(A) Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui JamiaMilliaIslamia, New Delhi
Paper Coordinator Prof. Aslam Mahmood (Retd.) Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Content writer/Author Prof. Aslam Mahmood (Retd) Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
(CW)
Content Reviewer (CR) Prof. Aslam Mahmood (Retd) Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Language Editor (LE)

(B) Description of Module

Items Description of Module
Subject Name Geography
Paper Name Quantitative Techniques in Geography
Module Name Sampling Methods

Module ID QT 12
Pre- Requisites Introduction to probability theory, permutation and combination
are needed
Objectives To understand the basic principle of sampling
Key words Census enumeration, sampling distribution, standard error,
random sample, stratification, multi stage sampling, probability
and non-probability sampling
 Sampling Methods
Aslam Mahmood

(1) E-Contents
Statistics being the empirical science is basically concern with the analysis of real world data, which is
collected either from the Primary source or from the Secondary source. When the data is collected from
the primary source a researcher has to make a choice of data collection, either through the method of
Census enumeration or through the method of Sample surveys.

In Census enumeration all the units of observations which are parts of the study are enumerated. Group
of observations in a Census is generally large and is known as the Universe of the study. Some time
when the universe is large, Census enumeration may not be possible due to lack of resources, time or
trained personal etc. In such cases the researcher can use method of Sampling in which only a small
representative part of the Universe is studied known as Sample and with the help of the theory of
sampling inferences are made about the Universe.

Effective generalizations about the Universe are possible only when the Sample is a good representative
of the Universe. It is therefore most essential to ensure that when a sample is drawn from the Universe
it should be drawn in such a manner that it represents the Universe in all the aspects. This can be
achieved by selecting the suitable method for drawing the sample. There is no single method of drawing
a representative sample from the Universe. There are several ways in which a representative sample can
be drawn from a Universe depending on its structure. Methods of sampling which ensure best
representation of the universe fall under two broad categories:

1. Probability Sampling Methods ; and

2. Non-probability Sampling Methods

In probability sampling methods samples are drawn using the principles of probability. In probability
sampling,whether any observation will be selected in a sample will depend on chance. The method of
drawing a sample is designed in such a manner that all the members of the universe are given a proper
chance. A sample selected through probability sampling therefore is supposed to be an unbiased
sample. Neither any observation is discriminated nor any observation is given any favour.

Probability Sampling Methods suitable for different situations are given as below:

1. Simple Random Sampling,

2. Systematic Sampling,
3. Stratified Random Sampling,
4. Cluster Sampling and
5. Multi-stage Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

This is the simplest method of drawing a sample in which each and every member of the Universe
has equal chance of being selected in the Sample. It is like drawing a lottery ticket. It is the most
suitable method of drawing a representative Sample when the observations of the universe are
fairly Uniform or homogeneous.

Method of Simple random Sampling is very much facilitated by the use of Random Number Table
prepared by Tippet, Kendall, Smith, Fisher and Yeats or by Rand Corporation etc. These numbers are
given in tabular form in books on statistics. Any number on any page is either selected from any row
or column or to constitute a random sample of numbers.

How to select a Random Sample

In practical exercise of sampling, first the members of the universe are arranged in a table and
assigned a serial number. Second stage of drawing a simple random sample is to select a set of
random numbers. Number of selected random numbers should be equal to the size of the sample to
be selected. Next step is to consider the set of chosen random numbers as the serial number of the
members of the Universe to be selected in the sample. If the total number of observations in the
Universe are between 1 and 99, two adjoining columns have to be selected in the Random Number
Tables. In case number of observations are more than 99 but less than 1000, three adjoining
columns of the Random Number tables have to be selected, and so on. For example ,if we take a
universe and number the units from 1 to 700, we have to select three consecutive columns of a
random number table. In case the number of items to be selected are 35, we select a combination
of first three value, then next three values and so on until we get 35 combinations of serial numbers
between 001 and 700.

Now a days random number tables have been replaced by the computers and software are used to
generate random numbers directly.

Systematic Sampling

A simple random sample is an ideal method of ensuring the unbiased selection of the sample
observations. However, it requires sufficient preparations which takes considerable time specially when
the universe is large and a larger random sample is to be selected. In most of the national surveys the
researcher face this problem. Census of India also after collecting the information of the total population
of India on Census slips, find it difficult to do tabulation on the basis of all the slips. Often, it is decided to
do tabulation on the basis of 10 % or 20 % slips only and then after tabulation the figures are inflated to
give data on 100 %.

This is a special kind of sampling in which the selection of the first unit of the sample is selected
randomly. The remaining units are selected from the population at a fixed interval of n where n gives
the percentage of the universe to be selected in the sample. For example if it is decided to select 20 %
sample after initial selection every fifth observation in the list or in the slips is selected so that in the end
20 % of total slips will get selected in the sample.

Even if the total number of sample units are decided we can use systematic sampling after dividing the
range of serial number into appropriate size and selecting one unit after every fixed interval.For
example, if the size of a universe is 800 and we want to draw a sample of size 40. In such a case the unit
of the universe are divided into 40 intervals of size 800/40= 20.The units in the universe have serial
number from 1 to 800 which is divided into 20 intervals of range from 1 – 20 , 21 – 40 , 41 – 60 , 61 – 80 ,
and so on. There will be 20 numbers of such intervals which is equal to the size of the sample to be
drawn. First one number is selected randomly from serial number 1 – 20. Suppose it is 7, so the seventh
item is selected from the first interval. Adding 20 to it will generate the second random number, thus
second item to be selected will be 27. Third number will be 47 and so on.

The sample serial numbers will be:

007 , 047 , 067 , 087 , 107 , 127 , 147 , 167 , 187 , 297

227 , 247 , 267 , 287 , 307 , 327 , 327 , 347 ,367 ,387 ,

407 , 427 , 247 , 467 , 487 , 507 , 527 ,547 ,567 ,587 ,

607 , 627 ,647 , 667 , 687 ,707 , 727 ,747 ,767 ,787.

Oneof the advantage of this method is that : once the first unit of the sample is selected randomly all
other sample units will be selected automatically. However, if there is some bias in selecting a serial
number it will persist in all other selections also.

Stratified Random Sampling

A random sampling is good only when there are not marked differences in the population. Problem
arises when the population is composed of highly varied observations. Suppose in a family planning
survey of a district a sample of 1000 household are to be selected from a total universe of 25000
households living both in rural and urban areas. 20000 households live in rural areas (80 % ) and 5000
live in urban areas (20 % ). In a simple random sample there is no surety that the selected sample units
will also represent this diversity of the universe.

However, if we divide the universe into two strata of rural households and urban households and then
selecting 80 % households from rural areas and 20 % of them from urban areas the selected sample will
be not only random but also represent the rural urban diversity in the same proportion.

A stratified random sampling is therefore a method of sampling used when the universe of the study
consists of diverse units of observations. In order to get the diversity reflected in the sample also, first
the universe is divided into homogeneous group of observations known as strata and then from each
stratum draw a random sample of appropriate size in proportion to the share of the stratum in the
universe. Such a stratified random sample will be random as well as be representing the diversity in the
Universe also.

Proportionate and Disproportionate Stratified random Sampling.

In a stratified random sampling the samples can be drawn either proportional to the size of each strata
or it could be disproportional to its share in the universe. When the sampling units are all homogeneous
a sample of size proportional to the size of each strata will be drawn. However, when strata are quite
heterogeneous, the size of the sample has to be disproportional. The stratum having higher variability
will require greater size to represent the strata. On the other hand the strata having uniform values with
low variability can be represented by even a smaller size of the sample also.

Cluster Sampling

One of the problem with Simple random sampling and with systematic and stratified random sampling is
that all the items of the Universe have to be listed with a serial number and the selected sample
numbers are to be located in the universe for data collection. This involves quite a good running around
specially when the universe covers sufficient geographic space. In some situation when observations of
a study are composed of similar groups scattered over space, it is sufficient to study one or two instead
of allof them. These similar groups of observations are known as clusters and it is assumed that
observations between each cluster are similar and within each cluster these are heterogeneous. Each
cluster with in itself is like a universe. In a cluster sampling therefore few clusters are selected and
studied in totality. All the shades of the universe are represented in each cluster so a cluster is the best
representative of the universe.

Cities are suppose to have clusters of slums. Each slum has considerable variations of the quality of life
with in itself. These variations will get repeated when we move from one slum to another slum. It is
therefore, suggested not to go from one slum to another slum and increase the physical burden of
sample survey. On the contrary, it is advised to select one cluster (Slum) on sample basis and study it in
full. Cluster sampling saves time and resources, at the same time is as effective as any other random or
stratified random sample could be.

Multi – stage Sampling

In a large scale survey covering a country, the sampling frame will be large and selecting a small sample
of few hundred or thousand villages out of six or seven lakh total villages of India will be difficult as large
sampling frame will require more time and cost. Multi–stage sampling technique can help in designing a
procedure of sampling which will start with a big sampling frame and will keep on becoming smaller and
smaller as we move from one stage of sample selection to another stage. Multi stage sampling will make
the study more practicable in terms of cost and time as well as ensure the unbiased selection of the
sample units through the properties of the theory of probability.

It involves more than one stage of sampling the population which will depending of the problem.
Consider a problem of selecting a sample of 1000 villages from 600000 villages of India. A stratified
random sample will not be sufficient to represent all variations of the village life of India. We have to
have many layers of stratification.

Multi stage sampling suggest to divide the country into similar regions and select a random sample of
one or two states from each region. After that each selected state is further sub-divided intodistricts and
a set of representative district is selected randomly at the second stage. In the third stage from the
selected districts villages are select randomly. There also we can go to the fourth stage of selecting the
sample households from each selected village and so on.

Non-probability Sampling

Sometime due to study of a specific nature the choice of selecting a sample a random sample may not
give the required results. Researcher may not have any idea about the location of the sample units
which are not easily traceable also. The researcher has to depend on their availability, there is no
sampling framework possible in such cases. In such cases the researcher has to consider non probability
methods of sampling. Their first concern is the convenience of the availability of the sample units which
is known as “Convenience sampling”.

Sometime only few specific group of the respondent have to be studied as only they serve the purpose
of the study. For example among the household of an area only large size households are required to
study the factors behind their choice of the size of the family etc. Such a situation to serve a particular
purpose may force the researcher to go for “Purposive sampling” only. In some of the cases of a
stratified random sampling kind of situation, researcher may be interested to give numerical
representation to each group by fixing some quota to each group but may not be particular about their
unbiased representation of their group. Only their inclusion may be sufficient in form of some quota of
each group may be enough. This kind of sampling is known as “Quota sampling”. There is yet another
kind of non-probability sampling known as “snowball” sampling. Here one has very limited information
about the availability of the respondents for the sample. When somehow one or two respondents are
located, with the help of them researcher may come across few more respondents. Now he has a bigger
group which can also provide some more references to increase the list of respondents further. Such
method of sampling is known as “Snowball sampling”.

All such non-probability sample methods are listed below:

1. Convenience sampling.
2. Judgement Sampling or purposive.
3. Quota sampling and
4. Snowball Sampling.

Sampling Error and determining the size of the sample

Before a sampling exercise is undertaken the size of the sample is a big question before a researcher.If
the sample size is too small it will not achieve the purpose and if it is too large it will require huge cost
and time that will amount to waste of resources. Therefore as ageneral rule it should neither be very
large nor very small. Following factors will be considered while deciding about the size of a sample:

1. NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE A homogeneous universe will require smaller size of the sample
than a heterogeneous Universe.
2. Number of classes Proposed In a situation where large number of classes are subgroups are
formed a larger sample will be required, because a small sample will not give good number of
cases in each class.
3. In depth/ continuous study groups. Such samples will require detailed technical
observations over time which is possible only in cases of small samples.
4. Quality of Sampling. A small sample properly selected is better than a large sample poorly
collected.
5. Requirement of accuracy and accepted level of confidence. A more accurate and precise
estimate will require a higher size of the sample.
6. Availability of finances. Cost of the sample survey will increase with the size of the
sample.
7. Other considerations. Nature of units, size of the universe, size of questionnaire,
availability of trained investigators, conditions under which a sample is conducted, time
availability etc are few other considerations which will determine the size of the sample.

Sampling Error and Size of the Sample (Confidence Level Approach)

Sample size can also be determined on the basis of the theory of sampling as given below:
If a large number of samples of size n are drawn from a universe with mean M and Standard,
Deviation as S, different values of the sample means will form another distribution known as
sampling distribution of means. This distribution will be Normal with mean equal to the universe
mean M and Standard Deviation as S/√n. Thus if we get a sample mean as X ̅from the above
universe the interval with in which the population mean will lie can be estimated. Such an
interval is known as confidence interval with a probability.

The 99 % confidence interval in the above case will be :

̅ ̅ + 2.56 S/√n. ( the range in this case will be = 5.12 S/√n)

X - 2.56 S/√n toX

Similarly 95 % confidence limits will be:

̅ ̅ + 1.96 S/√n.( the range in this case will be = 3.92 S/√n)

X - 1.96 S/√n toX

Sample size can be worked out using the above confidence intervals also.

If the range is fixed for 99% CL as R, the size of the sample will be :
√n = 5.12 S/ R or
n = (5.12 S/ R )2

Similarly for 95% CL we can get = n = (3.92 S/ R )2

We can use the above equation to determine the size of the sample provided the value of R and
level of confidence is determined by the researcher. The researcher has the liberty to decide
about them, but still he has to know the value of S, the standard deviation of the size of the
landholdings. This is a very tricky question for the researcher. If he or she can know standard
deviation they can know the value of the mean also. The answer is that for the value of the
required standard deviation any rough estimate of it can also be used.

Example
For a sample survey of estimating the average size of the land holdings of the farmers of a
region, what should be the size of the sample so that the lower limit and the upper limit of the
estimate does not differ by 3.0 acres. (given the rough estimate of the standard deviation of the
size of the land holdings = 10 acres) .

For 99 % confidence level the estimated size of the land holdings the size of the sample will be :

n = (5.12 S/ R )2

= (5.12 x 10 / 3.0 )2 = (51.2/3.0)2 = 17.1 x 17.1 = 292 after rounding.

For 95 % confidence level the estimated size of the land holdings the size of the sample will be :

n = (3.92 S/ R )2

= (3.92 x 10 / 3.0 )2 = (39.2/3.0)2 = 13.07x 13.07 = 170 after rounding.