of the Census ‘The mapping of the U.S. Census Burean is to support the decennial census by generating sticet-level address maps for use by the thousands of census enumeraters. For the 1990 ‘census, the Census Bureau developed a system called TIGER (topologically integrated geographic encoding and referencing). As we saw in Chapter 3, the TIGER system uses the block face or street segment as a geographic building block and recognizes cartograph- io objects of different dimensions, points (nodes), lines (segments), and areas (blocks, census tracts, of enumeration districts). in TIGER terminology, points are zero ceils, lines are one cells, and ateas are fo cells (Figure 4.6), Objects can have geometry (G), topology (1), orboth (GT). The figure shows a generalized biock that consists of three GT-polygons (GT stands for geometry and topology). The block contains a point Jandmark (Parkside School) inside GT-polygon 2 and an aren landmark (Friendship Park) that is coextensive with G¥-pelygon 3 (Consus Bureau, 2000), Geometry-only objects are usually landmarks, the features that fill in the details on the TIGER maps. TIGER files by state in the ESRI shapefile format as updated to 2006 can be downloaded by state from the TIGER website al [Link] .gov/gee /wnw/tiger/tiger2006ce/[Link], ‘A large-scale cooperative effort prepared these maps for the 1990 census, and the files were updated for the 2000 census. Map digitizing was initially performed in collabozation with the U.S, Geological Survey but is being completely revised for the 2010 census, The maps are distributed along with the census data over the Internet. Virtually every GIS allows TIGER files to be imported directly into the system, although nat all GISS handle the attribute data as well. The TIGER was the first comprehensive GIS database at sireet level for the entire United States, Au important ability of TIGER is to do address matching: the search for street addresses through the attribute files w match a block or census tract in the TIGER graphic files; that is, finding its geographic location on the map solely from a street address listing. Address matching takes a street number and name, plus a city name, and uses these to determine where the address falls geographically. For example, odd and even aumbers are on opposite street sides, and honse numbers increase by 100 for each city bléck, so a guess at where house nuznber 7262 fell on the block would be 62/100ihs of the way slong; the biock 7200 on the even street number side This is how many on-line and GPS-based address matching systems locate street addresses Figure 46: Base sero calle, oneal, nnd Soares }Section4.2 FINDING EXISTING MAP DATA 125 ‘from user information, by using the TIGER files. The files ure also a good base map of feature information against which other data can be plotted (Figure 4.7). The TIGER files are being improved and updated for the 2010 census to improve accuracy and to include vse of field GPS in data collection (See People In GIS, Chapter 3). The TIGER data are already the foundation of most GIS and mobile map applications in the US. and swill increasingly play a critical role in the nation’s economy and government, 42.5 Other Federal Data The U.S. government, under the Federal Geographic Data Committee's leadership, has created a national spatial data infrastructure (NSDD, a suite of data warchouses ay} catalogs, eli indexed together. Portals 10 the NSDI include the GeoSpatial OneStop at www [Link], This means that finding data across agencies is easier, Taete are slko 4 large number of non-government data sources that also have clearinghouses and data. sharing depositories that js, places where GIS users can archive anc distribute the data they have diready collected and processed. Naturally, supplying good metadata—data about the data— is essential for the clearinghouses to survive, There ave many examples of readily available geobrowsers that serve out Federal geographic daa and facilitate data discovery, that is, finding the date layers that fit your needs. Some of these examples are USGS". Natural Hazards Support System ([Link]) (Figure 4.8), NASA's Worldwind Grorlé[Link]-nase. gov}, Google Barth and Googie Maps, and the Alexandcia Digital Library Globetrotter ([Link]/globetrottes) (Figure 49) as Portals that serve mostly US government data, As vou will quickly discover, not only is there an extraordinary amount of US government data out ther, i is fairly easy to find, igure 47: Sonts Crus sland, California, TIGER steam fears.126 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer Tiguve 4.8: Searching Fran dow leading GIS 22260 seen Sart [Natual Hazard for Sena Cu Flan Son the USGS's [Naea! Hezards Support System. download, and use in a GIS. As publicly created data, it is usually documented and contains metadata, making the task of moving into the GIS relatively smooth. igure 4.9 Search for Suata Cou Hand maps inthe Alexandla Dita Library Glebetoster (liens alexandria uesh edu gleberreicr)Section 4.3 DIGITIZING AND SCANNING 127 4.2.6 Creating New Data Wonderful as itis to find an existing digital map, the myriads of different data formats is usually the least of a GIS analyst’s problems. Digital maps, like their analog sources, are specific to a given map scale, Boundary lines, coastlines, and so ou all reflect the degree of generalization applied to the lines when the map was originally digitized. In addition, maps were usually digitized with different levels of precision, from source maps that were ‘out of date, or that have become out of date since they were digitized, or sometimes even have etrors or problems with their accuracy, Two different maps of the same area rarely agree aver every detail, yet the computer is unable to resolve the differences in the same ‘way that the human mind can reason about the reliability of information, its timeliness, and s0 on. In summary, like it or not, sooner or lefer if you are involved with GIS you will find yourself digitizing a map. Although this is a tedious, time-consuming, and potentially frustrating exercise, the learning process involved will greatly increase your awareness of the Limitations of digital maps for GIS use. It is far better to persevere and learn, than to make a million exrors and misjudgments for the lack of a Title hands-on experience. Time, then, to get a litte digital (or at least virtual) “mud” on our boots! 4.3 DIGITIZING AND SCANNING Historically, many different means have been used to geocode. At first, some very early GIS packages required maps to be encoded and entered by hand. The hours of monetonous work requited for this task mace errors common and their correction difficult, Since special-purpose digitizing hardware became available, und especially since the cost of this hardware fell substantially, virtually all geocoding has been performed by computer. ‘Two technologies have evolved to get maps into the computer. Digitizing mimics the way maps were drafied by hand and involves tracing the map over using a cursor while it is taped down onto 2 sensitized digitizing tablet. The second method involves having the computer “sense” the map by scanning it, Both approaches work and have their advantages and disadvantages. Most important, the method of geocoding and the scale of the initial ‘map stamp their form onto the daia,in such a way that almost all subsequent GIS operations are alfected somehow. 43.1. Digitizing Geocoding by tracing over a map with a cursor is sometimes called seri-automated digitizing, This is because in addition to using a mechanical device, it involves a human operator, Digitizing means the use of a digitizer or digitizing tablet (Figure 4.10). This technology developed ds computer mapping and computer-aided design grew and placed nes demands on computer hardware. While still sometimes used, the heads-up method using scanning has largely now replaced this process. This discussion is included here, however, because the majority of legacy data sets available for GIS were eaptured in this way. The inherent errors in the process are now a permanent part of the existing data, The digitizing tablet is a digital and electronic equivalent of the drafting table. The major components ate a flat surface, to which # map is usually taped, and a stylus or cursor, with the capability of signaling to a computer that a point has been selected. The mechanism to capture the location of the point can differ:128 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer Figure 4.10; Sent-auoinsted rap digtcing with wblet and corso, ‘To register the coordinate system, the coordinate locations of three or more points are digitized, usually the upper right easting and northing, the lower left easting and northing, and at least one other coruer, From these points, with their map coordinates and their raw digitizer coordinates, all the parameters can be computed for converting the data ‘nto the map’s coordinates, Many map entry and digitizing software packages require four of these control points for computing the map geometry, and it is advisable to repeatedly digitize contol points and to average the coordinates to achieve higher accuracy. Points are usually entered one at a time, with a pause after each to enter attributes such 5 labels of elevations. Lines are entered as strings of points and must be terminated with an end-of-chain signal to determine which point forms the node at the end of the chain, Areas such as lakes of states are usually digitized as fines, Sometimes an eutomatic closure for the last point (snapping) can be performed. Finally, the points should be checked and edited. The digitizing software or GIS may contain editing features, such as delete and add a fine or move and snap a point. After editing the data are ready for direct integration into the GIS. Usually, a separate module of the GIS is used for digitizing and editing, and the map can now be passed on for use. Often map errors in GIS are attributable. to this former digital capture process and its Limitations. 43.2. Scanning ‘The second digitizing process is automated digitizing, or more usually, just scanning. The scanner you may have seen at a computer store or ju an advertisement, or perhaps the one you ase for scanving documents, is a flatbed scanner. The drum scanner is sapst commonly used for maps. This type of scanner receives an entire sheet map, usually clamped toa rotating dim, and scans the map with very fine increments of distance, measuring the amount of light reflected by the map when itis illuminated, with either a spot fight source or a laser (Figure 4.11). The finer the resolution, the higher the cost and the larger the data sets, A major difference with this type of digitizing is that lines, features, text, and so on are scanned at their aetual width and must be preprocessed for the computer to recognize specific cartographic objects. Some plotters can double as scanners, and vice versaFor scanning, maps should be clean and free of folds and marks. Usually, the scanned maps are not the paper products but the film negatives, Mylar separations, or the scribed materials that were used in the map production. An alternative scanner is the automatic line follower, a scanner that ig manually moved to a Tine and then leit to followSection 4.3 DIGITIZING AND SCANNING 129 Figure 411: Lage format drom seminer bse. Soance: USGS, the line automatically. Automatic line followers are used primarily for continvons tines, such as contours. These and other scanners are very useful in CADD (computer-eided dhatting and design} systems, where input from engineering drawings and sketches is common, Simple’ desktop scanners are becoming important geocoding devices as their resolutions improve and their prices fall. The process of scanning usually begins with preparing the section of map, which obviously needs to be as clean and with as solid and crisp lines as possible. Next, the map is placed on the desktop scanner. The software is told which window to scan, the scan is previewed, and the scan. is then saved to the resultant sean file. The process can be very quick; nevertheless, care and attention can save considerable work Jater on. Desktop or low-resolution scanning is rarely adequate for GIS purposes bet can be used fo put a rough sketch into a praphic editing system for reworking. In this way, a field skeieb can be used as the primary source of information for developing, the final map for the GIS. It is importent to have a clear concept of scale and resolution when scanning. In Figure 4.12, the same map, pact of the Little Pine Mountain, California, 7.5-minute USGS quadrangle map, was scanned at four different resolutions. The square scanned on the map was 100 millimeters on a side. At 1:24,000, this distance is 24,000 x 100 = 2,400,000 millimeteys, or 2400 meters, Although Figure 4.12 shows a scanned 100mm-by-100mm segment of the map, the pixel density of the soan is given per inch. The scan at 200 dots per inch (DPI) translates to 7.87 pixels per millimeter, making the scanned map square about 787 by 787 pixels. The130 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer Fig 4.2: om meses sega Ps amt Cflomt pgp quant 24 ‘Toplek 200 dp sp rg 100 epi, lever Te 56 as, ower vgh 25 dp same area was also scained at 100 DPI, or 3.937 pixels per millimeter, for an image that is 394 by 394 pixels, On the two scans.‘at their ground equivalent, one pixel is about 3 eters on the first but 6 meters on the second. Itis not this print density but the equivalent scale that is important for the map’s accuracy. The width of a very thin line on the anap, sueh as & small stream, is about 0.2 millimeter ‘AU 1:24,000, this means that the stream would be 4.8 meters wide if it were painted ‘onshe ground, more thao the pixel size on the 200 DPT scan but less than a single pixel of 6 meters on the 100 DPI scan. Most of the line would be skipped, and only occasionally ‘would the pixel and the line coincide, This can be shown clearly in the insets in Figure 4.32, Losing features in this way'is called dropout, Dropout can virtually eliminate a feature on the roap, or at best make it seem like background “noise.” This could be critical if projection graticules, grid Ge marks, or detailed features that are essential for Jater processing ate lost. Another fact to note about scanning is that pencil lines, coffee stains, paper discoloration, ad, in particular, wrinkles and folds all show up. Also, if the map to be scanned inas printing on both sides, you may get a double image on the scan, i.e, of both, sides together. This can lead to problems, as we will see in Section 4.6.Section 4.4 FIELD AND IMAGE DATA 131 4,4 FIELD AND IMAGE DATA 44.1. Field Data Collection An increasing amount of data for GIS projects comes from a combination of data collected in the field, global positioning system data, and imagery. Field data are collected using standard surveying methods. In these methods locations are first established in the field as control points. Next, additional locations are collected to trace out features or cavering the terrain, for example, the edges of features are traced out by sequential measurements using instruments designed to measure angles and distances, The highest accuracy standard survey instruments, called fofal stations, are digital recorders 2s well as measurement instruments. They use laser ranging to prism reflectors to calculate distance. Less expensive instruments such as theodolites, engineers’ (ansits, and levels often use a technique for measuring distances called stadia, which involves reading the numbers on a calibrated pole through the lens of the instrument, Data are recorded in notebooks, and usually the data are then entered into a computer program to turn the bearings, angles and distances into eastings, northings, and elevations. ‘The type of software used is celled COGO, for “coordinate geometry.” and many COGO packages either write data directly into GIS format or are capable of writing files that can transfer directly. Field surveys are common in land surveying, ecology, archeology, geology, and geography. Many less detailed surveys usuatly use rough field sketches, grids, transects, paint sampling, and hand-held GPS. In many cases, GIS software nuns directly on the field collection device, for example the BSRI ArcPad software, [Figve 4.13: Toe station tm ute at an archeolagiel auvey i Baty Sr, Combai,132. Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer 4.4.2 Heads-Up Digitizing The benefits of scanning for GIS data collection are many. A standard procedure for map capture and update exploits these advantages by manual digitizing over scaaned maps, This can be done in several ways. A student might find it easiest to bring the image into a visual editing program, such as Adobe Illustrator or Coreldraw, or into 2 CAD program such as AutoCad. If a map with crisp lines or a tracing hes been scanned, there are automated software packages and GIS modules such as AtcScan which can extract coatinuous lines and replace them with vectors, ‘Things like printed text and overlapping line features (e.g., a road crossing another over a bridge) often make this difficult. Often an ol vector map is overlain with an updated image that reflects a few new features to be added, such as new neighborhoods and roads built at the city edge as it expands, In some cases, features are extracted from an image to create a new map. In the latter case, finding features in the image of known location is very important so that the map can be gearegistered into the same geometry as the existing GIS data. Figure 4.14 shows the stages by which vectors can be extracted from an image and then imported into the GIS, With this being a bit of a subjective process, it is important to visually check features and the fit of the new image with any existing data, When data must match perfectly, it may be best to edit the existing coverage rather than to orate new ‘vectors that may be in error. Lastly, since the scanned map has a finite resolution, it is best to work on capturing vectors without changing the map scale, resolution, or coordinates. Then, when the vectors are ready, they can be transformed using the control paints. Werping the raster scan to fit the map is a good way of revealing any underlying errors in he plane geometry as the map goes from image coordinates to those used in the GIS, 4.4.3 GPS Data Collection ‘The first stage in the surveying process, that of setting the control, is usually cone by locating a USGS contro! point (a bench mark) or by using GPS. Using two GPS receivers together in differertial mode it is possible to locate control poinis to sub-meter accuracy, GPS data can also be post-processed to higher aceuracy using software, or corrected in real-time using the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). Accuracy of less than a meter is relatively simpie to acquire. ‘These points are then used as tue basis for continued extension of the survey network going outward and between these points. A GPS unit being used for controi surveying at extremely high precision by the USGS after hurricane Katrina in 2005 is shown in Figure 4.15, ‘The GPS is a system of 24 orbiting satelites in medium earth oxbits (about 20,000 Jon), euch transmitting a time signal, At any given time, et Jeast four of the satellites are above the local horizon at every location on earth 24 hows a day, When a GPS receiver is activated, the nearest satellites are located and the signals are received from each visible satellite. By decoding the time differences between the signals from each satellite, combined with data Srom the satelite itself about its orbit (called ephemeris data) it is possible to solve the three unknowns of latitude, longitude, and elevation, Many receivers en do direct conversion into any of several coordinate systems and datums, and most can download the data directly to a computer. Some GPS equipment can download directly in common GIS formats. Prior to May 2000, the GPS signal was accurate in its coarse acquisition (CYA) code mode to only about 75 to 100 meters because the signal was deliberately degraded underSection 4.4 FIELD ANDIMAGEDATA 133 Figure 4 Head gn. tage intro enn tig pe oo on mgt aver Sectnareneiaereeee at a rer een eee cee cr sed pn Nierapetelvochiden Gch " ! J ™ a system called selective availability. The use of selective availability has now been determined to be no longer of national security interest and has consequently been turned off, so that accuracies of 10 to 25 meters are normally possible. By using two units, one at a known location and one “rover” unit, the degradation can be measured and eliminated, usually by processing the data from the two units on a computer after collecting the data. ‘This is called differential-mode use of the GPS. It is possible by using a radio receiver or a celiular telephone link to receive real-time differential corrections in the field. The corrections are broadcast as an aid to navigation in the United States aud elsewhere as the wide area augmentation system CWAAS), and are134 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer Figuce 4.15: GPS control being enabtshed by contnuoualy reading data at fixed point. [Averaging lige mmtbce of reedngs ges acourate coordinates. Taege dota car then ke the correct ber locations using derental correction. Pacto; USGS: also available from private services. Many GPS receivers can process these signals, greatly improving accuracy. Most hand-held. GPS receivers are capable of downloading their data to computer software, either for post-processing for accuracy enitancement ot for direct tegration into GIS. In some cases, GPS receivers have elaborsie map displays integrated into the portable units, Jn others, GPS units work in conjunction with software (including GIS) to display GPS locations directly onto maps. Several GPS vendors vow offer software for portable OO, Figue 416: GPS pernonal aching device (Tract in % satinapping the USBcompus, Photo of Garg Chaudbast ty Jule Demis,Section 4.4 FIELD AND IMAGE DATA 135 GPS Variation around Ellison Haif, UC Santa Barbera New GPS unit © Wok 1 © Week2 2 Week 3 + Week 4 Old GPS unit © Week 4 + Wook 2 + Weeks 4 Week 4 Gigttal assistants, and even cellular telephones, which can come equipped with their own GPS receivers inside. Companies manufacture GPS chips connected to date loggers, ‘lowing wackiog of animals, humans, and curs, for example the Trackstick (Figure 4 16), GPS is 2 highly effective way of collecting data for GIS. There are alternative petens under development, the Chinese COMBASS and European Galileo, or exanaple A broader term is Global Navigation Satellite System. A problem with OPS fs that frig prone to ecror wien the sky is obscured by mountains or vegetation, ‘The signals aso vary Position dilution of precision, or PDOP. Many hand-held receivers warn the user when errors are too high for accurate results. Ia Figure 4.17, data from two GPS teceivers taken Snuely the same place over various times are shown, The impact of vegetation cover, PDOP and the reflection of signals from tall uildings, ealled mudtipath error, is evident 4.4.4 Image and Remote Sensing Data Jmagery data ae very contmon inpat layers to & GIS, They are most frequently air photos such a8 the USGS's digital orthophoto maps or satellite images, The National Aiohoto piostam makes photography at'a variety of scales available in the United States via the National Map, and private vendors also sell images, Digital orthophoto quarter quedran- Bales (DOQQ) ave af au equivalent scale of 1:12,000 and have ¢l-ineter ground resolution, with some areas such as cies, at resolutions up to 0.16m, The current program includes national coverage and frequent update after that. An example of a digital exthophots is136 Chapter4 Getting the Map into the Computer Figure 4.18: SCS Pagel Orthophoto Quarter Quadra lecoveringtheelipacand White House, wedi ESRI'e ‘ArcView. Note Uat the resolution hes been degrade over the Where House (2com, lower age). Referece pina she phowo below ts the are ulster shown in Figure 4.18. This DOQQ covers the zero milestone marker in the ellipse in ‘Weshington D.C., just south of the White House. Note the different resolutions of the data, with the coarser imagery covering only the White House and its immediate city block. We ‘will return (o this in the final chapter of the book. These data, and other conunercial images, are commonly used in-online map search tools such as Google Earth, ‘The Landsat program has been generating imagery of many locations in the world since 1972. Three scanning instruments, the multispectral scanner, the thematic mapper, and the enhanced thematic mapper plus, image areas on the ground at 79, 30, and i5 meters, respectively. The images ate geometrically corrected into the space oblique Mereator projection and are available for use in GIS projects via the National Map Figure 419: Asdaction of romeo theme yesof stele mage aa or we wih GIS, a of Foi. Tato sight ASTER, NODS, fhwmm, Lrdetcompotte, Somes USCS NASA,Section 4.5 DATAENTRY 137 Figure 420: Lands data brought ito GIS and casi to sow Jand ose and land cover, an example fram she Nations apd Cover Daisbar Sioux Pulls, South Dalots), Sourea: USGS. Seamless database, Giobal coverage can be quite discontinuous due to gaps in the program. Other satellites also generate imagery, including the French SPOT satellite series and the formerly Canadian RADARSAT. Other commercial suppliers include Digital Globe's Quickbird, and Tkonos, In addition, GIS projects at small scales also often use the NOAA polar orbiting satellites carrying the AVHRR (advanced very high resolution radiometer), NASA’s MODIS, and NOAA's geostationary GOES weather satellite, the one seen every evening on the television weather report (Figure 4.19). The imagery is often used in GIS to extract map featuies, such as roads, buildings, and lakés, It is often automatically processed to show vegetation, land cover, and other map layers. Figure 4.20 shows a Landsat 7 image, and its derivative product, classified Jand use and land cover from the Nationat Land Cover database. 45 DATA ENTRY Geocoding is the part of GIS data input that results in getting a map into the computer, It is not the entire story, however, for as yet we have not dealt with getting the atiributes into the GIS. An attribute is a value, usually « muieber, contaiaing information about the features stored in the GIS. If the feature we are geovoding is a toad, for example, then capturing the route of the road from a map as it winds from intersection to intersection is pure geocoding. We also have to tell the computer what this long and winding line is: a road, and anything else that the GIS needs to know about it. Relevant attributes for a road might be its stale route number, the year it was built, what the surface is made of, how many traffic lanes are on the rond, if the road is one-way or two-way, how many bsidges it goes over, how many cars travel along the road per hour, and so on. These values are the138. Chapter 4 . Getting the Map into the Computer Features on Adams, NY, Map ” Feature Name Surface |] Lanes pete 1 Road US 11 tarmac |] 3 113 2 Road T81 concrete |] 4 432 3 Ro: TK Bridge | tarmac] 2 12 Road attribute =| E record, all yalne, isthe number has aname and fp attributes for or (extassociated a value for each one feature witha record for an record attribute Toes igure 4.2: Ar strloue able op os afi le, RDI road's attributes, They are the very meat and potatoes of GIS analysis. Somehow, we have to get them into the computer, too, ‘The simplest way to think of attributes is in a flat file, A flat file is really like a table of numbers. The columns of the table are the attributes, and the rows of the table are the feaures themselves. Each line in the table is a record, but the name used depends on who you talk to, A computer scientist would call a ow a tuple, a statistician would call it a case or an observation. A programmer might call it an instance of a geographic object. They are all pretty much the same, Record sounds simpler, ‘Take # look at the flat file in Figure 4.21. The records and attributes selate to the example we discussed above, a road. The attribute table then consists of several parts. First, it hes attributes with their names. Setting up the altribules means deciding what values are going to be associated with each’of our features, At the sime of setup, itis easy to anticipate something we may want to collect in the future and to leave a column in the table for it. Second, there are records. A record usually has a value in every one of the columns. Software programs such as spreadsheets and some databases allow you to click into a cell in the table and put in a value. Nevertheless, setting up the table has to be a litle more formal than that, Bach attribute has more than simply 2 name associated with it, For example, if we try to put “USIL” into the attribute column “Surface,” something is obviously wiong, Hach atteibute should have several characteristics, all of which usually have to be known in advance. The following is list of what has to he considered. 1, What is the type of the value? For example, values could be text, number; decimal value or units such as meters, vehicles per hour, and so on, 2. What is the legitimate range’ of the values? For example, percentages should be between Gand 100. Ate negative numbers allowed? For text values, what spellingsSection 4.5 DATAENTRY 139 or range of choices (known as categories) are allowed? For text, how many characters long is the longest string? What happens when there is a missing cell in the table? For example, a record could be missing au aluibule such 2s the traffle count in Figure 4.21 because nobody was available to make the count. Often a missing value flag, such as the value -999 or NULL, is used in these cases. We obviously would not want these to count if we summed or averaged the rows or columns. Are duplicates allowed? What if we had two road entries for Interstate 81 on Figure 4.18, one for the northbound and one for the southbound lanes? The traffic counts, Toad surfaces and so on may be differeut and worthy of their own record. In this case, the vahtes entered in the aitvibute column under “Name” would be ideatieal. ‘Which attribute is the key? the key is the link between the (wo databases. So in the example of Figure 4.21, the attribute “ID #" should match the tag that was placed on the road when it was digitized from the map. Otherwise, ail our attributes would be “Jost in space.” 5. Many of these questions must be answered when we set up the database to begin with, The tool within the database manager that allows this attribute setup is called the data definition moduie. It often hes its own menus, language, and 50 on, and may need a programmer rather than a typical GIS user io set it up. In some cases, just as with the digital map data, the attribute data will have been found from an existing source, such as the Census Bureau's data files that link to the TIGER files. In this case, the Tinks will already be made between the altributes and the featnres on the map, if there are new data, however, or if we make our own database for our own purposes, we have to make the links and check them ourselves. ‘Abtriiwte labels = I 4", “Feature”, “Mae”. Surface” , “Lanes”, “Teaéfict “1, sroad™, sus 11", Soarnac*, a sue + Sper ease sor, x, soeae, culok Bridge Reea*, Starmac”, if red Figare 4.22: An varaveled o7 ASCII tent frm version ofthe Ma le in Figure 42140 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer ‘A complete listing of all of the above information is called s data dictionary. Having the data dictionary in advance allows the part of the GIS that handles data entry, or the 1 spreadsheet or database program we choose to use, to check each value as we enter it. i Sometimes we enter the numbers and values one by onc into 2 special part of the database manager called the data-entry module. Often, we import into one GIS data manager all the records in a preexisting setup, Some of the more common databases and spreadshee's support specific formats for data exchange to allow this. The simplest form is to write a file with cach of the attributes and their labels writien as text, one per line, sometimes separated by commas and quote marks so that blanks and other symbols can be included. For example, the data in Figure 4.21 could be “unraveled” into the fite in Figure 4.22. For new GIS data, the process of entering attributes eventually comes down to someone (usuatly the lawest-paid person) entering the attribute values one by one into a database manager's data-entry module, The data usually come from a data form of some kind, onto which they had been recorded painstakingly by the person collecting the data. Some data-entry systems are betier than others. At the very least, the system should check the type and range of the value for each attribute at the time of entry. At best, itis | helpful if the software allows things like copying a record but then changing it to reflect a new value, deletion, or changing of values that are wrongly entered at the time of entry, and if the software brings errors to your attention with beeps and messages so that correction can take place immediately. No software package should allow data to be lost if the computer crashes, the file Jills up, or the user présses the wrong button. Most GIS packages allow the use of alnost any spreadsheet, such as Microsoft Excel, or database systems such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, or Access. Some require that you use the database entry system that comes with the GIS and no other. Each is slightly different, zIthough all share the items discussed in this section. 4.6 EDITING AND VALIDATION Mazy early geocoding systems had only limited editing capabilities, They allowed data entry, but error detection was by after-the-fact processing, and correction was by deletion of records or even whole data sets and reentry. Anything we can do in the geocoding process that reduces errors, or that makes errors easily detectable, we should indeed do. As an ahsolute minimum, data for lines and areas can be processed automatically for consistency, and any unconnected lines or unclased polygons can be detected and sigaaled to the user. The connection between lines, known hordering of areas, and inclusion of points in arens is called map topology. Topology really comes bito its own during the map validation stage. The easiest way to avoid errors in geocoding is to ensure that errors are detected as soon as possible and then to make their correction easy. Video display during digitizing and audio feedback for error messages is essential, GIS software should spell out exactly ‘what will happen in the case of an esror. A common geocoding error is to overflow a disk- ste quota while digitizing. It helps also to be able to recognize exrors when they appear and to be able to understand their origin. Some easy-io-detect emors are slivers, spikes, inversions, lines that are not ended, and snapped nodes, which we discussed in Chapter 3. Scaling and inversion exrors are when the map appears squashed, like the titles at the heginning of a wide-screen movie shown on TY, or flipped. These are usnally due to an incorrect digitizer setup procedure;Section 4.6 EDITING AND VALIDATION 141 that is, they are systematic errors caused by incosrecly entering the contol poimts for establishing the map geometry. Spikes are random hardware or software errors in which a zero oy extremely large data velue erroneously replaces the real value in one of the coordinates. Spikes are also sometimes known as zingers. Errors in topology, missing, or duplicate lines, and unsnapped nodes are operator errors. Piotting the data becomes a useful aid becanse unplottable data often have bad geocodes. Similar'y, attempting lo fill polygons with color often detects gaps and slivers not visible in busy polygon networks, The best check for positional accuracy is a check against an independent source map of higher accuracy, The equivalent of a plot for the attribute data is a data listing or report. Most date management systems have the ability to generate a report, listing the attributes as a table, of formatting them neatly for printing and checking, You should go line by line, checking he attributes and their values. However, ‘even when the attributes and the map are validated by checking, itis still likely that errors ‘exist in the links. One New York City database had more than 20 spellings for a single sireet name, for example, The GIS often allows check plots to be generated that simply plot the label or identification number of the key within a polygon or next to a line, These maps and the tedious process of checking them should never be skipped. Maving straight on to making elegant graphics or doing a GIS-hased analysis with erroneous data can be anything from embarrassing to dangerous, or even life-threatening. A data set that is correctly geocoded both positionally and with attributes is not necessarily logically consistent, Logical consistency can be checked most easily for topological data. Topologically, data can be checked to see that al! chains intersect al nodes, that chains cycle correctiy in a ring around polygons, and that inner rings are fully enclosed within their surrounding polygons, Otherwise, attributes can he checked to ensure that they fall within the comect range and that no feazere has become too small to be represented accurately. Everyone would like to say that the data in his or her GIS are accurate and correct, Obviously, this means several things. Accuracy of position means that the locations shown on the map are in their correct locations with respect to the real world, Of course, there may be a difference between the map that was geocoded and the “best possible” map. Positional error is sometimes tested or ieasured, and this is best done against another map of higher accuracy or against accurate ficld measurements such as GPS fixes. Another aspect of data is the accuracy of the attribute. A map may be perfect as far as appearance is concerned, but the roads and rivers could both be mislabeled as power lines. This type of error can be treated as-a misclassification. Testing can also be conducted and can even be automated, as GIS data are already in a database management system. A final issue s that of scale and precision. A map used for geacoding lias « particular séale, such as 1:24,000. If this is the case, while the GIS allows us to compare data from another scale, say 1:250,000, it may not be appropriate to do so, as attributes, generaliza- tion of the features, and other properties of the map may be different at the two scales. Also, afl data in the GIS have’ a degree of precision associated with them. If a highly Getailed line is geocoded only to the nearest 10 meters on the ground, comparison with more detailed data becomes a problem, Generally, we should apply the same concerns and considerations of limitations to digital maps as we do to paper maps. Unfostunately, many people treat digital maps as absolutely correct instead of the digital alternative form of the analog maps to which they owe their hurable origins.142 Chapter 4 - Getting the Map into the Computer ‘The intetligent GIS user should know and understand the amount and distribution of error in a GIS database. Many of the sources of exror are due to the method and process of geocoding. Some of the errors multiply as we move through the stages of data management, storage, retrieval, GIS use, und analysis, Au understanding of error is essential to working effectively with GIS,Section 4,7 STUDY GUIDE 143 4.7. STUDY GUIDE 4.74 Summary CHAPTER 4; GETTING THE MAP INTO THE COMPUTER i Analog maps are real, and displayed on @ medium such as paper, while virtual maps consist of organized digital numbers O Geocoding is the conversion of spatial information into computer-readable form O Getting the map into the computer and dealing with input data is often the majority of the time and cost of GIS projects O Maps can exist in digits} form and be beth available or unavailable, or they can exist just on paper, oF not at all—anyway sooner oF later 3 GIS user will need to digitize a map O it makes most sense to start a GIS project using freely available data © The U.S. Federal Government makes immense amounts of digital map ' data available to anyone over the internet O Finding out that deta exist and are available can be by consulting books, libraries, and the Internet O Mast agencies supplying map data use web portals and on-line search systems that allow data to be downloaded and used with GIS software O The USGS supplies DLGs, DRGs, DEMs, DOQQs, GNIS and LULC data via the National Map and its viewer and seamless distribution system O NOAA supplies data on nautical charts, GPS, Geodesy, and seal tine data of use in navigation, such as weather maps O The Unized States Bureau of the Census cistibutes digital TIGER street reps that match the i census attribute information © TIGER files are the basis for most geocoding by address. matching, Le, finding a position using a house number, sveet, and city name O The US. Federal Government runs the NDSI, with data portals thet can search across agencies for data Geobrowsers are the latest way to browse and search for geographic information on the : intemet O Creating new data means semi-automated digitizing, scanning, or field data capture O Digitizing uses a digitizing tablet, the GIS equivalent of a otafting table O Inherent errors in the source map and its scale became embeckled into the GIS data that digitizing creates © Scanning creates a raster map of the input map or image O If scans are done at too | low a resolution, features drop out and cannot be recovered O Heads-up digitizing uses scanned image or map {9 update or create @ new map using manual vector editing O Field data can come from survey instruments, field netes, GPS, or field mapping O' GPS is a very accurate way of collecting the Jacation of points and lines in the field, and the data can be downloaded to GIS at high fevels of accuracy O Many imagery and remote sensing programs supply data for use in GiS, which can be used in heads-up capture, or automatically processed to show land use, vegetation, man-made features, and more. O Attribute data can be placed! i into GIS via DBMSs data entry modules, or entered into fies using tools such as spreadshects ! Data dictionaries allow automated checking and data validation, reducing error O A GIS should make errors easy t0 spot and easy to fix © GiS-based analysis with erroneous data can bbe embarrassing, dangerous, or even life-threatening O Accuracy should be assessed against independent sources of higher authority Q1A& Chapterd Getting the Map into the Computer 47.2 Study Questions -to-Digital Maps 1. List examples of maps thar you would only find in analog forma, and note some of the problems you would face in getting them into the computer. For example, ancient historical maps, 1920s road maps, and globes, Finding Existing Map Data 2. Using the examples in the chepter, find and download on-line public data for your area of interest, How successful were you at finding data? How easy was it to get the data onto your computer? How easy Was it to get the data into your GIS? Compare finding and acquiring data for a U.S. county with a foreign country. Digitizing and Scanning 3. Make a table of various GIS applications that require non-standard data. What dara capture metaods would best suit these applications? For example, field data from aa archeological dig, utility data on sewage pipe leaks, and data from the Christmes bird count. Data Entry 4, Design a simple survey form, and have ten friends fill it out. Then design & database on paper to accept the information from the forms, What problems do you encounter? How might they be overcome or at least their impact minimized? Editing and Validation 5. What software tools night be used in data editing? Name. some of the common errors in geocoding that cen be corrected by editing. Why might the value of an attribute in a record be invalic? What part of the database manager allows data editing and validation? salaSection 4.8 REFERENCES 145 4,8 REFERENCES 4.8.1 Books Bohme, R. (1993) Inventory of World Topographic Mapping. New York: imemational Cartographic AssociatiowElsevier Applied Science Publishers. Campbell, J. 2001) Map Use and Analysis, dnd ed. New York: McCraw Hill Clarke, K. C. (1995) Analytical and Computer Cartography, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NF: Prentice Ball Deckes, D. (2000) GIS Dara Sources. New York: Wiley. Erle, §,, Gibson, Rand Welsh, J. 2005) Mapping Hacks: Tips & Tools for Electronic Cartography Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. ‘Thompson, M. M. (1987) Maps for America. 3rd ef. U, 8, Geological Survey, Weshington, DC: U8. Government Printing Office, ‘United Saves Census Bureau (2000) TIGER/Line File Tecinical Documentation. On-line at: nttp:#! [Link] 48.2 Intemet Addresses U.S. Geological Simvey ety: //[Link] Nivional Map Viewer neep:/ /nmvienoge er .[Link]/vtener, hen U.S. Census Burea netp: //ww. census. gov/tiger/tiger nent NOAA http: //[Link].20v John Campbeli’s information sources netp://[Link]. con/earthsci /geogzaphy! cargbell4e/Linkoé/appslinké.nhtmd146 Chapter 4 Getting the Map into the Computer 4.9 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS address matching: Using a street address such as 123 Main Street in conjunetion with a digital map to place a street address onto the map in a known location. Address matching, a mailing list, for example, would convert the mailing list to a map and allow the mapping of characteristics of the places on the list. analog: A representation where a feature or object is represented in another tangible medium, For example, « section of the earth can be represented in analog by a paper map, or atomns can be represented by Ping-Pong balls, attribute: A characteristic of a feature that contains @ measurement or value for the feature. Attributes can be labels, categories, or numbers; they can be dates, standardized values, of field or other measurements. An item for which data are collected and organized. A column in a table or data file. data dictionary: A catalog of all the attributes for a data set, along with all the constraints placed on the aitribute values during the data definition phase, Can include the range and type of values, category lists, legal and missing values, and the legal width of the field, data entry: The process of entering numbers into 2 computer, usually attribute data, Although most data are entered by hand, or acquired through networks, from CD- ROMs, and so on, field data can come from a GPS receiver, from data loggers, and even by typing at the keyboard. data-entry module: The part of a database manager that allows the user to enter or edit records in a database. The module will nomally both allow entry and modification of values, and enforce the constraints placed on the data by the data definition. digitizing: Also called semi-automated digitizing, The process in which geocoding takes place manually; a map is placed on a flat tablet, and a person traces out the map features using a cursor. The locations of featores on the map are sent back to the computer every time the operator of the digitizing tablet presses a button. digitizing tablet: A device for geocoding by semiantomated digitizing. A digitizing tablet looks like a drafting table but is sensitized so that as a map is traced with a cursor on the tablet, the locations ate identified, converted to numbers, and sent to the computer, drop-outs ‘The loss of data due to scanning at coarser resolution than the map features to be captured. Features smaller than half the size of a pixel can disappear entirely. drum scanner: A map input device in which the map is attached fo a drum that is rotated onder a seanner while illuminated by a light beam or laser, Reflected light from the map is then measured by the scanner and recarded as numbers, editing: The modification and updating of both map and attribute data, generally using a software capability of the-GIS. flat file: A simple model for the organization of numbers. The numbers are organized as atable, with values for variables as entties, records as rows, and altributes as columns. flathed scanner: A. map input device in which the map is placed on a glass surface, and the scanner moves over the map, converting the map into numbers. FIP (File Transfer Protocol): A standardized way to move files between computers, It isa packet switching teclmique, so that errors in transmission are detected and corrected, FTP allows files, even large ones, to be moved between computers on the Internet or another compatible network. ‘gateway: A single entry point to all the servers and other computers associated with one project or organization. For example, the U.S. Geological Survey, though spread acrossSection 4.9 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 147 the country and throughout dozens of computers, has a single entry point oz gateway into these information sources geocoding: The conversion of analog maps into computer-readable form. The two ususl ‘methods of geocoding are scanning and digitizing Internet: A network of computer networks. Any computer connected to the Internet can share any of the computers accessible through the network. The Internet shares a coramon mechanism for communication, called @ protocal. Searches for data, tools for browsing, and so forth ease the tasks of “surfing” the Intemet, medium: A map medium is the material chosen on which to produce a map; for example, paper, film, Mylar, CD-ROM, a computer screen, a TV image, and so on. network: Two or more computers connected together so that they can exchange messages, files, or other means of communication. A network is part bardwere, usually cables and communication devices such as modems, and pant software. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration): An arin of the Depart- mest of Commerce that is a provider of digital and other maps for navigation, weather prediction, and physical features of the United States. real map: A map that has been designed and plotted onto @ permanent mediym such as paper or film. It has a tangible form and is 4 result of all of the design and compilation, decisions made in consiructing the map, such as choosing the scale, setting the legend, choosing the colors, and so on. report: A listing of all the values of attributes for all records in a database, A report is often printed as a table for verification against source material, and for validation by exemination. scanning: A form of geocoding ia which maps are placed on a surface and scammed by a light beam, Reflecied light from every small dot or pixel on the surface is recorded ané saved as a grid of digits. Scanaers can work in black and white, in gray toues, or in color. server: A computer connected to a network whose primary function is to act as a library of information that other users cen share. stream mode: A method of geacoding in semi-automated digitizing, in which a ‘continuous siream of points follows a press of the cursor button. This mode is often used for digitizing long featwes such ag streams and coastlines. It can generate data very quickly, so excessive or deviate points are often weeded out immediately by automated line generalization within the GIS: TIGER: A map data format based on zero, one, and two cells; used by the U.S. Census Bureau in street-level mapping of the United States. topology: The sumerical description of the relationships between geographic features, as encoded by adjacency, linkage, inclusion, or proximity. Thus a point can be inside a region, a line can connect to othexs, and a region can have neighbors. The numbers describing topology can be stored as attributes in the GIS and used for validation and ofzer stages of description anid analysis. US. Census Burean: An agency of the Department of Commerce that provides maps in support of the Gecennial (every 10 years) census of the United States. USGS (Ualted States Geological Survey): A part of the Department of the Interior and a major provider of digital map data for the United States.148 Chapter 4 _ Getting the Map into the Computer validation: A process by which entries placed in records in ap attribute data file, and the map data captured during digitizing or scamning, are checked to ensure that their values fall within the bounds expected of them and that their distribution makes sense. virtwal map: A uuap that has yet 10 be reallzed as a tangible map; 11 oxists as a set. of possible maps. For example, the same digital base map and set of numbers can be entire series of possible virtual maps, yet only one may be chosen to be rendered as a real map on a permanent medium,Section 4.10 PEOPLEINGIS 149 | 4.10 PEOPLE IN GIS : Alan Millais: GIS student and future Alr Force navigator KC: low did you first get interested in GIS? AM: I’ve been around maps as long as F ean remember, Both of my parents have huge map collections, and when GIS came out, of course, they were some of the first to, start using it. in bigh school, my Mom would drive me to her job and show me GIS maps—wow, this was pretty cool, I'd already decided co do Geography when I was in high school. KC: So you actually met GIS when you were stil in high school? AM: Yeah. My Mom’fock me to the ESRI Conference my junior year in high school, KC: Now that you've taken the whole course sequence in GIS at UCSB, what did you gain from it? AM: More of a kind of an inner workings and understanding of it. ‘The first lab im the first class, you think, “Oh gosh, this is going to be long,” but, by the end, you're into theory and the abstract side of GIS, more Jike the science oft all, By the end, not only did I have a more practical mderstanding of how to use GIS and ‘which buttons to push, but also how it came about, what need it arose from, and winet riche: filled, On the graduation evaluation survey, I listed the advanced GIS projects class as the course that T lexmed the most from out of all my college years, becatise the project we did—on Santa Cruz Isiand—was probably the most comprehensive project I'd done in college in terms of research and the final output. We've also showing our project at the ESRI Conference this year, taking it to the Mep Gallery.150 Chapter 4 KC: What was the purpose of the Sante Cruz, {sland project? AM: We worked a lot with hand-drewn 1800s ‘era maps that we scanned, and then a Tot of newer satellite photos. We georeferenced data and scanned a lot of maps. Tt seemed to mo about as complicated as @ subject could get with GIS, because we were vsing every data source you could possibly imagine to come up with a project. That definitely showed the versatility of it, because a lot of the time you Kind of get Jost in your own little section of the project as apposed to viewing the whole GIS and the questions being asked. KC: Tell me a litle bit about your summer job, what you do, and how you got the job. AM: I work in the GIS oifice of the City of ‘Ventura, 'm not doing anything GIS directly, They still use AreView 3, dhough they've heavily modified it. But T was building 3-D models of the downtown redevelopment zone with the hope of putting i# into a GIS. We had pichwre facades and correct roof lines and correct building heights snd all that soct of thing, with the hope of putting it into a 3-D dataset Yo see how it would look for the corresponding area with the hills and the background, But the project never really got off the ground. I was able (0 finish it all in Google Sketchup, but we never found a GIS that was capable of handling that much data. Getting the Mep into the Computer XM: What do you intend to do now that you have graduated, and will it involve GIS? AM: 1'm going into the Air Force as a navige- tor, I will be using GPS—it is GIS work but not in 2 traditional sense of me sitting ot a desk, [ joined the Air Force with the intention of doing the pilot thing and then maybe getting out and working for the NGA. T don’t know how it’s going to change over the course, because I have a relatively long ser- vice commitment and then once ¥ get out 1 have left behind GIS—T' have 2 lot of catching up to do, I still do plan on getting my Masters in Geography though. KC: What advice would you give to a new student just taking their first class in GIS? AM: I would say have patience, No matter ‘what level you're at either it’s too easy or it’s too. haré. Tf you know computers, the start menu lab is kind of frustrating, but if you don’t it’s useful. Onee yor get learning the program in depth it takes a lot of patience, because it has so many capabilities that you can get very easily lost in GIS. Also, Td say spend as muck time as possible in the lab, because the lectures are useful but, unless you're aetally on the computer doing GIS ali the tine, you miss something. KC: Thanks, and good luck in your new carecr.