Chapter 1

Normal and abnormal operation of power systems

What is normal and abnormal condition in powcr system?
Under normal operating conditions. power system cquipment or lines carry normal
voltages and currentswhich results in asafer operation of the system. But when fault
damage to
0ccurs. it causes excessively high currents to flow which causes the
equipments and devices.
During normal operation. switchgcar permits to switch on or off generators,
transmission lines, distributors and other electrical equipment.
Normal Conditions:

1. It is a state of network in which the current flowing through it is the rated current
provided that the voltage and frequency is constant.
2. The current is not diverted to the other path that is generally towards the earth then
the condition is said to be normal condition.

Abnormal condition

On the other hand when a failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of power
system, a heavy current flows through the equipment. threatening damage to the
equipment and interruption of service to the customers. However, the switchgear
detects the fault and diseonnects the unhealthy scction from the system. In this way,
switchgear protects the system from the damage and ensures continuity of supply. In
this chapter, we shall present the elementary introduction to switchgear.
In power system abnormalities generally occurs due to internal or external
faults and switching as transient. Usually the transients can be considered as fault
and system gets disturbed by tripping circuit breakers.
Abnormal Condition:

1. It is the defect in the any part of the system which produce abnormalities like over
current, over voltage, disturbance and elements are likely to be damagcd and the
system is disturb.
2. It is the defect in part of the power system due to which the current is diverted from
the desired path with increase in magnitude called fault.
3. Due to abnormalities following are the defects observed:
Voltage and Current unbalanced
Over Voltages
" Reversal Power
Power Swinging
 Under Frequeney
Temperature Rise
" Instability of System
Types of faults and causes of faults
Introduction to Electrical Faults
Electrical nctworks, machincs and equipments are often subjccted to various
faults while they are in operation. When a fault occurs, the lypes ol
as impedance) of the machines may change fronm existing characteristic values (such
tillthe fault is cleared. values to different values
There may be lot of probabilities of faults to appear in the
power system network.,
including lighting. wind, tree lalling on lines, apparatus failure, etc.

Electrical Faults

A fauit in an electric power system can be

defined as , any abnormal condition of the
system that involves the electrical failure of the
generators. busbars, etc. cquipment. such as . transformers,
The fault inception also involves in
insulation failures and conducting path
failures which results short circuit and open circuit of
Under normal or safe operating conditions, the clectricconductors.
network operate at normal voltage and current ratings. Onceequipments in a power system
circuit or device. the fault takes place in a
voltage and current values deviates from their nominal ranges.
The faults in power system causes over current, under
phases, reversed power and high voltage surges. This resultsvoltage, unbalance of the
in the interruption of the
normal operation of the network, failure of equipments. electrical fires, etc.
Usually power system networks are protected with switchgear protection
such as circuit breakers and equipments
relays in ordcr to limit the loss of service due to the
electrical failures.
Types of Faults
Although opencircuit laults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit faults, these
must be removed as early as possible to reduce the greater damage.

2. Short Cireuit Faults

Ashort circuit can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low impedance between two
points of different potential, whether made intentionally or accidentally.
These are the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the flow of abnormal high
currents through the equipment or transmission lines. If these faults are allowed to persist even
for a short period, it leads to the extensive damage to the equipment.
Short circuit faults are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to the insulation
failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or both.
The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase to earth, three phase
clear of earth, phase to phase, single phase to earth,two phase to earth and phase to phase plus
single phase to earth as shown in figure.
Thethree phase fault clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are balanced or symmetrical
short circuit faults while other remaining faults are unsymmetrical faults.

Short-circuit Faults

la}. Three-phase clear of earth (b). Three-phase-to-earth

(c). Phase-to-phase

d). Single-phase to-earth (e). Two-phase-to-earth

UB

(E). Phase-to-phase plus

single-phase-to-earth
 mainly classified into two types, namcly
power system symnetrical or
Eleciricallaults in three-phase Further. these faults can be
aults.
open and short circuit detail.
these faults in
unsymmetrical faults. Let us discuss
1. Open Circuit Faults of one or more conductors. The figure below
failure
These faults occur due to the three phases (or conductors) open
single, two and
illustrates the open circuit faults for
condition. cables and
common causcs of these faults include joint failures of
The most to
lines, and failure of one or more phase of circuit breaker and also due
overhead
melting of a fuse or conductor in onc or more phascs.
faults. These are unsymmetrical or
Open circuit faults are also called as series
three phase open fault.
unbalanced type of faults except Open-circuit Faults

(a). Single-phase open-circuit (a). Two-phase open-circuit

(a). Three-phase open-circuit

Consider that a transmission line is working with a balanced load before the occurrence of open
and
circuit fault. If one of the phase gets melted, the actual loading of the alternator is reduced
this cause to raise the acceleration of the alternator, thereby it runs at a speed slightly greater than
synchronous speed. This over speed causes over voltages in other transmission lines.
Thus, single and two phase open conditions can produce the unbalance of the power system
voltages and currents that causes great damage to the equipments.

Causes
Broken conductor and malfunctioning of circuit breaker in one or more phases.

Effects
Abnormal operation of the system
Danger to the personnel as well as animals
Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network, which
further leads to insulation failures and developing of short circuit faults.
Causes
These may be due to internal or external effects
Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or equipment, aging of
insulation, deterioration of insulation in generator, transformer and other electrical
cquipments, improper installations and inadequate design.
External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure due to lighting
surges and mechanical damage by public.

Effects
Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as transformers and
circuit breakers.
Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which further leads to
reduction of life span of their insulation.
The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their acceptance values that
creates harmfuleffect to the service rendered by the power system.
The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as long as the short
circuit fault persists.
3. Symmetricaland Unsymmetrical Faults
As discussed above that faults are mainly classified into open and short circuit
faults and again these can be symnmetrical or unsymmetrical faults.
Symmetrical Faults
A symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault currents that are displaced with 1200 each
other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. This fault occurs when all the three
phases are simultaneously short circuited.
These faults rarely occur in practice as compared with unsymmetrical faults. Two kinds of
symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G)
as shown in figure below.
R B R B

ZB ZR ZB
ZR

(a). Three-phase-to-earth (L-L-L-G) (b). Three-phase-fault (L-L-L)

 to 5% of the
symmetrical faults is in the range of 2
of very severe
A rough occurrence ifthese faults occur, they cause a
However,
total systenfaults. though the system remains in balanced
damage to the equipmentseven
condition.
required for selecting the rupturing capacity of the
The analysis of these faults is
breakers,choosing set-phase relays and other protective switchgear.or
circuit basis using bus impedance matrix
These faults are analyzed on per phase
Thevenins's theorem.

Unsymmetrical Faults
power system network are
The most common faults that occur in the unsymmetrical fault
unsymmetrical faults. This kind of fault gives rise to
phase displacement). These
currents (having different magnitudes with unequal unbalanced currents in the
as it causes
faults are also called as unbalanced faults
system.
faults include both open circuit
Upto the above discussion, unsymmetrical (excluding
faults (single and twophase open condition) and short circuit faults
L-L-L-G and L-L-L).
symmetrical faults occurred due to
The figure below shows the three types of fault, phase to
the short circuit conditions, namely phase or line to ground (L-G)
phase (L-L) fault anddouble line to ground (L-L-G) fault.

Y R B
R B R

ZR Z
ZR ZR Zs

(a). Single-phase-to-earth (b). Phase-to-phase (e). Two-phase-to-earth

(L-L-G)
(LG fault) (L-L) A
faults and
single line-to-ground (LG)fault is one of the most common
experiences show that 70-80 percent of the faults that occur in power system are
 of this type. This forms a short circuit path between the line and ground. These
are very less severe faults compared to other faults.

Aline to line fault occur when a live conductor get in contact with other live
conductor. Heavy winds are the major cause for this fault during which
swinging of overhead conductors may touch together. These are less severe
faults and its occurrence range may be between 15-20%.
In double line to ground faults, two lines come into the contact with each
other as well as with ground. These are severe faults and the occurrence these
faults is about 10% when compared with total system faults.
Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using methods of unsymmetrical
components in order to determine the voltage and currents in all parts of the
system. The analysis of these faults is more difficult compared to symmetrical
faults.
This analysis is necessary for determining the size of a circuit breaker for largest
short circuit current. The greater current usually occurs for either L-G or L-L
fault.

Protection Devices against Faults

When the fault occurs in any part of the system, it must be cleared in a very
short period inorder to avoid greater damage to equipments and personnel and
also to avoid interruption of power to the customers.

The fault clearing system uses various protection devices such as relays and
circuit breakers to detect and clear the fault.
Some of these fault clearing or faults limiting devices are given below.
1. Fuse
It opens the circuit whenever a fault exists in the system. It consists of a thin
copper wireenclosed in a glass or a casing with two metallic contacts. The high
fault current rises the temperature of the wireand hence it melts. A fuse
necessitates the manual replacement of wire each time when it blows.
 2. Cireuit Breaker
the circuit either
It is the most common protection device that can make or break
manually or through remote control under normal operating conditions.
There are several types of circuit breakers available depending on the
operating voltage, including air brake, oil, vacuum andSF6 circuit breakers. For
more information on circuit breakers, follow the link attached.

3. Protective Relays
These are the fault detecting devices. These devices detect the fault and initiate
the operation of the circuit breaker so as to isolate the faulty circuit. A relay
consists of a magnetic coil and contacts (NC and NO). The fault current
energizes the coil and this causes to produce the field, thereby thecontacts get
operated.
 Some of the types of protective relays include
Magnitude relays
Impedance relays
Directional relays
Pilot relays
. Differential relays
4. Lighting Arrestor
lightning strikes on
Surges inthe power system network caused when voltage and currents in the
transmission lines and equipments. This causes high
arrestors at
system. These lighting faults are reduced by placing lighting
transmission equipments.
Functions of protective system and elementsof protective system.
Function of protective system:
abnormal conditions and
The function of the protective system is to protect the system from
working of
faults by isolating the faulty element as quickly as possible. This will ensure the
a healthy section of the network

What are the elements of protection system?

elemental
Before we mention more about protection schemes, let us go through some
components in the power protection system:
Fuse.
Instrument Transformer.
Relay.
Circuit Breaker.
Batteries.
ESDProtection Device.
" Surge Protection Device.
 numerical)
* Short circuit KVAcalculation for symmetrical faults(simple
Introduction
short-circuit condition. When such a
Most of the faults on the power system lead to a
the cquipment.
condition occurs, a heavy current (called short circuit current) flows through
the consumcrs.
causing considerable damage to the cquipment and interruption of service to
There is probably no other subjcct of greater importance to an electrical engincer than
the
question of deternination of short circuit currents under fault conditions. The choice of apparatus
and the design and arrangement of practically every equipment in the power system depends
upon short-circuit current considerations. In this Topic, we shall confine our discussion to fault
currents due to symmetrical faults.

Symmetrical Faults on3-Phase System

That fault on the power svstem which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal fault
Currents in the lines with 120o displacement) is called a symmetrical fault.
The symmetrical fault occurs when al the three conductors of a 3-phase line are brought
together simultaneously into a short circuit condition as shown in Fig. This type of fault gives
rise to symmetrical currents i.e. cqualfault currents with 120odisplacement.

1,

Thus referring to Fig. fault currents I. Iy and Ip willbe cqual in magnitude with 120o
displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one* phase
need be considered in calculations since condition in the other twvo phases willalso be similar.
The following points may be particularly noted:
) Thesymmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice as majority of the faults are of
unsymmetrical nature. However, symmetrical fault calculations are being discussed in this
chapter to enable the reader to understand the problems that short circuit conditions present
to the power system.
(1) The symmetrical fault is the most severe and imposes more heavy duty on the circuit
breaker.
Limitation of Fault Current
Whe a :hot creut occu: at any pont i : teu:.
TrenstoIMer
the chort-cucut cu:e:t i: l:tedby the inpecznse vwww
of the syte: upto tie pout of faul:. Thuseiernto
Fig. 17.2. if : fauit ocew: oL the feeder at pot . w

then the :hot cueuit cure:: fron he eene1atng t

tion wall have a value ltutedby the :pedance oi ge lig. 17 2
elator aILC tIfoumar 3n: he iun3edan:e o the lue
beween tue generator aid the pont ol:. Thi: :how: tizt tme ncw.ecze co tlie impedazces ci

short-cicuit cuent:.
In wn 2u31Is. çe iepedance: I:uuz the taul: curent s1e lagelv rezcthve. such :ans
tomer:. 1eactor: and zeiarators. Cle: andlne:E0:tiv reiiwe, but wvhee the totalrezctance
in calcuaio:e:ceed: 3 me: the:e:l:tance. the ate1 1: u:uallv nagla:ted. The erTor oducadby
this asunpion will not exceed .
Percentage Reactance
The reactance of geze:ator:. hans forne:. reactor ats. 1: u:1zlly ex:eed i: percaninge T20ctahCe
to perm:t rapid chort cucutcaleulatious. The pe:centzze Te3tznce ofa creuit 1sdefnad 3s undar
: is the gercestage afthe toxal yiase-"oitage äpped in the cincuitwhen fuli-ioad current i:
flowing i.e.

where I = il-louTent
J = phaseolte
1 =1e1ctance u: olum: p phase
Alternat:ely. percItage eactnce ( . ) ca 3:o be exresed in te:ni:* oVA nd kV a:
under :

....u)
where Iis he reactazce in ohn:.
IfIis the only ieactance element in the cucuit. then short-cucut curent i: giv en by:
=

=Ix By putn the alue o.>ion axp ()

i.s. short circuutcunent 1s obtaed by ulnplyung the full-load curezt by 100 °%I.
For nstance, if the percentaga ieactauce of a: elete:t 1: 20?% nd the ill-load euent i: 30A.
then short-ciucut cuTeDt will be 30 x 10020= 230A when oniy that element is in the cucu:t.
It may be vorthwhile to menhcr here the adrant:ge of u:ing percentage seactance nstead of
omic zeactsnce n short-circutealculahcns. Pe:cenrage veactancevalue:semain nchanged a: the
ae referzed through tansforers. nld:e ohwi: 1eactance: which become mult:plied or dirided by
the squzre of bansformanon 13tio. Th:s akes tke p:ozedue siple and permit: quick caleulzions
Percentage Reactance and Base kVA
I: i clear iou) crp. (i) abovc tnat pcrc cnttg: 1:actancc o: an cuipucL: depcnd: upo 1t E*..
1ahng Gene aly. the v312013 equipment: 2ed ii: ie power rtaun Lave cdiffere:VA :ahng.
Theretoe, it n ceatv to fu:d the percentage rectances o al tha eleuient: o: a couiuio EA
Isng Th: coImo: 3VA:angs known as bass kiis The value ofth:z base kVAquite unimpc1
tant anc umur b
t) ecual to tiat of ihe lage:t plaut
() ecual tote tot:l pl:nt cap2city
(on) ry rbitray ralue
Theccue:io: cn be efectedbv uLgthe toowirg 1elaton
:ge:eacance a1138dVA
The. : 1000& T i : e r wth:123c3ce wil
hae a rezctance o? 10% a 000*1A bae
Iilustration. The tact that the ralue ci b3:e kVA
does not 2£ec: the hortc u : cunet neec: :ra:on.
Con:ide: ahie 31:u)13:131 ue operanng a:6
3nd cornecte dthr ouha l00) :VA nn:fo:e: wit. 3% 1
Teactance t: gete:atnatc: u:-b The zeerator 5%

Iig. 17.3
g ofti vteui : chowL n Fiz. 17.3 Supoze : thoit-ciut fait berween tua zha:e: occur:
( j x10
100 10077 A

I=

at the higi voltage teruzl: ohan:iorm Itw! be howz tiat

chooze. tLe ralue of:hot-cucu cunan: wil be tie
wiztaerlue of bazekVA wen
e
}Suppose we choo:e 2300L:VA tÜ onicn baekA Cn thu: ba:ealue. the reatance:
oftienou:elee: in the w:tem wll e
Kezctance cf r:z:mer st 23003VA be
= 3x 2303 1000=125%
Rezctanee of gene:ztor at 2300 VAba:e
= 10 28002300 =13%
Iotal perCEntage 1eactance 0: the co on baseVA
° = 115 -10= 113%
The full 7lozd cule: core:ondinz to 1300 kVA ba:e at 661: g1rer br:
2500 x1000
! = =21$7A

Short-crcut cunent. = !x1$1x

 it) No.suppoe we chooe 3000RWAa:he couwm0: base value.
Rec*ace cfuan:iumer at $000VA be
= x 0001000 =23%
Rezcace of geie:zt at 5000%VA bie
= 10x0902109= 209:

= 3-20 =4 :
Full-Laadcnen: co:1e:30udins to 3000VA t 661:Vi:
30001000
=4374A
3x 66 x1000
109
Short-crit eunert. I = I x =43 74 x =972A

From the zbovellustranon. iti: clea1 that whatever n:y be thralue of base kVA. hot-cucut
cunent 1s the s3me Howeer. u: the tesetof : unpli::ry. :umeicaly conrerientaluefor the baze
LAshould be chozen.
Short-Circuit kVA
Aittough the potennal at tie poirt of fzult ezers. iti: &ro:uaal p1act:ce to expre:s the cho:t-cieat
curent in teu:: of sho1t-cucuit kVA based o the nora. syten) tcltage at dhe point of sul:.

Let I = L9rm3.phavolrage in olr:

=pecetze rezct31ce o:he vtem on base."A upto

A: proed in £: 17.3.

Shot-iuit uTent.
Short-'LrurkA fo: phase cucu:
=

1000

l000
= Base1:"A x

base LA
ttedA xo TEactAucE at rateiVA
Ful-load cumeut L3s o be found our to he baseA selected.
 Use of current limiting reactors, types and their
arrangemnents
The main motive of using current limiting
that cireuit breakers with lower shortcircuit reactors to reduce short-circuit currents s0
is
be usedto protect other system components frombreaking capacity can be used. They can also
high current levels and to limit the inrush
current when starting a large motor.
Reactor Control of Short-Circuit Currents
Witthe fa:tep3ncie pcwe: v:e. the fait
al:o 1:u The crut bieaker: lera!(1 e the powe: ayaiable to flow into : fl: 1:
conected : the owe
MINWp.e hot-1eut curet: c 00cw at their pc)int: be capibl of dezl1nz it:
1e3tan ofhe ocouiechon Gne1z!y. the
sVendaf::0zd1noL:1:low
value. It otep: e taAei to.u3it tme
1ee of cruut beaker: be exce:irel zue c: thee
3ndi:cuteit: u3v1 to a cingeou:.y
h-cuc! uTents.
hugh
not onlv w!l the aur
hea bu::ko camage 13 iLes
dother equipment !
In ordar to lmit the
chot-crut uieit: to waua wu:h ha ciucuit breakers 3:
handle. adi
1ecter:: coLl of rnbe o run:
deigneto :Te a L31ductance a conpared to it: ou:
3Ld, he:e fore. the
of rector.there wndng: mu:te:olidl bace I e ided that due to
ivey ictle chzng: the eifician citie weruall1uce
tem.

i} Iroubla: ara
ther c:suL localiedor:lated a: e
efit: to cther pat: ogoL:wnete the oI1gi113te
the poVr Ttm1. without comnE
i
TEev pemr the
coLinuouppl Ihi: ine:ea:: tha cin:e 3:
in:llauor cc:reher: of lcwer:uz
17.7 Location of
Reactors
WIL e3ch eede: aL n bu:-b1:. No def:
loca tions is preferable: each
particulT demand: which ust ntallatioz 3: it: cn Hoaor.
be cefuly con::d
eredbefore a chcice ceiec to: losaion can be u2ce.
(
-auerato: 1etier:, hn the
21e
cormectedin ene: witn ecgenezItO1. 1eactor:
the 3re
case. tte Iector may be
age rezctATCe of the
co1dered a: ap:t ofleak
gaLeTato1:2ence it: te:1: to
lig 17.4
potec: tne generato: : the caLe of zny cho:t-cueut beyond the xezcto13.
Discdveutages
) The:e atouta2t toltage d op aud pcwer lo:: n te 1e3ctors even dwng normz)
opeauon
(o) Ia bt:-b8: o fee de: fauit octus cicze to the bus-ba, tise voltage zt the bus-bar wul be
re duced te alow valne. thereby cau:ng the zenerator: to fallout of stey
(R) I: fault occu: on any eder. the coztiu:r of supply to other i: l.ely to be affectei.
L'ue to the:e disadvntage: and al:o ince ocern power statio ganerators have suificiently
larze leakage teactance to protect theum agant cltort-cireut. it is not a common rZcice to u:a 2epi
1ate leactors for tthe gene:ato:.

comected in enas with eac: feede. thev are kno: G,iteralors

as feeder 'eaCtors (ee Fig. 17.5). Snce o:t e:

theshot-crcuit: occu on ieeder. alage 1ber
of reactor: are u:ed for such ccuu. Twa pru:ci Bus-a
pal adrautage: re cla:zed for feede: 1eacto:.
F:dy. ifafault occu:o 3Dy fteder, tie vol:age
op nit. 1eactorwil no 3fiect üe bu:-: olt
ageo that tkere i5 a 0tle tercencv ior the genera
tor toleze syLch:eni:. Secendly. the taui: on 3
feeder wll not afiet othe feeder: and coucecuertly
the effects of fsul: 3ze localised. lig. 17.5
Discdeasoges
(i) Thae is 3couzta:powe lo: andvoltage dop in the reactor: even dung Lorma. opra
() Ifa chort-ciueuit occu: #ike bu:-bars, no protection : roidec to the genezato. How
erer. ihis i5 of litl: :pertDce beczuse uch failts ale r3l 3nd moderI zele:ator: kae
considerable leal.age reactance to enable h:e: te with stad hort-ciut acra:: ther tarmi
nals
(i: Ifthe nume: of genarator: 1 :resed. the :ze of feecer zeactoS will bhae to be :rea:ed
to keep the sho-cLCu:uTents :h the hng: of he feeder circuit bre:er..
3) Eus-bar rectors Tte zbove we methoc: of lccatmg reactors uffar ionn the
dis3dran
tage tna: there 1s consice:zbe oitage d op 3dpewer .035 1n the rezctor: een
durg ne1mal
t:on. Tns cisadvantaze can be cerceume bv ocanuz the teactor: n he bus-bas, ILee reopea
ro
methods for thus pupoze. namelv: ng ystem 31d Tie-5ar VtE.

Vided intosecions znd these secho: are connected

through rezctors as hown in Fig. !7.6. Gene:ally.
one faeder is fec fon oDe genarator cnly. Cnder
normal operating conditions. each generator wil!
Supply its own section of the Load and rev Iit:la au-ar
power wi be fed by othe: generators. Thi: 1esults
1n low power lo5 andvoitage crop in the 1e3ct13.
However, the piincip al adv ntage o the sytem 1
that if afault occus on vfeecer. only onE 1r
tor (to wh:ch the partteula feeder :
connected:
mainly ee de the ault cune:t while the cunent fed
Fig. 17.6
tom ctlher zeneator: 13 u1a! cuE to the precence of
G,
leactors. Therefoze. oxly tiat ecion ofu:-b: 1: af
iected to wick the feeder is connected. ihe othe: sec
B
t:on: being able to coutnue in no213! opeiah1
Fiz 117 show: tua to-bar
Nteut Conparng the:ytem with t:e-b1 :yte.
Iticlaart tu the te thee ate ect:vely
tvc rector, n E1e: beween sec1oI: 0tht iea:tor:
mu:have 3p10mitealithe ieacrLce oft032 12ed
in z comp aable rng3 E .nother adv art:ge oihe
1e the :y:ten wicut lequg ckange: in the ex:stg Fig. 17.7
I3ctor: Howerer. thuyteD hediage that
itlequre: a: 3ditonal b:s-baz :. the ne-ba.
17.8 Steps for Symetrical Fault Calculations
It has alescy been dz austedthat -phaze shot-cicut fault: result in ymei:al al: cnent: ia
tault cu:e in the thhee p:es ue ecuz. n magnirude it diplaed 120 ele1ical f o onE n
othe. Therfere.p1tlen: nrolrig uch it. can be olve by ccnide: ng cne phase oly the
sodinon: preval n tne a:e: g::s Ihs procdre fo: ts soutien si u:h ault: in

t2) Draw a:ingle lne dig10 of the coplete neriost: andicaring the ratng. voltage and per
CentIge 192cta:e of ec elemen: of the rewoz:.
(:) Ckocse nrencally conTeLiert a.1 cekVA 3nd ccne:tll percentage 1eactance:
to thi b5# value.
(122) Ccve:poning ts the inie l1ne disq1zun of t:e natxol. azw the resc tance dia g:::how
tne 1ezct31: di: ZI3D). The tran:forcer in tie #:teun houl be ereeutec b a re3ctace

is) FLdthe tota! reactiC oi the netyorl. upto he pont ofauit. Le::be.o
(*) Fui te full-lo2d cuze: coTe:poniang to the electec bxe VA 2d tne norDia. y2
roltage 3t the fault pout. Let it be !.

Stert-cirut curent. =!%

Skot-:ucut kVA = BWAxt
Types of Protection
Whena fault occurs on any part of electricpower system, it must be cleared quickly in order to avoid
damage and/or interference with the rest of the system. It is a usual practice to divide the protectionscheme into
(wo classes viz. primary protection and back-up protection.
What is primary and backup protection?
The prmary protection is responsible for protecting all the power system elements. It is used to protect
cquipment from alltypes of faults. The primary protection scheme is the first line of defence. A backup
protection scheme comes into the pieture when the primary protection system fails to operate
() Primary Protection. It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect thecomponent parts of the
powersystem. Thus referring to Fig.cach line has an overcurrent relay that protects the line. If a fault occurs on
any line, it willbe cleared by its relay and circuit brcaker. This forms the primary or main protection and serves
as the first lineof defence. The servicerecord of primary relaying is very high with well over ninety percent of
all operations being correct. However, sometimes faults are not clcared by primary relay system because of
trouble within the relay, wiring system or breaker. Under such conditions,
back-up protection does the required job.

C,B,
Cver-curent relay
1,0 scccndtime scl:rg
A

Line bus

C.B. C.5. C.B. C.B.

Over-cunent
clays C,6 srcond
time setirg

" Back- up protection, methods of back up protection

(i) Back-up protection. It is the second line of defence in case of failure of the primary protection. It is
designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given enough time to function if
it is able to. Thus referring to Fig. relay Aprovides back-up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is
not clearedby its relay and breaker, the relay Aon the group breaker will operate after adefinite time delay and
clear the entire group of lines. It is evident that when back-up relaying functions, a larger part is disconnected
than when primaryrelaying functions correctly. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better
maintenance of primary relaying
Methods of Back-up Protection
1. Relay Back-up.
2. Breaker Back-up.
3. Remote back-up.
4. Centrally Coordinated Back-up.
I. kelay Backup Protection: In this scheme, asingle breaker is Used by both primary as well as backup
protection but the two protective systems are dillerent.
. Breaker BackupProtection: In this method, separate breakers are providedfor primary and backup
protection. Both the types of brcakers are at the same station.
 provided for primary and backup
3. Remote Backup Protection: Inthis method. separate brcakers are completely isolated and
protection. The twotypes of breakers are at the different stationsand are
independent of cach other.

4. Centrally Co-ordinated Backup Protection: In this method. primary protection is at various stations.
backup protection for all| the stations is at central control room. Central
There is a central control room and
control continuously inspects the load flow and frequency in the system. If any elements of any part of the
system load flow gets affected which is sensed by the control room. The control source consists of adigital
computer which decides the proper switching action. The method is also called centrally controlled backup
protection.